MECHANICS OF MATERIALS II

LAB MANUAL

NAME: SAFI UR RAHMAN KHAN (2016-ME-12)

NAME: YAHYA ABDULWADOOD (2016-ME-52)

NAME: MUHAMMAD ZOHAIB ALI HASSAN (2016-ME-32)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY MULTAN
 LAB 1: INTRODUCTION TO EXCEL

ABSTRACT (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

In this Lab we will understand how to analyze data on Microsoft Excel. In this lab our aim is to
determine the stress and strain by force and position which is given as raw data. After finding
stress and strain we will plot a graph between stress and strain taking strain on x-axis and stress
on y-axis. In this lab quantitative data analysis is used to determine the stress and strain. In this
lab we learned that how to manage data and how to apply formulae to determine the unknown
variable. After performing this experiment we concluded that excel is very suitable and best in
order to manipulate and analyze data, so we can calculate different components by applying
formulae and we can also plot graphs between them.

RESULTS (Yahya Abdulwadood -52):

Graphs of the Run 1, Run 2 and Run 3 are given below:

Stress-strain curve of 2024-T3 Al

600

500

400

300
Stress

200

100

0
-0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
Strain

RUN 1

2
 1018 Annealed steel
25

20

15
Stress (Mpa)

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-5
Strain
1018 Annealed steel

RUN 2

Stress-strain curve of 1018-Steel

400
350
300
250
200
Stress

150
100
50
0
-2.00E-02 0.00E+00 2.00E-02 4.00E-02 6.00E-02 8.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.20E-01 1.40E-01
-50
Strain

RUN 3

3
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Muhammad Zohaib-32):
1. Graph of Run 1 represent the stress strain curve of 2024-T3 Aluminum. In this graph we
obtained that the stress is taken on y-axis and the strain is taken on x-axis. And we see
that by changing stress strain changes. The graph indicates that before a certain point the
material act as elastic and after that point the material act as plastic.

2. Graph of Run 2 represent the stress strain curve of 1018 Annealed steel. In this graph we
obtained that the stress is taken on y-axis and the strain is taken on x-axis. And we see
that by changing stress strain changes. The graph indicates that before a certain point the
material act as elastic and after that point the material act as plastic.

3. Graph of Run 3 represent the stress strain curve of 1018 steel. In this graph we obtained
that the stress is taken on y-axis and the strain is taken on x-axis. And we see that by
changing stress strain changes. The graph indicates that before a certain point the material
act as elastic and after that point the material act as plastic.

Conclusions (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

The objective of experiment was to manage the data on Microsoft excel by
drawing graphs .The method used in experiment is both type of qualitative and quantitative.
From the graph we concluded that the stress and strain are directly proportional to each other
with in elastic limit. They follow Hooke’s law. Different metals show different behavior
according to their specific characteristics. From the graph we can find the yield point, ultimate
point and fracture point.

4
 LAB 2: Statistical Analysis And Uncertainty

ABSTRACT (Yahya Abdulwadood -52):

The purpose of this lab is to determine the relationships of student’s grades in MOM II. This is
accomplished by using quantitative methods. The quantitative methods are used in the Microsoft
Excel in order to determine the result. The main purpose of this lab is to show the progress of
students. By using quantitative methods in Microsoft Excel, we determine averages, mean,
median etc. Graphs are formed between cumulative averages and class quizzes, online quizzes,
and lab reports averages. The results determine that the students have good grades in the subject.
Thus it is concluded that Microsoft Excel is the best method to analyze the data and find results.

RESULTS (Zohaib Ali Hassan-32):

Table 1 summarizes the statistical results for students’ grades in CENE 253L MOM-II:

Table 1: Table of student grades

Class Online
Lab Report
Quiz Quiz
Scores
Scores Scores
No. per Student = 10 08 07
Student Population, N 68 68 68
=
Max = 0.925 0.9361 0.9
Average = 0.725245 0.715884 0.721754

Median = 0.729167 0.729787 0.771978

Stand. Dev. = 0.1347327 0.1461952 0.179509059

88 07

5
Relationships between students’ scores are illustrated in chart 1 through 3.

class quiz versus cumulative Ave.

1
y = 0.6047x + 0.2833
0.8 R² = 0.3059
Series1
CUMULATIVE 0.6
AVRG. 0.4 Linear (Series1)
Linear (Series1)
0.2
Linear (Series1)
0
0 0.5 1
AVRG. IN CLASS QUIZZES

Chart 1. Class Quiz Average versus Cumulative Average

Online quiz versus Cumulativey =Ave.

0.6545x + 0.2533
1 R² = 0.4218
CUMULATIVE
Series1
AVRG(%) 0.5
Linear (Series1)
0 Linear (Series1)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Linear (Series1)
AVRG. ONLINE QUIZZES(%)

Chart 2. Online Quiz Average versus Cumulative Average

Lab reports versus Cumulative Ave.

y = 0.8027x + 0.1425
1 R² = 0.9569
CUMULATIVE
AVRG(%) 0.5 Series1
Linear (Series1)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Linear (Series1)
AVRG. LAB REPORTS (%)

Chart 3. Lab Report Average versus Cumulative Average

6
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):
We plot three graphs. The graphs are between average in class quiz, average in online quiz
and average in lab report to cumulative average.

Graph 1:
First graph is between cumulative averages and averages in class quizzes. The
cumulative average is taken on Y-axis and the average in class quizzes is taken on X-axis.
All points are mentioned on the graph. We draw a straight line and from this graph we got
the following equations:
Y=0.604x+.283
R^2=0.305
Graph 2:
Second graph is between cumulative averages and averages in online quizzes. The
cumulative averages are taken on Y-axis and the averages in online quizzes are taken on X-
axis. We mentioned all points on the graph and draw a straight line whose range is between 0
to 1. From the graph we obtained the following equations:
Y=0.654x+.253
R^2=0.421

Graph 3:
Third graph is between cumulative averages and averages in lab report. The
cumulative average are taken on Y-axis and the averages in lab reports are taken on X-axis.
Mentioned the points on graph. The cumulative average range is 0 to 1 with difference of 0.5
and the average of lab report range is 0 to 1 with the difference of 0.2 .From the graph we got
the following equations:
Y=0.802x+.142
R^2=0.956

Conclusions (Yahya Abdulwadood -52):

From graphs we can measure the grades of students. With the help of these graphs we can
measure median, mode and standard deviation. It is noted that the quantities changed with
passage of time such as all the value i.e. average in class quizzes, online quizzes and lab
reports vary with respect to cumulative averages. From graph the measure of maximum and
minimum dispersion can be calculated.

7
 LAB 3: Stress-Strain Behavior of Metals

ABSTRACT (Zohaib Ali Hassan-32):

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the normal stress and
strain for four metal coupons and compare the experimental results with theoretical results. This
is accomplished by using quantitative methods. The quantitative methods are used in the
Microsoft Excel in order to determine the result. The main purpose of this lab is to determine the
ultimate tensile stress, yield stress and fracture point and the difference between the experimental
and theoretical values of ultimate tensile stress, yield stress and fracture point. We will also
determine the slope by using elastic modulus of the materials. The graphs are drawn between
stress and strain. With the help of these graphs, ultimate stresses, yield stresses and fracture
points are calculated. Thus, it is concluded that Microsoft Excel is the best method to analyze the
data and find results.

RESULTS (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

The stress-strain data for Aluminum, Brass, Steel, Annealed Steel are illustrated in Figures 1
through 4, respectively.
500
450
400
350
300
Series1
250
Series2
200
Series3
150
100
50
0
0.00E+00 4.00E-02 8.00E-02 1.20E-01

Graph1. Aluminum:

8
600

500

400

300 Series1
Series2
200

100

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16

Graph2. Brass:

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0.00E+00 1.00E-02 2.00E-02 3.00E-02 4.00E-02 5.00E-02 6.00E-02 7.00E-02 8.00E-02 9.00E-02 1.00E-01

Graph3. Steel:

9
 450
Chart Title
400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0.00E+00 5.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.50E-01 2.00E-01 2.50E-01 3.00E-01 3.50E-01

Graph4. Annealed Steel:

Table: Yield and ultimate stresses and modulus of elasticity:

Mod. of Elast.,
Yield, σy Ultimate, σu
E
% %
Material Expect Expect Meas. Expect % diff*
Meas. diff* Meas. diff*
. . (GPa) .
(MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
Aluminum 350 276 26.8 449 310 44.8 70 69 1.44
Brass 472 310 52.22 488 469 4.05 45 43 4.65
Steel 647 400 61.75 706 440 60.45 200 150 33.33

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

There are four graphs which are plot.

Graph 1:
This graph is between stress and strain of Aluminum. Strain is taken along X-axis
and stress is taken along Y-axis. With the help of these graphs, ultimate stresses, yield
stresses and fracture points are calculated. The experimental values of ultimate stresses, yield
stresses and fracture points are as follows:

10
 Ultimate Stress (Mpa): 449.1229632

Yield Stress (Mpa): 350

Fracture Point (Mpa): 448.8894099

Graph 2:
This graph is between stress and strain of Brass. Strain is taken along X-axis and
stress is taken along Y-axis. With the help of these graphs, ultimate stresses, yield stresses
and fracture points are calculated. The experimental values of ultimate stresses, yield stresses
and fracture points are as follows:
Ultimate Stress (Mpa): 488.4959349

Yield Stress (Mpa): 472.5

Fracture Point (Mpa): 452.7718163

Graph 3:
This graph is between stress and strain of Steel. Strain is taken along X-axis and
stress is taken along Y-axis. With the help of these graphs, ultimate stresses, yield stresses
and fracture points are calculated. The experimental values of ultimate stresses, yield stresses
and fracture points are as follows:
Ultimate Stress (Mpa): 706

Yield Stress (Mpa): 647

Fracture Point (Mpa): 300

Graph 4:
This graph is between stress and strain of Annealed Steel. Strain is taken along X-
axis and stress is taken along Y-axis. With the help of these graphs, ultimate stresses, yield
stresses and fracture points are calculated. The experimental values of ultimate stresses, yield
stresses and fracture points are as follows:
Ultimate Stress (Mpa): 406

Yield Stress (Mpa): 287

Fracture Point (Mpa): 242

11
Conclusions (Zohaib Ali Hassan -32):
With the help of this experiment it is easy to determine the properties of materials. The
graphs are drawn with the help of given stresses and strains. And with the help of these
graphs the values of ultimate stresses, yield stresses and fracture points are obtained for
Aluminium, Brass, Steel and Annealed Steel. The table is constructed with the help of values
obtained by experiments and by expected values. It is concluded that the modulus of
elasticity decreases as the elongation of a material increases. Thus, this increase in the
elongation, increases the material ductility. The brittleness of a material increases, when
elongation decreases.

12
 LAB 4: Shear in a Rubber

ABSTRACT (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the variation of deflection with applied load. This
is accomplished by using quantitative methods. The quantitative methods are used in the
Microsoft Excel in order to determine the result. In this experiment, we will also investigate the
relationship between shear stress τ and shear strain γ. The purpose of this experiment is also used
to find the modulus of rigidity G and the Elastic modulus E of the rubber block. The graph is
drawn between shear stress and shear strain in order to determine the Modulus of rigidity G and
modulus of elasticity E. A graph is drawn between load and deflection. Thus, it is concluded that
Microsoft Excel is the best method to analyze the data and find results.

INTRODUCTION (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

Rubber blocks in shear force are often used on engine and in equipment mounting to isolate
vibrations. They do this by absorbing shock energy by deforming. This deformation leads to a
decrease in cross-section as the block lengthens

Apparatus:

A block of medium rubber (153 x 73 x 25) mm size has aluminum alloy stripes bonded
to the two long edges. One strip has two fixing holes enabling this assembly to be fixed to a rigid
vertical surface. The bottom end of the other strip is drilled for a load hanger while a small dial
gauge indicates the position of the top.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the variation of deflection with applied load
2. To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain
3. To find the modulus of rigidity G and elasticity E of the rubber block.
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the dial gauge to zero reading.
2. Put a weight, starting from 5 N to 50 N, in 5 N increments.
3. After each 5 N gain, write down the reading of the dial gauge (which represent the
deformation of the rubber block), until the travel of the gauge is exceeded.
4. Record the reading in table.
5. Plot the result and calculate the modulus of rigidity G and elasticity.

13
 RESULTS (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

MODULUS
LOAD DEFLECTION DEFLECTION SHEAR SHEAR OF ELASTIC
(N) ON GUAGE (mm) STRESS (Mpa) STRAIN RIGIDITY MODULUS
5 2 0.02 0.00130719 0.000266667 4.901960784 14.70588235
10 5 0.05 0.002614379 0.000666667 3.921568627 11.76470588
15 9 0.09 0.003921569 0.0012 3.267973856 9.803921569
20 12 0.12 0.005228758 0.0016 3.267973856 9.803921569
25 16 0.16 0.006535948 0.002133333 3.06372549 9.191176471
30 21 0.21 0.007843137 0.0028 2.801120448 8.403361345
35 24 0.24 0.009150327 0.0032 2.859477124 8.578431373
40 28 0.28 0.010457516 0.003733333 2.801120448 8.403361345
45 33 0.33 0.011764706 0.0044 2.673796791 8.021390374
50 37 0.37 0.013071895 0.004933333 2.649708532 7.949125596

Graph between Load and Deflection

60
y = 5x - 5
50
R² = 1
40
Load

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deflection

Graph between load and deflection

14
 Graph bwt Shear Strain And Shear Stress
0.014
y = 0.0013x - 0.0013
0.012
R² = 1
0.01
Shear Stress

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-0.002
Shear Strain

Graph between shear strain and shear stress

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Zohaib Ali Hassan-32):

Graph 1:
Graph 1 shows that the load is taken along Y-axis and the deflection is taken along
X-axis. This graph represents that the load is directly related to the deflection of the material.
When the load increases the deflection also increases, and deflection decreases when the load
decreases.

Graph 2:
Graph 2 shows the relationship between Shear stress and Shear strain. Shear strain
is taken along X-axis and Shear stress is taken along Y-axis. Modulus of rigidity is
determined by calculating the slope of the graph. And elastic modulus is calculated by using
following formula:

Conclusions (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

With the help of this experiment it is easy to determine the variation of deflection with applied
load. Due to this experiment the relationship between Shear stress and Shear strain are
investigated. The values of modulus of rigidity G and elastic modulus E are determined. The
graphs of this experiment show that the load is directly related to deflection and Shear stress is
also directly related to Shear strain. It is concluded that the modulus of rigidity decreases when
the load increases and modulus of elasticity also decreases when the load increases.

15
 LAB 5: TORSIONAL BEHAVIOR OF METALS
ABSTRACT:
The basic purpose of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the applied torque
and angle of twist for a metal wire of different materials and compare the results of one material
to the other. This can be done by using the rod of different length and materials by applying
torque on them. In this experiment, the main purpose is to determine the deflection in the rod
under the application of varying load. Based on the findings, it is concluded that concluded that
deflection produced in rod is directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the
modulus of rigidity (G).

RESULTS:
The influence of Diameter, Length and Modulus on Rotational Stiffness is shown in Figures 1
through 3, respectively.

FOR LENGTH 0.45

0.25

0.2 y = 1.6463x + 0.0226

R² = 0.98

0.15
T/JG

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
DEFLECTION

Figure4. Influence of Diameter on Rotational Stiffness (TL/G versus Angle of Twist)

16
 FOR LENGTH 0.225
0.25

y = 2.6041x + 0.0313
0.2 R² = 0.9966

0.15
T/JG

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
DEFLECTION

Figure 5. Influence of Length on Rotational Stiffness (T/JG versus Angle of Twist)

FOR ALLUMINIUM
3E+09

2.5E+09 y = 2E+10x + 3E+08

R² = 0.98
2E+09

1.5E+09
TL/J

1E+09

500000000

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Deflection

17
 FOR BRASS
3E+09
y = 3E+10x + 3E+08
2.5E+09 R² = 0.9927

2E+09
TL/J

1.5E+09

1E+09

500000000

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
DEFLECTION

Figure6. Influence of Shear Modulus on Rotational Stiffness (TL/J versus Angle of Twist)

Table 2 summarizes the above results.

Table 2. Summary of Results

Sr. No Load Measure value of Ф Measured values of Ф

1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10
L=0.45 L=0.225 Aluminum Brass
0.018470462 0.009235231 0.018470462 0.012467562
0.036940923 0.018470462 0.036940923 0.024935123
0.055411385 0.027705692 0.055411385 0.037402685
0.073881847 0.036940923 0.073881847 0.049870246
0.092352308 0.046176154 0.092352308 0.062337808

Discussion of Results:
Graph 1:

This graph shows the relationship between length and deflection. Length is directly related to the
deflection. If length of the material increases then the deflection of the material also increases
and vice versa.

Graph 2:

This graph shows the relationship between material and deflection. For aluminum, the modulus
of rigidity is different from the modulus of rigidity of brass.

18
Modulus of rigidity is inversely related to the deflection of the material. If modulus of rigidity
increases then the deflection of the material decreases, and vice versa.

CONCLUSION:
It is concluded that the basic purpose of this experiment is to find the relationship between the
applied torque and angle of twist for a metal wire of various (lengths and materials); and
compare the results with each other. Based on the above results, the author determined that the
rod of lager length produce more torsion than smaller rod under the application of torque because
torsion is directly proportional to the length of the rod. Similarly, the material having smaller
value of modulus of rigidity (e. g Aluminum) produce more torsion then the material then the
material having greater value of modulus of rigidity (e. g Brass).

19
 LAB 6: Analysis Of Simply Supported Beam

ABSTRACT (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

Continuous beam is a statically indeterminate multi span beam on hinged support. The end spans
may be cantilever may be freely supported or fixed supported. At least one of the supports of a
continuous beam must be able to develop a reaction along the beam axis. The statically
determinate primary system may be obtained by elimination of constraints considered as
redundant. The most instinctive primary system is a simply supported beam obtained by
elimination of internal supports and elimination the constraint developing bending moment in the
first fixed support. These computations will be carried out assuming that each span is a simply
supported beam and it acted upon both by the applied load sand the moments of the supports just
determined.

INTRODUCTION (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

Apparatus:

a. A support frame
b. Reaction supported pier
c. Load Hanger
d. Beam specimen
e. A meter rule
f. A set of weight

OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the support reactions
2. To determine stress at different loads
3. To determine deflection at different points of span
PROCEDURE:

1. The unit been warmed up by switched on the display unit.

2. By using the plate and bolt supplied with the apparatus and a predetermine
distance between the support reaction piers was clamped to the support frame.
3. Beam specimen was placed between the two cylindrical pieces of each
support. Two screw at the top of each support been tightened by using fingers.
4. Load hanger was fixed to the position where the beam is to be loaded.
5. Display unit by connected the load cell from the support pier$ each load call
occupying one terminal on the display.
6. Recorded the initial reading for each channel was started with channel,

20
 7. Placed a suitable load on the load hanger and the reading was noted for each
load cell. This represents the reaction at each pier.
8. Load on the load hanger was increased at suitable increments and for and
increment the pier reaction been recorded.

RESULTS (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

Table1: Table of deflection

Dial Gauge %
SR. Load(N Reading(mm Erro
no. ) Reactions ) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) r
Experiment
A B al Theoretical
0.00098459 8398950.13
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 6 1 -48.2
0.00196919 16797900.2 -
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.001165 2 6 40.84
0.00295378 25196850.3 -
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.001755 8 9 40.58
0.00393838 33595800.5
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 4 2 -38.3
41994750.6 -
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.003095 0.00492298 6 37.13
0.00590757 50393700.7 -
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 6 9 37.71

Table2: Table of deflection by changing length

SR. Dial Gauge %

no. Load(N) Reactions Reading(mm) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) Error
A B Experimental Theoretical
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 0.000984596 8398950 -48.2
-
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.001165 0.001969192 16797900 40.84
-
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.001755 0.002953788 25196850 40.58
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 0.003938384 33595801 -38.3
-
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.003095 0.00492298 41994751 37.13
-
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 0.005907576 50393701 37.71

21
Table2: Table of deflection and load

SR. Dial Gauge %

no. Load(N) Reactions Reading(mm) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) Error
A B Experimental Theoretical
-
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 0.000985 8398950 48.202
-
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.001165 0.001969 16797900 40.839
-
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.001755 0.002954 25196850 40.585
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 0.003938 33595801 -38.3
-
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.003095 0.004923 41994751 37.132
-
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 0.005908 50393701 37.707

Table3: Table of deflection by changing modulus of elastisity

SR. Dial Gauge %

no. Load(N) Reactions Reading(mm) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) Error

A B Experimental Theoretical
-
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 0.0015097 8398950 66.219
-
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.001165 0.0030194 16797900 61.417
-
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.001755 0.0045291 25196850 61.251
-
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 0.0060389 33595801 59.761
-
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.003095 0.0075486 41994751 58.999
-
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 0.0090583 50393701 59.374

22
Table4: Table of deflection and load

SR. Dial Gauge

no. Load(N) Reactions Reading(mm) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) % Error
A B Experimental Theoretical
-
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 0.000985 8398950 48.2021
-
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.00117 0.001969 16797900 40.8387
-
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.00176 0.002954 25196850 40.5848
-
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 0.003938 33595801 38.2996
-
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.0031 0.004923 41994751 37.1316
-
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 0.005908 50393701 37.7071

Table6: Table of deflection by changing Moment of inertia

SR. Dial Gauge

no. Load(N) Reactions Reading(mm) Deflection(m) Stress(Pa) % Error
A B Experimental Theoretical
-
1 1 0.5 0.5 51 0.00051 0.002146 12400025 76.2361
-
2 2 1 1 116.5 0.001165 0.004292 24800050 72.8579
-
3 3 1.5 1.5 175.5 0.001755 0.006438 37200074 72.7415
4 4 2 2 243 0.00243 0.008584 49600099 -71.693
-
5 5 2.5 2.5 309.5 0.003095 0.010731 62000124 71.1572
-
6 6 3 3 368 0.00368 0.012877 74400149 71.4212

23
 Chart Title
7

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007

Graph1: Graph between load and deflection

Chart Title
7

0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004

Graph2: Graph between load and deflection by changing length

24
 7

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007

Graph3: Graph between load and deflection

Chart Title
7

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01

Graph4: Graph between load and deflection by changing modulus of elasticity

25
 Chart Title
7

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007

Graph5: Graph between load and deflection

Chart Title
7

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014

Graph6: Graph between load and deflection by changing moment of inertia

26
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Zohaib Ali Hassan-32):
Graph 1:
This graph shows that by the relation 𝛿=PL^3/48EI, the length is directly proportional to the
deflection. It means if the length increases then the deflection also increases and vice versa.

Graph 2:
This graph shows that if the length of the beam changes then the deflection of the beam also
changes. If the length increases then the deflection also increases and vice versa.

Graph 3:
This graph shows that by the relation 𝛿=PL^3/48EI, Modulus of elasticity is inversely
proportional to the deflection. If the modulus of elasticity increases then the deflection
decreases, and vice versa.

Graph 4:
This graph shows that the change in modulus of elasticity also changes the deflection of the
beam. If the elastic modulus increases then the deflection decreases, and vice versa.

Graph 5:
This graph shows that by the relation 𝛿=PL^3/48EI, the moment of inertia inversely related
to the deflection of beam. It means if the moment of inertia increases the deflection decreases
and vice versa.

Graph 6:
This graph shows that by changing moment of inertia the deflection of beam also changes. If
moment of inertia increases then the deflection of beam decreases and vice versa.

Conclusions (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

As the conclusion, the objective to determine the reaction of a two-span continuous beam
was successfully achieved. Not just that, now all of us understand about continuous beam
more, that before. It is understood about the load cells and the measurement techniques. In
the experiment it is analyzed that the deflection of beams and understood how to adjust the
instruments. At the end of the experiment we derived some data about the experiment
and compared them with the analytical results, and we noticed some differences.

27
 LAB: 07 THIN CYLINDER APPARATUS

Abstract:
The objective of thin cylinder apparatus is to determine the stresses and strains of
a pressurized walled cylinder. We can compare the poison ratio of actual and theoretical result.
By this apparatus we can also calculate the hoop and the longitudinal stresses .we can calculate
the strains with two conditions

1) open ends

2) closed end condition

Introduction:
Apparatus:

Components of thin cylinder apparatus:

1) Pressure guag
2) Hydraulic pump
3) cylinder
4) Stress and strain measuring strips

Figure: Thin cylinder apparatus

28
Procedure:
1. This apparatus is used for studying the stresses and strain in a thin wall cylinder. A thin-
walled aluminium alloy cylinder is mounted on a rigid steel frame

2. Internal pressure is applied to the cylinder by means of a hydraulic hand pump. Pressure
in the cylinder is indicated on a pressure gauge. A hand screw is attached to one end of
the frame to operate a piston on one side of the cylinder. By applying the hand screw, the
piston can open or close the cylinder.

3. When the cylinder is open, only circumferential stress occurs on the cylinder. When the
cylinder is closed, both circumferential and axial stresses occur.

4. Strain gauges are of the same gauge factor and the gauges are fixed onto the cylinder at
different angles. Each strain gauge is wired to form a full bridge with temperature
compensation gauge and zero adjustment in a bridge box with strain gauge multi-digital
display.

Results:
Table: Table shows the stresses and strains:

Pressure
Pressure(psi) (bar) Є1(μ) Є2(μ) Poison Ratio σ1 σ2
100 6.89476 17 6 0.352941176 8107.639 4670.139
200 13.78952 36 11 0.305555556 16961.81 9149.306
300 20.68428 54 11 0.203703704 24774.31 11336.81
400 27.57904 74 21 0.283783784 34670.14 18107.64
500 34.4738 94 26 0.276595745 43958.33 22708.33

29
 Hoop Stress vs Pressure
50000 0.02
45000 0.018
40000 0.016
35000 0.014
Hoop Stress

30000 0.012
25000 0.01
20000 0.008
Experimental
15000 0.006
Theoretical
10000 0.004
5000 0.002
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Pressure (bar)

Graph1: Graph between pressure and hoop stress

Discussion of result:
The result shows that as we increase the pressure inside the thin cylinder
wall the strips which are attached with cylinder at certain angle measure the stresses due to
applied pressure on the walls of cylinder .The strips are attached to computer control system and
the system draw their graph according to the applied pressure and stresses value .The graph
shows that the stresses are directly proportional to applied pressure . It shows a straight line

Conclusion:
From this experiment we calculated the stresses and strains which are appling at
the walls of thin cylinder. There are six strips which are attached to the cylinder, some of them
are at certain angle the first and the sixth strips measure the circumferential (Hoop) stresses and
the strip 2 calculate the longitudinal stresses. We concluded that increase in pressure by
hydraulic pump the value of stresses ans strain changes which are directly related to each other.
They show a graph of straight line. The hoop stress is equal to,

σH = (P x d)/(2 x t).

The longitudinal stress is equal to, σL = (P x d)/(4 x t)

30
 LAB 8: TRUSS ANALYSIS

ABSTRACT (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

Pin-jointed truss structures are widely used by engineers for construction and other purposes.
They consist of rigid members joined together with pins, enabling the structure
to function as a single object and can be used to make structures as large as bridges,
for example. The experiment models a small statically determinate truss structure, one
where the calculations assume that the forces in the members could be determined only
by statics. It neglects the weights of the members, the friction forces at the pins where they are
joined together, but still gives an approximate measure of the internal forces in the members. It
could therefore measure the maximum axial load that could be applied to the structure before it
fails, and could help instruct on the material properties the structure would require. The
experiment aimed to determine the internal member loads by calculating the change in
strain of each of the members

INTRODUCTION (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

Apparatus:

Load cells: Applies the external load to the structure axially, at the bottom-right corner. The
load applied can be increased by turning the thumbwheel on the load cell. This was constantly
adjusted in smaller steps around the desired load as the readings that a tendency to oscillate
slightly about a particular value, although the deflection did not change so readily. This was
connected to a Digital force display to show the loads applied.

Dial gauges: Measures the deflection corresponding to the applied load. It was set
to zero at the start of the experiment.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the forces in each member of truss.
2. To determine the stress and strain in each member of truss.

PROCEDURE:

In the experiment the labeled member 8 of the structure is made redundant, by

disconnecting it from the structure. This made the truss structure statically
determinate.

The thumbwheel was turned initially until the reading on the digital force display

31
 was 0N, it was checked that the reading on the thumbwheel was still zero after
the dial gauge was set to zero, as the reading on the digital force display oscillated
slightly.

The strain for each member was then measured when the applied load was 0N.

The thumbwheel was then turned systematically, increasing the applied load in steps
of 50N and taking the corresponding value of the deflection on the dial gauge each
time. This was continued until the applied load was 385.03N and then, the thumbwheel
was not turned further.

At this point, the reading on the strain gauge was again taken for each of the
members of the truss structure.

RESULTS (Yahya Abdulwadood-52):

Table: Table for stress and strain

Sr. No. FORCES STRESS STRAIN

F1 472.09 188.836 0.075534
F2 272.78 109.112 0.043645
F3 0 0 0
F4 0 0 0
F5 272.78 109.112 0.043645
F6 545.56 218.224 0.08729
F7 472.09 188.836 0.075534
F8 385.3 154.12 0.061648
Ax 545.56 218.224 0.08729
Bx 545.56 218.224 0.08729
By 385.3 154.12 0.061648

32
 Load and Deflection
0.1

0.08

0.06

Force 0.04
Series1
0.02

0
-0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
-0.02
Strain

Graph1: Graph between force and strain

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS (Zohaib Ali Hassan-32):

•
In reality, there is no such thing as a fully rigid body, and the members will have a
small degree of bending.

The joints at which the members were pinned face some opposition and therefore
the members do not rotate freely as the theoretical model assumes.

GRAPH:
The above graph shows that the applied load is directly related to the deflection of beam.
This indicates that when the applied load increases the deflection also increases. And when the
applied load decreases the deflection of the beam also decreases.

Conclusions (Safi ur Rahman Khan-12):

In conclusion, pin-jointed structures are highly essential to the engineering discipline and simple
experiment carried out gives a fairly accurate measure of the internal member loads of the
structure when loaded externally. The results for the internal member loads determined
experimentally show a very positive correlation with the results calculated theoretically. The
experiment also measures the relationship between the external applied loads and the
corresponding deflection, and a fairly linear relationship was deduced. For this experiment, it
would have been more useful to measure the deflection at a bigger range of applied loads to
more precisely determine the relationship between loads and deflection.

33
34