LABORATORY MANUAL

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University College of Engineering
Osmania University
Hyderabad 500007,TS
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTION

➢ The Vision of the Institute is to generate and disseminate knowledge through a

harmonious blending of Science, Engineering and Technology. To serve the
society by developing a modern technology in students heightened intellectual,
cultural, ethical and humane sensitivities, fostering a scientific temper and
promoting professional and technological expertise.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

➢ To achieve excellence in Teaching and Research.

➢ To generate, disseminate and preserve knowledge.
➢ To enable empowerment through knowledge and information.
➢ Advancement of knowledge in Engineering, Science and Technology.
➢ Promote learning in free thinking and innovative environment.
➢ Cultivate skills, attitudes to promote knowledge creation.
➢ Rendering socially relevant technical services for the community.
➢ To impart new skills of technology development.
➢ To inculcate entrepreneurial talents and technology appreciation programmes.
➢ Technology transfer and incubation.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

➢ To generate and disseminate knowledge in Mechanical Engineering and nurture
professional, technical and scientific temper for serving the needs of the industry,
research organizations and society.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

➢ Create technically competent mechanical engineers to suit the changing

needs of global industry and society.
➢ To cultivate skills, attitudes to promote knowledge creation and technology
development.
➢ Interact with prominent educational institutions and R&D organizations for
enhancing teaching, research and consultancy services.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

Objective 1

To provide the requisite fundamentals of varied subjects related to Mechanical

Engineering to conceive, plan, model, design, construct, maintain and improve
systems to enhance human comfort.

Objective 2

To provide knowledge of experimental, computational, analytical, simulation tools

and techniques require to address the challenges in Mechanical Engineering and
other allied fields.

Objective 3

To provide knowledge to apply Mechanical Engineering fundamentals to design

and implement cost effective systems in manufacturing.

Objective 4

To provide effective communication skills, creative methods, ethics and continuous

learning techniques to fulfill their professional requirements and societal needs.
POs Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PO1 Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an mechanical engineering to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2 Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems related to mechanical engineering and allied fields reaching substantiated
conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
Mechanical engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the Mechanical engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the mechanical engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
mechanical engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 Lifelong learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Program Specific Objectives
PS01 Apply the principles of collaborative and multi disciplinary approach for solving problems
PS02 Able to interact with industry and R&D institutions leading to start-ups/ budding
entrepreneurs.
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES LAB (PC 452ME)

Course Objectives:
➢ To understand the manufacturing processes, preparation of sand mould, casting
process
➢ To learn about electrode composition and different welding processes like arc,
gas, spot, TIG, MIG welding.
➢ To know the forming process.

Course Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this course, the student shall be able to
Manufacturing process Lab CIE:25, C-3
Perquisites: SEE:50
CO1 Fabricate weldments using gas , arc and spot welding.
CO2 Perform formability studies on sheet metals.
CO3 Preparation of mould cavities for sand casting
CO4 Test the properties of moulding sands
CO5

CO-PO MATRIX:

S.No Po1 Po2 Po3 Po4 Po5 Po6 Po7 Po8 Po9 Po10 Po11 Po12
Co1 3 2 1 1 2 3 1
Co2 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 1
Co3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1
Co4 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1
Co5
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

Foundry:

1. Study of foundry setup, equipment and the displayed charts with particular
attention to moulding machines, sand muller, shell moulding machine&
centrifugal casting machine.
2. Mixing and preparation of molding sand samples, testing of greensand
properties.
3. Preparation of molding sand aggregate and simple moulds of greensand
complete with sprues, gates and risers.
4. Exercise of melting and casting involving prepared moulds, aluminium
metal and crucible furnace. Cleaning of castings, study of the features of the
final casting, its features and any visible defects.
5. Experimental Study of blow moulding.
6. Experimental study of centrifugal casting

Welding:
1. Study of the welding equipment and tools related to Arc, gas and
resistance welding & displayed charts.
2. Practice of Arc, Resistance Spot, Resistance Butt and Gas
welding. Identification of different types of gas flames.
3. Experimental study of
(a) Electrode characteristics of SMAW.
(b) Arc length and welding speed on bead characteristics.
(c) Welding current on bead penetration.
4. Determination of weld characteristics using DC and AC power sources.
5. TIG and MIG welding process - study and exercises.

Forming:
1. Study of the forming equipment: Different types of mechanical presses and
hammers, Metal spinning Lathe.
2. Conventional extrusion of metals.
3. Study of sheet metal working dies and sheet metal working with existing
dies.
4. Testing of metals: Fatigue tests. Testing of sheet metals for formability using
Erichson cupping test.
5. Study of HERF processes. Sheet metal forming with water hammer forming
equipment.
 INDEX

S.NO TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE NO.

FOUNDARY
1 Foundry 2-11
2 Testing Of Moulding Sand 12-19
3 3a. Preparation Of Mould Cavity 20-24
3b. Sand mould for self cored pattern 25-27
3c.Core making 28-34
4 Casting Defects 35-41
5 Blow Moulding 42-44
WELDING
6 Study of welding equipment and tools related to 46-59
arc, gas and resistance welding
7 Practice of Arc Welding(T-Joint, V-Joint) 60-75
Resistance Spot, Resistance Butt and Gas Welding
8 Experimental study of 76-80
(a)Electrode characteristics of a SMAW
(b)Arc length and welding speed on bead
characteristics
(c)Welding current on bead penetration
9 Determination of weld characteristics using DC 81-86
and AC power source
10 Study and Exercises on TIG and MIG welding 87-94
FORMIMG
11 Study Of Metal forming 96-101
12 Convention Forward Extrusion 102-107
13 Blanking And Punching 108-112
14 Testing Of Metals 113-119
(a) Fatigue Test
(b)Formability Test
15 Water Hammer Forming 120-123
FOUNDRY

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 EXPERIMENT-1

FOUNDRY

Foundry setup introduction:

Foundry is a process of shaping the metal components in their molten stage. It is the also
called as metal casting the shape and size of the metal casting is obtained depends on the
shape and size of the cavity produced in sand mould by using wooden/ metal pattern.

Advantages:

1.Molten metal flows into a small section in the mold cavity, hence any intricate shape
can be produced.

2. Practically any material can be casted.

3. Tools required are very simple and inexpensive.

4. Ideal method for producing small quantities.

5. Any size of the casting can be produced like upto200 tonnes.

Practical application:

1. Casting is the cheapest and most direct way of producing the shape of the
component

2. Casting is best suited to work where components required is in low quantity.

3. Complicated shapes having internal openings and complex section variation can
be produced quickly and cheaply by casting since liquid metal can flow into any
form/ shape.
Example: a) Outer casing of all automobile engines.

b)Electric motor housing

c)Bench vice, Irrigation pumps etc.

4. Heavy equipment such as machine beds of lathe, milling machine, shaping,

drilling, planing machine etc. can be cast/easily.

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 5. Due to same cooling rate from all directions, the properties of casting are same in

all directions.

The Foundry process involves three steps.

(a) Making the required pattern

(b) Moulding process to produce the cavity in sand using pattern.

(c) Pouring the molten metal into the cavity to get casting.

Classification of foundries:

• Steel foundry

• C.I foundry

• Light alloy foundry

• Brass foundry

• Shell moulding foundry

• Die casting foundry (using permanent metal or dies for high volume of low and
pressure die)

Pattern:

A pattern is normally a wooden/ metal model or thermosetting plastic which is facsimile

of the cast product to be made, there are many types of pattern and are either one piece,
two piece or three piece, split pattern, loose piece pattern, Gated and match plate pattern
etc.

Pattern size: Actual casting size +shrinkage allowance +shake allowance +finish
allowance

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i)Shrinkage allowance: The liquid metal shrinks during solidification and it contraction
to its room temperature, so that the pattern must be made larger then the casting to
provide for total contraction.
ii)Finishing allowance: The casting is to be machined at some points then the casting
should be provided with excess metal for machining.

Types of foundry sand

1. Natural sand: Sand containing the silica grains and clay bond as found. It varies
in grainsize and clay content. Collected from natural recourses.

2. Synthetic sand: It is an artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively clay free

sand,binder (water and bentonoite). It is better moulding sand as its properties can
be easily controlled.
3. Facing sand: It is the fine grade sand used against the face of the pattern and
finallygoverns the surface finish of the casting.
4. Parting sand: It is fine dry sand + brick dust used to preserve the joint face

between the cope and the drag.

Natural Green sand =sand +clay +moisture

(10 to 15%)(7 to 9%)

Synthetic Green sand = sand + clay+ moisture

(5 to 7%)(4 to 8%)

5.Green sand: Moldings is the most common molding process

Moulding methods:

• Bench moulding: In this method the moulding is carried out on convenient bench
andmoulds are relatively small.

• Floor mouldings: In this method the mouldings is carried out in medium and
largemoulds are carried out on the floor.

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 • Plate mouldings: For large quantity production and for very heavy casting two
platesmay be used with pattern.

• Pit moulding: In this method the moulding is carried out in the pits and generally
verylargemoulds are made.

• Machine mouldings: A machine is used to prepare moulds of small and medium.

Thismethod is faster and gives uniform mouldings.

Equipment and displayed charts:

Core and core making:
Cores are sand blocks they are used to make hollow portion in a casting. It isplaced in a
mould so that when molten metal is poured into the mould. This apart of mould will
remain vacant i.e. the molten metal will not fill this part of the mould. So when the mould
is broken and the castings removed a hollow portion will result in the casting.

Core sand= Moulding sand+ binders (ABC core oil) or sodium silicate

Core making: Cores are made separately in a core box made of wood or metal.

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Core binders

1. Water soluble binders (2 t0 4% by weight)

2. Oil binders (1-3% by weight)

3. Pitch and resin binders (1-35 by weight)

The sand is treated with binder to achieve cohesion

Core Baking

• The core is baked (hardened) by heating at 150C depends on core size in oven.

• This hardening of the core helps to handle and to place the core in the mould.

• The core is supported in the mould by projection known as core prints.

NOMENCLATURE OF A MOULD

SAND MULLER:

A machine for mixing, sand and binders by a kneading and squeezing action for use in
sand molds. The mixture is usually sand, clay, and water, but synthetic chemical binders
may be used.

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 SAND MULLER MACHINE

All Simpson mixers are based on the mixing techniques of mulling. Mulling is a form of
intensive mixing utilizing the application of controlled pressure and agitation through a
unique compression, shearing and blending action. It is produced from a tool set
consisting of a combination of muller wheels and plows. Modern mullers, coupled with
advanced on-line control and automation systems are the most effective method of
producing close-tolerance, cost-efficient molding sand. Simpson offers three different
muller platforms in order to optimally match the equipment to the specified needs and
process of each molding line.

SHELL MOULDING :

Shell moulding,also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mold casting process

that uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this
process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor
requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision. Shell mold
casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured
into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell
created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in
the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern
allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex

7
geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-
resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper
alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:Pattern creation - A two-
piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron or steel.
Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or
graphite for casting reactive materials.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE

Centrifugal casting figure(1) is shows a metal casting process in which metal liquid is
poured into a rotating mold at a specific temperature. Basically, the metal liquid must
have a specific temperature to reach the desired length and thickness prior to the freezing.
Centrifugal force will hold the molten metal into a rotating mold. The thickness of the
object is determined by the volume of liquid that is poured into the mold. In the
centrifugal casting process, enhancer and canal system are not required. Thus, the yield
will be higher than those of the gravity casting process. Casting will generate products
with higher density level and better mechanical properties than the results of gravity
casting.

Figure(1).The Process of Centrifugal Casting

8
Horizontal centrifugal casting machine has several sections as shown in Figure 2.
Centrifugal casting machine has a capacity to perform and repeat the four processes
accurately, namely:

1. To rotate the mold at a certain speed.

2. To drain the liquid metal into a rotating mold.
3.Once the liquid metal poured into the mold, the machine is let the fluid freezes well.

4.Objects cast should be removed from the mold.

Figure 2. Horizontal Centrifugal Casting Machine

2.0 Mixing and Preparation of moulding Sand Samples:

The high silica sand was used as the principal moulding material. The sand mixture was
prepared by adding binder i.e. bentonite, coal dust as additive and water. The
composition of green sand mixture is given below. The sand was prepared by hand
mixing. After preparation of moulding sand, the mould was prepared by ramming the
sand in the mould box.

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Composition of moulding sand mixture

High Silica Sand

: 86%

Bentonite (Binder)
:8%

Coal Dust (Additive)

:1%

Moisture (Water) :5%

Testing of Greensand Properties:

Good moulding sand must possess the following properties. The properties are
determined by the amount of clay, moisture content and by the shape and size of the
silica grain in the sand.

Permeability:It is the ability of sand to allow the gasses to escape from the mould.

Cohesiveness or Strength:This is the ability of sand particles to stick together.

Insufficient strength may lead to a collapse in the mould or its partial destruction during
conveying turning over or closing.

Adhesiveness:The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body, i.e, they
should cling to the sides of the moulding boxes.

Plasticity:It is the property to retain it shape when the pressure of the pattern is removed.

Refractoriness:The sand must be capable of withstanding the high temperature of the

molten metal without fusing.

Binding:Binder allows sand to flow to take up pattern shape.

Chemical Resistivity: Moulding sand should not chemically react or combine with
molten metal so that it can be used again and again.

Flowbility: It is the ability of sand to take up the desired shape.

Periodic test is necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand.

10
The most important tests to be conducted for any foundry sand are as follows.

Compression, shear and tensile strength test on universal sand testing machine:

i) Moulding sand must have good strength otherwise it may lead to collapse of
mould.

ii) It must be retained when the molten metal enters the mould (bond strength)

iii) To retain its shape when the patter is removed and movement of the mould.

Permeability test:It is the property of moulding sand which allows gases to pass through
easily in the mould.

Core and mould hardness test: The hardness test is useful to find out the moulds
surface uniformly.

Sieve analysis to find the grain fineness number of base sand:To find the average grain
fineness number for the selection of fine, medium, and course sand.

Clay content determination in base sand: It is to find the % of the clay content in the
base sand

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 EXPERIMENT - 2

TESTING OF MOULDING SAND

AIM : To prepare molding sand and test the properties.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1)sand rammer 2) weighing machine 3) sand Muller 4) permeability meter

5) Universal sand testing machine 6) hardness tester 7 )flowability meter

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1)silica sand 2) binder 3) water

AFS GRAIN FINENESS NUMBER:

Grain fineness, size and distribution are tested by Sieve Analysis using standard sieves
with mesh-opening sizes. Dry silica sand sample of known weight (1000gm) is placed on
the top most sieve with largest mesh-opening and the set of sieves containing finer Sizes
are mechanically vibrated for about 5 minutes. The weight of sand retained in each sieve
is measured. From the multiplier provided for each size of sieve ,grain fineness number,
which is the weighted average particle size of the sand tested , is calculated as given in
the following Table

Sieve Designation Multiplier % Retained Product

M R MxR
AFS IS(mIcrons)

GFN no = Total product/ total % Retained

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 Fig.1 Rammer for standard sand specimen

The standard rammer consists of a strong supporting frame to hold, lift and a hammer of
standard weight and size over a controlled height, sliding into a tube containing sand
mixture. The cylindrical tube with inner dia. 50mm is filled with molding sand to be
tested and placed at a location on the rammer-base under the hammer (Fig.) The hammer
is lifted by a lever-handle and dropped from a standard height, compressing the loose
sand in the container-tube. The operation is repeated thrice, (total 3 rams) after which the
height of sand compressed in the specimen tube is read in the scale provided at the top
end of the hammer. The reading should be 50± 1.0 mm. If it is above or below the value,
the specimen has to be rejected and a new one made, after suitable adjustment in the
amount of sand placed in the specimen-tube. If accepted, the standard sand specimen is
stripped from the tube using a std stand, for conducting the tests.

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GREEN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

The prepared standard sand specimen having 50mm dia. and 50mm length, is subjected
to gradual compressive load from each of the round faces.As the load is applied between
the end holders gradually without jerks, the specimen fails at a stage when the
compressive force exerted is more than it can withstand. The value can be directly read
on the scale provided on the tester.Sand strength testing equipment, called Universal
testing machine, can be used to test green and dry compression strength.Green
compressive strength is usually simply referred to as the green strength of the sand. It is
important in thisand other green-strength tests that the test be performed immediatelyafter
the specimen is stripped from the tube. The strength of greensands increases when the
sand specimen begins to air-dry. Greenmolding sands run from about 5.0 to 22.0 psi
green compressive strength,
depending on their type
.
GREEN SHEAR TEST:
Green shear strength can be determined with the standard specimenand universal testing
machine. This is accomplished by changing the loading surfaces on the testing machine
from compression plates toshear plates. The specimen then ruptures in shear along its
longitudinal axis when sufficiently loaded. Green molding sands usually have about 1.5
to 7.0 psi green shear strength.
Table 1

S.NO METAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Kg/cm2
GREEN DRY
1 Cast iron
Light castings 0.42 1.41
Medium Castings 0.49 3.52
2 Steel
a)Green sand 0.56 4.92

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 b)dry sand 0.63 10.95
c)oil sand 0.21 to 0.35 21 to 72
3 Copper based alloy 0.49 to 0.7 2.8 to 4.2
4 Aluminum 0.35 1.4 to 2.1
5 Magenesium 0.56 7

MOLD HARDNESS :
The hardness achieved by ramming the sand can be measurd by a mold-hardness tester of
the type shown in Fig. This is an indentation-type test. A spring-loaded steel ball is
pressed into the sand. If no penetration occurs, the hardness arbitrarily is 100. If the ball
sinks completely into the sand up to the limiting surface of the tester, the reading is zero;
i.e., the sand is very soft. Each scale unit represents 0.001 in. Common mold hardnesses
are 80 to 95 for machine molding.Hardness readings are taken on the standard sand
specimen as an additional test on that specimen.

Fig.2 mold hardness tester

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PERMEABILITY TEST:

Permeability is a condition of porosity and thus is related to thc passage of gases through
the sand. It is cxpressd as the volume of air that will pass per minute under a pressure of
10 gm/cm2 through a specimen of sand of one square centimeter of cross-sectional area
and one centimeter in height. Permeability number P can be found mathematically by the
formula given below:

P= permeability number to be determined.

v =volume of air passing through the specimen in cm3
h = height of the specimen in cm (5.08cm)
p = pressure of air in gm/cm2 (10 gmlcm2)
a = cross-sectional area of specimen in cm2.
adopted).
t = time for air to pass in minutes.

Permeability meter is the instrument used for testing the permeability of sand specimen.
The principle is that when a fixed volume of air, trapped in a chamber at a fixed height is
made to pass through the sand specimen from a standard orifice, back-pressure is
developed in the tube. This back-pressure is inversely proportional to the permeability of
the sand-mixture in the specimen.

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 Fig3.permeability meter

S.NO TYPE OF SAND A.F.A.GREEN

PREMEABILITY
NUMBER
1 Loam(15% moisture) <5
2 Moulding mixture for cast iron 0 to 80
3 Moulding mixture for bronze 35
4 Moulding mixture for aluminium 20 to 40
5 Dry sand for steel 60 to 100
6 Green sand for steel 150 to 300

FLOWABILITY TEST:

This property indicates the capability of the sand mix to flow and occupy intricate voids
in machine molding. A dial indicator is pre loaded to 100 and positioned on the top of the
rammer position after 3 strokes are given. when the fourth stroke is given , the specimen
gets further compressed. This change in height is measured by the dial gauge , which is
directly calibrated to give flowability index.

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18
19
 EXPERIMENT - 3

3a.PREPARATION OF MOULD CAVITY

AIM: To prepare a mould for a given pattern.

MATERIAL REQUIRED AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

i)Moulding sand ii)facing sand iii)parting sand iv)pattern v)cope box vi)drag box
vii)bottom board

TOOLS REQUIRED:

i)vend rod ii)gate cutter iii)round hammer iv)peen hammer v)shovel vi)leveler vii)trowel

TERMINOLOGY OF CASTING:

Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending upon
the position of the flask in the mould structure it is referred to by various names such as
drag, cope and cheek. It is made up of wood for temporary applications or more
generally of metal for long term use.

Drag: Lower moulding flask

Cope: Upper moulding flask

Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding

Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
The mould cavity is made with the help of the pattern.

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Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
sand mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the
pattern.

Moulding sand: It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to

get the desired results and it surrounds the pattern facingsand while making the mould.
The moulding sand is the mixture.

Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould.
This is made up of used and burnt sand.

Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the
molten metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the
mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

Runner: The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is
regulated before the reach the mould cavity through the ingates.

Ingate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.

Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow
into (lie casting when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification. The
riser must remain molten for longer time than the casting part. The riser, if properly
designed, will avoid formation of shrinkage cavities.

Chill : Chills arc metallic objects which arc placed in the mould to increase the cooling
rate of molten metal at certain locations of mould cavity to ensure directional
solidification (solidification of casting towards riser).

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MOULDING PROCEDURE:

a. First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the floor, making
the surface even.

b. The drag moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along w the drag
part of the pattern at the centre of the flask on the board.
c. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.

d. Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured into t drag and on
the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50mm.

e. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed
to compact the sand.

f. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scrap using a flat
bar to the level of the flask edges.

g. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2mm diameter with a pointed end, vent
holes are made in the drag to the full dept of the flask as well as t the pattern to facilitate
the removal of gases during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the
drag.

h. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.

i. The cope flask on top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins of
the drag box.

j. Dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern.

k. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance
of about 50mm from the pattern. The riser is also located as shown in fig. Freshly
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prcpardfacing sand is poured around the pattern. The mouidng sand is then poured in the
cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess sand is scraped and vent holes arc
made all over in the cope asin the drag.

l. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask.

m. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.

n. The gates are cut in the mould carefully without spoiling the mould.

o. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would
give the finished casting a good surface finish.
p.Thc cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means
of the pins.

q. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal.

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 Fig.1 mould making

RESULT: The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Single /solid Pattern

24
 EXPERIMENT-3:

3b.SAND MOULD FOR SELF CORED PATTERN

AIM: To make core and prepare mould using self cored pattern.

MATERIAL REQUIRED AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

i) moulding sand
ii) facing sand
iii) parting sand
iv) pattern
v) cope box
vi) drag box
vii) bottom board
viii) Core sand & core binders
TOOLS REQUIRED:
i) vent rod
ii) gate cutter
iii) round hammer
iv) peen hammer
v) shovel
vi) leveler
vii) trowel

PROCEDURE:

1. First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or on the floor, making
the surface even.
2. The drag moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along w the drag
part of the pattern at the center of the flask on the board.
3. Freshly prepared moulding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag
4. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed
to compact the sand.
5. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scrap using a flat
bar to the level of the flask edges.

25
6. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2mm diameter with a pointed end, vent
holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as the pattern to facilitate
the removal of gases during casting solidification.
7. Now ‘self cored pattern’ is taken and pressed in the middle of the drag box to ¼ of its
height and the pattern is removed .The moulding sand in the middle of the cavity is
removed and the pattern which is totally filled with the moulding sand is replaced in the
cavity.
8. The cope flask on top of the drag is located aligning with the help of the pins of the
drag box.
9. Dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern.
10. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance
of about 50mm from the pattern. The riser is located at the top of the pattern as shown in
fig. Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the pattern. The moulding sand is then
poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess sand is scraped and vent
holes arc made all over in the cope asin the drag.
11. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask.
12. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
13. The self-cored pattern is removed leaving the core in the mould cavity. The core is
prepared by pattern itself.
14. The gates are cut in the drag flask carefully without spoiling the mould.
15. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which
would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
16. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means
of the pins.
17. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal.

26
 Fig 1.sand mould for self pattern core

RESULT: The required mould cavity is prepared using the given self cored pattern.

27
 Experiment No: 3

3c.CORE MAKING

AIM: To make a core

MATERIAL REQUIRED AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

i) Moulding Sand
ii) Facing Sand
iii) Parting Sand
iv) Pattern
v) Cope Box
vi) Drag Box
vii) BottornBoard
viii) Core Sand & Core Binders
TOOLS REQUIRED:

i) Vent Rod
ii) Gate Cutter
iii) Round Hammer
iv) Peen Hammer
v) Shovel
vi) Trowel

THEORY:

Characteristics desired of a core:Cores are the materials used for making cavities and hollow
projections which cannot normally be produced by the pattern alone. Any complicated contour or
cavity can be made by means of cores so that really intricate shapes can be easily obtained. These
are generally made of sand and are even used in permanent moulds. In general, cores are
surrounded on all sides by the molten metal and are therefore subjected to much moresevere
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a results, the core sand should be of higherstrength
than the moulding sand.

28
The normal characteristics desired of a core are:

1.Green strength: A core made of green sand should be strong enough to retain the shape till it
goes for baking.

2.Dry strength: It should have adequate dry strength so that when the core is placed in the mould,
it should be able 'to resist the metal pressure acting on it.

3.Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is surrounded all around ii is desirablethat the core
material should have higher refractoriness.

4.Permeability: Some of the gases evolving from the molten metal and generated from the mould
may have to go through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence Coresare required to have
higher permeability.

CORE SANDS

The core sand should contain the sand grains, binders and other additives to provide specific
properties

Sand: The silica sand which is completely devoid of clay is generally used for making core sands.
Coarse silica, because of its higher refractoriness is used in steel foundries whereas the finer sands
are used for cast irons and non-ferrous alloys

Binders: The normal binders are organic in nature, because these would be burnt away by the heat
of the molten metal and thus make the core collapsible during the cooling of the casting the amount
of binder required depends to a great extent on the fineness of the sand grains. The binders generally
used are, linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin molasses etc. the organic binders developed strength by
means of polymerization ion and cross linking. To effect this, the cores after preparation need to be
baked.

29
TYPES OF CORES:

The cores are essentially of two types, based on the type of sand used, Green sand cores are those
which are obtained by the pattern itself during moulding. Though this is the most economical way
of preparing core, the green sand being low in strength cannot be used for fairly deep holes. Also, a
large amount of draft is to be provided so that the pattern can be withdrawn of the pattern as in the
fig.

Dry sand cores are those which are made by means of special core sands in a separate core box,
backed and then placed in the mould as shown in figures.

CHAPLETS:

Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the mould cavity to support the cores
These are of the same composition as that of the pouring metal so that the molten metal
would provide enough heat to completely melt them and thus fuse with it during
solidification.

CORE PRINTS AND CALCULATION OF CORE PRINT AREA:

The core prints are provided so that the cores are securely and correctly positioned in the
mould cavity the design of core prints is such as to take care of the weight of the core
before pouring and the upward metallostatic pressure of the molten after pouring the core
prints should also ensure that the core is not shifted during the entry of the metal into the
mould cavity.

The main force acting on the core when metal is poured into the mould cavity is due to
boundary, the buoyant force can be calculated as the difference in the weight of the liquid
metal to that of the core material of the same volume as that of the expo-sedcore. It can be
written as

P=-V(p-d)

Where P = buoyant force, N

V = volume of the core in the mould cavity, cm3

30
p = weight density of the liquid metal, N/cm3

d = weight density of the core material = 1.65x102, N/crn3

In order to keep the core in position, it is empirically suggested that core print will heable to
support a load of 3.5 N/cml• of surface area. Hence to fully support the buoyantforce, it is
necessary that the following condition is satisfied.

P<350A

Where A Core Print area, mm2

In order to calculate the required chaplet area, Ac we need to know what is the
unsupported load. Referring back to the discussion on core prints, it was suggested that

Pe<350A

Hence, supported load = P= 350 A

If the Unsupported load is less than or equal to zero, no chaplet is required. But if ii is greater
than zero then the chaplet area required is 29mm2 for every Newton of unsupported load.

PROCEDURE:
The complete core making procedure consists of the following eight steps:

1. Mixing of Core Sand 2. Ramming of Core Sand 3. Venting of Core 4. Reinforcing

of Core 5. Baking of Core 5. Baking of Core 6. Cleaning and Finishing of Core 7.

Sizing of Cores 8. Joining of Cores.

STEP 1: MIXING OF CORE SAND

First of all, the core sand particles are mix thoroughly in order to obtain best cores.
Binders are then mixed with sand before any moisture is added. The mixture must be
homogeneous and uniform. This mixing is performed in paddle mixtures or mullers.

31
STEP 2: RAMMING OF CORE SAND

The mixture of core sand is rammed into the core boxes. The surplus sand is stuck-off
with strickles. The ramming may be done with machines or by manually.

STEP 3: VENTING OF CORE

Because a core is surrounded by molten metal from all sides during casting, gases have
only a small area through which to escape. Therefore, good permeability is obtained by
providing special vent holes to allow gases to escape easily.

This process is known as venting of core and is shown in Fig. 3.12:

STEP4 :REINFORCING OF CORE

Sometimes, cores are reinforced with annealed low-carbon steel wires or even cast iron

grids (in case of heavy cores) to ensure coherence and stability. Otherwise, the core may

shift from its original position when the molten metal is poured. This is shown in Fig.

3.12.

32
STEP 5: BAKING OF CORE

Now, the cores are placed on the baking plates and put into the baking furnace. During

baking, moisture is driven out at 100°C. On further increasing the temperature of about

200-270°C, some chemical changes also occur in the core oil and binders which

strengthens the core sand. The baking period of about 3 to 6 hours are quite common.

The proper baking of the core is essential and judged by the brown colour. An under-

baking core will generate a large amount of gases, which produces blow holes in the

casting, while over-baking will burn the binders completely and may collapse too soon

and break before solidification of casting. Oil fired ovens, gas fired ovens, dielectric

bakers or radiant bakers are used for this purpose.

STEP 6: CLEANING AND FINISHING OF CORE

After baking of core in oven, the cores are properly finished by following operations:

(a) Trimming: Trimming involves rubbing or filling of cores with emery stone. It is

required to remove the loose pieces and other undesirable sand projections.

(b) Brushing: Brushing involves removing of loose sand with the help of smooth wire

brush.

(c) Coating: Trimming involves rubbing or filling of cores with emery stone. It is

required to remove the loose pieces and other undesirable sand projections.

(b) Brushing: Brushing involves removing of loose sand with the help of smooth wire

brush.

(c) Coating:Cores made in two or three piece required joining before use. This may be

achieved by pasting (in case of small work) or by bolting (in case of large work). Core

pasting uses a mixture of talc, dextrine, flour, molasses, water and other ingredients, at

the surfaces to be joined.

(d) Muddling: Muddling involves localized coating of graphite or red talc to fill up any
cavity, rough spots, joining lines of assembled cores, etc.

33
STEP 7: SIZING OF CORES

Sizing of core involves to checking and correcting the various dimensions by inserting

fixture. Oversized cores may be ground to correct size.

STEP 8: JOINING OF CORES: Cores made in two or three piece required joining
before use. This may be achieved by pasting (in case of small work) or by bolting (in case
of large work). Core pasting uses a mixture of talc, dextrin, flour, molasses, water and
other ingredients, at the surfaces to be joined.

34
 EXPERIMENT-4

CASTING DEFECTS

AIM: Defects in casting , causes and control of defects.

INTRODUCTION:

Casting is an ancient metal heating process in the years of 3500B.C. It is the process of
melting a metal into molten state and allow them to solidify in an atmospheric condition.
Sand casting process is expressed over 90% in casting production of parts. It is also
called sand molded casting and it is mainly characterized by using sand as mold material.
India has now emerged as the third largest casting producer (9.34 million tons) only after
China (42.5 million tons) and USA (12.8 million tons). Of the various casting processes
sand casting accounts for 90% of total casting production. Globally, 46% of iron castings
produced are in gray iron, compared to 25%produced in ductile iron. Gray iron (the
calculation includes malleable iron) continues to be the largest contributing material to
global production, at 46 million of the 100.8- million-ton total. (MCS,2013) Of the
various casting processes sand casting accounts for 90% of total casting production. Even
though casting is a well established casting process still defects in typical casting ranges
from 5-10%.These defects require careful selection of process parameters and slight
variations in these parameters can cause increase in these defects. Casting defects may be
defined as the irregularity or imperfection in the sand casting products. Defects in casting
must be corrected or replaced according to their tolerances, imperfections and
discontinuity.

MELTING PROCEDURE FOR ALLUMINIUM ALLOYS:-

The charge materials, chemicals should be free from moisture, oil, and corrosion powder
and should be preheated before charging. The calculation of charge should be done
considering the melting loss of each element in the melting furnace for final desired
analysis.
1. The furnace crucible should be clean and red hot for charging.

35
2. Aluminium alloys get readily oxidized and form dross, using proper covering top with
flux and chemicals help to reduce this. Different proprietary chemicals are available for
different alloys.
3. Melting should be done under steady conditions without agitation. Stirring is done to
reduce gas pickup.
4. Once melting is complete, degassing using solid chemicals like hexa chloro-ethane
which evolves chlorine by purging with nitrogen or argon gas is done to remove the
dissolved hydrogen. Hydrogen is evolved from moisture.
3H2O+2Al→Al2O3+6H
Hydrogen absorbed by liquid metal causes serious porosity in casting during
solidification.Degassing should be done in the temperature range 7300 C to 7500 C
5. Liquid metal after degassing is treated with sodium containing chemicals to improve
mechanical properties.
6. Liquid metal once ready should not be super heated. Agitated or kept long in the
furnace which will cause dressing and gas pickup. Dross should be skimmed properly
before pouring.
7. Alloys containing magnesium should be melting carefully as it is highly reacting.
Special fluxes and chemicals like sulphur are used to inhibit the reactivity and prevent
spontaneous ignition, melting loss and dross.
POURING OF MOLTEN METAL:
Molten metal from the smelting furnace is usually poured into a ladle, from which the
metal is then poured from the lip at thetop of the ladle when the ladle is of small capacity.
When the ladle is larger, the metal is poured through a refractory nozzle atthe bottom of
the ladle.

Fig. pouring of molten metal

36
FETTLING: Fettling is the means by which a crude casting is turned into a cost
effective quality component that meets all the standards required by the customer. In
context with the casting process ,fettling means the removal of unwanted metal, e.g.
flashings, risers etc.

MOST COMMON DEFECTS FOUND IN FOUNDRY :

The common casting defects are as follows: ineffective mould filling, porosity, shrinkage,
cold shuts, hard spots, die soldering and deformation with porosities and cold shuts being
the most common. The causes of casting defect can be summarized as follows:

1. The shape and design of the casting.

2. Performance and parameters of the die cast machine.
3. Feed system design .
4. Operation of die cast machine.

There are many casting defects found in the foundries according to their sources of
casting methods. It may be classified into shape, filling, thermal and appearance. The
most common defects in foundry are:

1. Filling related defects

• Blowhole
• Sand dropping
• Cold shut
2. Metallurgical defect
• Sand fusion
3. Thermal related defect
• Hot tear or cracks

1.FILLING RELATED DEFECTS: These defects can be mainly occurring in the

melting section of foundries by various reasons.

37
i.BLOW HOLES: It is a cavity defect, will be prevalent cause casting scrap. It can be
smooth walled cavities, essentially spherical, and not contacting the external casting
surface. There are two types of blowhole are pinhole and subsurface blow holes. Pin hole
is seen to be tiny hole and subsurface blow hole is seen after machining. Gases will be
entrapped from the solidifying metal on the casting surface, which examined as a oval or
rounded blow holes cavities. Surface blows or inter granular cavities appear in cope of
the mould.Pinholesresult when the hydrogen present in liquid metal evolves due to less
solubility during solidification resulting in triangular appearances, prevalent mostly in
thinner castings which are revealed after machining.

Causes of blow holes:

• Lack of core venting

• Sudden release of gases from the core
• Sudden moisture absorption by the cores
• Permeability of low gas in sand cores

Control measurement for blow holes:

• Provide core vent channels and improvement in core vents

• Free dressing of core prints should be ensured
• Slow reacting binder can be used
• Use coarser sand to improve quantity of sand

ii.SAND DROPPING: Metal penetration and chemical drop on are including the sand
dropping. It may occurring in the section of sand shop, a greater extent in the thick walled
casting at high temperatures. Sintering of betonies and silicate components can be caused
by high temperature of the sand.

Causes of sand dropping:

• Too low of lustrous carbon content

• Too high proportion of low melting point substances

38
 • Mold compaction gating and pouring practice is uneven
• Distribution of inflowing metal with required heating is uneven
• Too high of liquid metal temperature

Control measurement for sand dropping:

• Lustrous carbon producer should be increased

• Pouring rate should be reduced
• Metal flow incoming would be even out
• Amount of coke increases which results in the positive separation between
mould and metal
• Use pure silica sand or new sand reduce dust content

iii.COLD SHUT: It is also called cold lap, a crack with round edges. It occurs because of
poor gating system and low melting point temperature. When two metal streams do not
fuse properly is denoted as cold shut or lap.

Causes of cold shut:

• Molten metal has lack of fluidity

• Design is faulting
• Gating is faulting

Control measurement for cold shut:

• Proper pouring temperature is maintained

• Design should be modified
• Gating should be modified.

2. METALLURGICAL DEFECT: This defect consists of internal stresses, improper

alloy composition, melting temperature and mechanical properties.

i.SAND FUSION: It is a surface defect having a rough glassy appearance due to sand
fused to the surface of given casting. This defect is commonly confused with penetration.

39
Causes of sand fusion:

• Lack of refractoriness of sand

• Too high molten metal temperature
• Faulting gating system
• Poor facing sand
• Too low of fusing point
• Insufficient coating

Control measurement for sand fusion:

• High refractoriness
• Improvement in gating system
• Adequate control over pouring temperature of molten metal
• Choice of bentonite mixture should be properly used

3.THERMAL DEFECT: This defect has a thermal expansion and heat occurrence could
be analyzed in the casting of a metal products.

i.HOT TEAR OR CRACKS: It appears only in die casting metal products .some of the
tears or cracks could be obvious and may be visible to see in a naked eye. Others will be
seen by magnification. It appears to be due to pressure of thermal stress in the thermal
origin, incorrect heat removal rates and improper interaction fluids.

Causes of hot tear or cracks:

• Lack of adequate fillets

• Lack of sufficient feeders to promote more uniform cooling
• Particular area may be more stress localized
• Thermal concentration is high
• Injection forces is excessive
• Die section have insufficient draft
• Die casting have shrinkages

40
Control measurements for hot tear or cracks:

• Casting should be proper designed

• Use of chillers in casting area
• Create round off corners and avoid sharp corners
• By adding saw or cold dust will reduce die strength

Fig.1 Casting Defects

CONCLUSION :The above casting defects are mostly occurred in foundry, that we are
analyzing their causes and provide control measurements are suggested. This paper will
highly useful for producing good quality of casting products and reduce their casting
defects. Foundry professionals have a chance of improving the yield of casting.

41
 EXPERIMENT-5

BLOW MOULDING

AIM: To prepare a bottle of 200ml using blow moulding machine.

EQUIPMENT: Blow moulding machine.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Low grade poly ethylene.

Fig.1 Blow moulding

THEORY:

Working Principle:

The process is applied to only thermo plastics, which are used for producing hollow
objects such as bottle, and flow table objects by applying air pressure to the sheet
material when it is in heated and in soft pliable condition. Blow moulding can be
accomplished in two manners; one is direct blow moulding and other indirect blow

42
moulding. In the former case, a measured amount of material in the form of tube is either
injected or extruded in a split cavity die. The split mould is closed around the tube,
sealing off the lower end. The air under pressure is blown into the tube, which causes the
tube to expand to the walls of cavity. In the latter case, a uniformly softened sheet
material by heat is clamped at the edges between the die and cover, which causes the
sheet to attain a hemispherical shape or the configuration of mould whatever it may be
parts obtained by indirect blow moulding have excellent appearance but they are more
costly as only to percent of the sheet stock is utilized and also there is a tendency for
excessive thinning of sheet at the deepest point.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the die in position. Adjust the guide rod nuts to suit die height. Align the tapered
face of the die for sealing the parison while blowing also checks for the face opening and
closing of the die.

2. Ensure minimum die height is 80mm. provide spacing plates if necessary.

3. Set the injection, release and blow pressure by rotating (clockwise) the regulator knob
to suit the requirement of moulding the container.

4. Feed correct quantity & quality of plastic material and switch on the power supply.

5. Switch on the heater.

6. Set the required timings controller to control the bottom heater.

7. Allow sufficient time to stabilizer.

8. When temperature reached, operate the hand lever valve.

9. Extrude the parison (Tubular form) to the required length and close the two die halves.
Release the injection cylinder.

10. Operate the hand lever valve and blow the air so that the parison to form the shape of
the container as designed in the die.

43
11. Allow the component to cool.

12. Open the die & take the product out of the die.

13. Now the machine is ready for nest cycle.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Send hot pressurized air with in the range.

2. Care about die 3.Care about parsion.

RESULT:

Required product is made using blow moulding process

44
WELDING

45
 EXPERIMENT-6

STUDY OF THE WELDING EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS RELATED

TO ARC, GAS, RESISTANCE WELDING

INTRODUCTION:

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It

joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The
heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or
by chemical reaction.

Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the
components. It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of
the critical components. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing
process in industries. Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication
of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes,

sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives,etc.

46
Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term
‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability may be defined as property of a metal which
indicates the ease with which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals.

LAP WELD JOINT

(a) Single-LapJoint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended for most
work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily
for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.

(b) Double-Lap Joint

This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it requires
twice as much welding.

BUTT WELDJOINT

(a) Single-V ButtWeld

It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.

47
(b)Double-V ButtWeld
It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on
both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom
angle is 80°, depending on the technique beingused.

WELDING POSITIONS:

There are four types of welding positions, which are given as:

a. Flat or down handposition

b. Horizontal position
c. Vertical position
d. Overhead position

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is
performed from the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.

Horizontal Welding Position

In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the

deposited weld head is horizontal. This position of welding is most
commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

48
 Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is
deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory
welds in this position due to the effect of the force of gravity on the
molten metal.

Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the
vertical position. Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much
greater.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or between
two electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic
principle of arc welding is shown in Figure. However the basic elements involved in arc
welding process are shown in Figure. Most of these processes use some shielding gas

49
while others employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool fromthe surrounding
temperature.

Fig. Basic principle of arc welding

Fig :The basic elements of arc welding

1. Switch box
2. Secondaryterminals
3. Weldingmachine.
4. Current readingscale.
5. Current regulating hand wheel.
6. Leatherapron.
7. Asbestos handgloves.

50
8 .Protective glassesstrap
9. Electrodeholder.
10. Handshield
11 .Channel for cable protection.
12 Weldingcable.
13 .Chippinghammer.
14 .Wire brush.
15. Earthclamp.
16. Welding table (metallic).
17. Job.

ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure.
However some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few
of the important components of arc welding setup are described as under.

Arc welding powersource

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding,
each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from
generators driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion
engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-
welding where mains electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual
supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts).
The following factors influence the selection of a power source:

a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to bewelded

b. Available power source (AC orDC)
c. Requiredoutput
d. Dutycycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and runningcosts

51
 g. Available floorspace
h. Versatility ofequipment
Welding cables:

Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminum cables.

Electrodeholder:

Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it.
These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage
output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to
500 Amps.

Fig :Electrode holder

52
WeldingElectrodes

An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An

arc is set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into
following types-

(i) ConsumableElectrodes
(a) BareElectrodes
(b) CoatedElectrodes
(ii) Non-consumableElectrodes
(a) Carbon or GraphiteElectrodes
(b) TungstenElectrodes

Fig :Parts of a electrode

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this
electrode starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus
consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or
alloy wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which
starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs
many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc
stabilizersetc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon,
pure tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding.
But practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time,
because of oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The
materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite,

53
pure tungsten, thoriated or zirconiated tungsten

DESIGNATION OF ELECTRODE:

HandScreen:

Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.

Chippinghammer:

It is used to remove the slag by striking.

Wire brush:

Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

54
GAS WELDING
Gas welding involves the use of a gas-fed flame torch to heat the metal work piece and
the filler material to create a weld. Commonly used gas is acetylene.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-acetylene welding uses a mixture of acetylene gas and oxygen gas to feed the
welding torch. Oxy-acetylene welding is the most commonly used gas welding technique.
This gas mixture also provides the highest flame temperature of available fuel gases,
however acetylene is generally the most expensive of all fuel gases. Acetylene is an
unstable gas and requires specific handling and storage procedures.

Oxy-Gasoline Welding

Pressurized gasoline is used as a welding fuel where fabrication costs are an issue,
particularly in locations where acetylene canisters are not available. Gasoline torches can
be more effective than acetylene for torch-cutting thick steel plates. The gasoline can be
hand-pumped from a pressure cylinder, a common practice by jewellery makers in
impoverished areas.

APP Gas Welding

Methyl acetylene-propadiene-petroleum (MAPP) is a gas mixture that is much more

inert than other gas mixtures, making it safer for hobbyists and recreational welders to
use and store. MAPP can also be used at very high pressures, allowing it to be used in
high-volume cutting operations.

Butane/Propane Welding

Butane and propane are similar gases that can be used alone as fuel gases or mixed
together. Butane and propane have a lower flame temperature than acetylene, but are less
expensive and easier to transport. Propane torches are more frequently used for soldering,
bending and heating. Propane requires a different type of torch tip to be used than an
injector tip because it is a heavier gas.

55
Hydrogen Welding

Hydrogen can be used at higher pressures than other fuel gases, making it especially
useful for underwater welding processes. Some hydrogen welding equipment works off
electrolysis by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen to be used in the welding
process. This type of electrolysis is often used for small torches, such as those used in
jewellery making processes.

Blow pipe:A blow pipe is also called as gas torch is a piece of equipment in which gases
are mixed and at the top of which the gases are burnt.

Precautions in handling blow-pipe

• Do not scrap the point of the tip on an abrasive

• If the orifice of the tip is clogged, clean it with a soft brush or copper wire
• Do not lay the blow pipe if it is burning.
• Do not oil or grease any part of the blowpipe.
• Do not use pliers on the valves. Close them firmly with fingers

What purpose is served by pressure regulator?

Pressure regulators are valves that automatically cut off the flow of a gas or liquid when
it is at a certain pressure. Regulators are also used to allow high-pressure fluid supply
tanks or lines to be reduced to a usable and safe pressure for different applications.
Pressure regulators are found in many common home and industrial applications,
including heating furnaces, gas grills and even medical and dental equipment.

GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS:

1.Oxygen and acetylene cylinders2.Oxygen and acetylene pressure regulator3. Oxygen

and acetylene hosess4.Welding torch or blow Pipes with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
5.Trolly for the Transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders 6.A set for keys and
spanners 7.Filler rods and fluxes 8.Protective clothing for the welder i.e., Apron, gloves,
goggles etc.

56
Cylinders:

Oxygen is pressurized in tanks at approximately 2220 pounds per square inch (PSI).
Oxygen tanks have a valve and are always covered by a safety cap (by which you should
never lift the tank). Oxygen tanks include a safety value to relieve pressure, should the
tank become over heated. Always store and transport oxygen tanks upright.

Acetylene is an extremely unstable gas, and cannot be pressurized above 15 psi.

Therefore, to pressurize acetylene to 225 psi (the pressure required to bottle the gas), a
tank is filled with porous materials to stabilize the gas, and the acetone absorbs the gas.
Acetylene tanks include fusible plugs that will melt in case of fire, allowing the gas to
escape slowly, avoiding an explosion. Always store and transport acetylene tanks upright,
if you use a tank in tilted position, you will destroy the regulator and hoses you connect
to the tank.

RESISTANCE WELDING:
Resistance welding is a welding technology widely used in manufacturing industry for
joining metal sheets and components. The weld is made by conducting a strong current
through the metal combination to heat up and finally melt the metals at localized point(s)
predetermined by the design of the electrodes and/or the workpieces to be welded. A
force is always applied before, during and after the application of current to confine the
contact area at the weld interfaces and, in some applications, to forge the workpieces.

Depending on the shape of the workpieces and the form of the electrodes, resistance
welding processes can be classified into several variants among which the most
commonly used are spot welding, projection welding, seam welding and butt welding.
More details are described below:
Resistance spot welding:
It is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets by directly applying opposing
forces with electrodes with pointed tips. The current and the heat generation are localized
by the form of the electrodes. The weld nugget size is usually defined by the electrode tip
contact area.

57
Spot welding is the predominant joining process in automotive industry for assembling
the automobile bodies and large components. It is also widely used for manufacturing of
furniture and domestic equipment etc.

Resistance Projection Welding:

Projection welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal components or sheets
with embossments by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes specially
designed to fit the shapes of the workpieces. The current and the heat generation are
localized by the shape of the workpieces either with their natural shape or with specially
designed projection. Large deformation or collapse will occur in the projection part of the
workpieces implying high process/machine dynamics.

Projection welding is widely used in electrical, electronics, automotive and construction

industries, and manufacturing of sensors, valves and pumps etc.

Resistance Seam Welding:

Seam welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets in continuous,
often leak tight, seam joints by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes

58
consisting of rotary wheels. The current and the heat generation are localized by the
peripheral shapes of the electrode wheels.

Seam welding is mostly applied in manufacturing of containers, radiators and heat

exchangers etc.

Resistance Butt Welding:

Butt welding is a resistance welding process for joining thick metal plates or bars at the
ends by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes clamping the workpieces. A
forging operation is applied after the workpieces are heated up. Often no melt occurs,
thus a solid state weld can be obtained.

Butt welding is applied in manufacturing of wheel rims, wire joints and railway track
joints etc.

59
 EXPERIMENT-7

PRACTICE ON ARC, RESISTANCE SPOT, RESISTANCE BUTT AND GAS

WELDING

ARC WELDING (T-JOINT)

AIM:

To obtain a T-joint from the mild steel plates of given dimensions by AC arc welding and
to observe the welding defects.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIEL REQUIRED:

A.C. welding Machine, electrode, electrode holder, Bench vice, M.S. plates of 100 X 35
X 5 mm (2 Nos).

TOOLS REQUIRED:

Hack saw, chipping hammer, wire brush, safety goggles, hand gloves, face shield, files,
flat bit range tongs and Rough and smooth files.

THEORY:

Principle of Arc: An arc is generated between two conductors of electricity, cathode and
anode, when they are touched to establish the flow of current and then separated by a
small distance. An arc is a sustained electric discharge through the ionized gas column
called plasma between the two electrodes. Electrons liberated from the cathode move
towards the anode at high velocity, large amount of heat is generated. In order to produce
the arc the potential difference between the two electrodes should be sufficient to allow
them to move across the air gap. The larger air gap requires higher potential differences.
If the air gap becomes to large for the voltage the arc may be extinguished.

Selection of Electrodes: The electrodes for welding operation should be selected

properly depending on the requirements of the welding. The main points to be considered
are:

1. The composition of the base metal which determines the electrode composition.

60
2. The tensile strength of the required joint.

3. The thickness of the base metal. For thinner metals the current setting should be lower.

4. The required metal deposition rate.

5. The type of the arc welding equipment used.

6. The weld position (flat, horizontal, vertical, overhead). A flat position can
accommodate

large size electrode.

The electrodes are marked with six digit numeral associated by a prefix, and suffix. The

meaning of these and various values it can take is shown in the figure.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT:

A.C. Arc welding setup using the transformer is shown in the figure. The work piece is
kept on a metallic table to which the ground Iead of the secondary windings of the
welding transformer is connected. The other lead of the secondary is connected to an
electrode holder into which the electrode is gripped. When the electrode is brought into
the contact with the work the welding takes place. The maximum rated open-circuit
voltage which is the voltage between the output terminals when no welding is being
done. It is normally fixed at about 80 volts. This is the maximum normally a voltage of
the order of the 40 to 50 volts is enough to starting an arc, whereas for. continuous
welding 20 to 30 V is sufficient. The minimum welding load voltage can be calculated as,

V m = 20 + 0.04 I

Where I = load current in amperes.

The duty cycle as defined by American Welding Society (AWS) is “The percentage of
time in a 10 minute period that a welding machine can be used at its rated output without
overloading”. Most of the welding machines need not to have to operate the full time,
since a good length of time is spent in setting up, metal chipping, cleaning and inspection.

61
PROCEDURE:

1. File the pieces thoroughly using rasp file such that rust, scale and other foreign
material are cleaned off.

2. The pieces are positioned such that they form a T-joint.

3. Select the electrode size and current settings according to the work piece
thickness from the table.

4. Using a face shield, the arc is struck by momentarily touching the electrode with
the work piece and taking the electrode a pre determined distance away from the
work piece.

5. Tack welds are done at the ends of the joint

6. Again arc is struck, and the electrode is kept at 15-20o from vertical and welding
is progressed along the joint at a constant speed.

7. Maintain the constant arc gap by lowering the electrode at the same rate at which
it is melting.

8. After welding, welded T-joint is held in tongs and quenched.

9. Chip off the slag formed during welding.

10. Brush off the slag particles using wire brush.

DIAGRAM:

Fig. Welded T-Joint

62
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Edge preparation should be done very carefully.

2. Before welding ensure that the surfaces are extremely clean.

3. While welding always use face shield or goggles.

RESULT:

The welding defects observed are as follows:

63
 ARC WELDING (V-JOINT)

AIM: To obtain a V-joint from the mild steel plates of given dimensions by AC arc
welding and to observe the welding defects.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIEL REQUIRED:

A.C. welding Machine, electrode, electrode holder, Bench vice, M.S. plates of 100 X 35
X 5 mm (2 Nos).

TOOLS REQUIRED:

Hack saw, chipping hammer, wire brush, safety goggles, hand gloves, face shield, files,
flat bit range tongs and Rough and smooth files.

PROCEDURE:

1. File the pieces thoroughly using rasp file such that rust, scale and other foreign
material are cleaned off.

2. The pieces are positioned such that they form a V-joint.

3. Select the electrode size and current settings according to the work piece
thickness from the table.

4. Using a face shield, the arc is struck by momentarily touching the electrode with
the work piece and taking the electrode a pre determined distance away from the
work piece.

5. Tack welds are done at the ends of the joint

6. Again arc is struck, and the electrode is kept at 15-20o from vertical and welding
is progressed along the joint at a constant speed.

7. Maintain the constant arc gap by lowering the electrode at the same rate at which
it is melting.

8. After welding, welded V-joint is held in tongs and quenched.

64
 9. Chip off the slag formed during welding.

10. Brush off the slag particles using wire brush.

DIAGRAM:

Fig. Welded V-joint

Fig . Sectional view of representation of the arc welding setup

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Edge preparation should be done very carefully.

2. Before welding ensure that the surfaces are extremely clean.

3. While welding always use face shield or goggles.

RESULT: The welding defects observed are as follows:

65
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

AIM:To obtain lap joint by using Resistance spot welding.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIEL REQUIREID:

Spot welding machine (Main supply 400 V. 3 phase. 50 cycles, Fuse rating 25 A, water
cooled), M.S sheets of 150 X 50 X 1 mm (2 Nos.)

TOOLS REQUIRED:Wire brush, hand gloves.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT:

Figure shows spot welding setup. It is a thermal pressure welding process in which the
work pieces to be welded are forced together by applying compressive load and Current
is passed through the contact area.

In the welding at low voltage (100 V) very high current (15000 A) is passed through the
joint for a very short time (25 sec). This high amperage heats the joint due to the contact
resistance at the joint. The pressure on the joint is continuously maintained and the metal
welds together under this pressure. The heat generated in the resistance welding can be
expressed as,

H= k I2 R t

Where H = the total heat generated in the work, J

I= Electric Current, A

t = time for which the electric current is passing through the joint, seconds.

R = The resistance of the joint, ohms.

K = a constant to account for the heat losses from the welded joint.

The main requirement of the process is the low voltage and high current power supply.
This is obtained by means of a step down transformer with a provision to have different
tapings on the primary side, as required depending on the thickness and properties of
work pieces to be weld. The secondary windings are connected to the electrodes which

66
are made up of copper which have less resistance The time of electric supply needs to be
closely controlled so that the heat released is just enough to make the joint and
subsequence fusion takes place by the force on the joint. The force required can be
provided either mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically.

Spot welding machine consists of two electrodes out of which one is fixed. The other
electrode is fixed to rocker arm for transmitting mechanical force from foot peddler.

A resistance welding consists of sequence of events that take place. These events are:

The Squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to align and clamp the two work
pieces together under them and provide necessary electrical contact.

The weld time is the time of the current flow through work pieces till they are heated to
the melting temperature of the work pieces to be welded.

The hold time is the time when the pressure is maintained on the molten metal without
the electric current. During this time the pieces are expected to be forge welded because
of the application of the pressure.

The off time is the time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken off so that
the sheets can be positioned for the next spot.

Fig . schematic of a resistance welding setup

67
PROCEDURE:

1. Two sheets of 150X10X1 mm3 are taken and cleaned from rust and dust by wire
brush

2. Two sheets are placed in lap position between the electrodes.

3. Then the foot peddler is pressed by foot and the force is transferred by the rocker
arm to the movable electrode.

4. After the application of force, the current is passed.

5. The force is maintained till the sheets are forge welded.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Proper pressure should be applied.

2. Overlapping of sheets should be done properly.

RESULT:

The required spot welded lap joint is obtained and weld cycle graph is drawn.

68
 RESISTANCE (UPSET) BUTT WELDING

AIM:To obtain a butt joint by using resistance upset butt welding.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIEL REQUIREID:

Butt welding machine and MS rods of 5mm dia.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Safety goggles/ face shield, hand gloves and Rough and smooth
files.

EQUIPMENT USED:

• A butt welder consists of a couple of clamps suitably mounted on a horizontal

slide, one being fixed rigidly and the other movable (Fig). Both clamps are made
of conducting material (Cu-alloy) and are connected to the secondary of a
transformer.
• A step down transformer provides the electrical current for heating. Control of
secondary current is achieved by transformer tap switches or electronic phase
shift devices.
• Each butt-welding machine has an activating device to Start the welding process
such as a foot pedal or clamp release lever.
• Pressure for butt-welding is obtained by mechanical spring, pneumatic or
hydraulic systems.

Fig.a)Welding system b) Finished weld joint

69
THEORY:

Definition and Concept: Upset butt welding is a resistance welding process wherein
coalescence is produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces by the
heat obtained from the resistance to electric current flow through the area of contact of
those surfaces. Pressure is applied before heating is started and is maintained the heating
period. Throughout the heating period. This pressure or force is later on increased to give
a forging squeeze when the welding temperature has been reached. When sufficient upset
has been produced, the welding current is cut off and the force is removed.
Applications of Butt Welding :
(I) For welding of small ferrous and non-ferrous strips and rods.
(ii) For welding of longitudinal butt joints in tubing and pipe and transverse butt joints in
heavy steel rings.
(iii) To Wire drawing industries, where wire drawing would be impossible without the
upset butt welding process.
Butt welding has been largely replaced by flash welding.

Metals Welded: The following materials are butt welded in wire, bar ( upto 30mm dia )
strip or tube form
(i) Copper alloys (ii) Low and high carbon steels (iii) Stainless steels, (iv) A1uminium,
(v) Nickel alloys, (vi) Resistance alloys.

PROCEDURE:

The steps involved in making a Resistance upset butt weld are given below :
(i) The two pieces to be butt welded are gripped firmly, one in each clamp and are
Correctly aligned so that when brought into contact with the other by sliding the movable
clamp to the fixed one, they fit together exactly (Fig).
(ii) Force is applied so that the faces of two pieces touch together and remain under
pressure.
(iii) A heavy current is then passed from one piece to another. The resistance to the
electrical current flow heats the faces to fusion temperature.
(iv) Both pressure and current are applied throughout the weld cycle and when the

70
 faces (or ends) of the pieces become pIastic. They are pressed together more firmly,
upsetting the metal pieces to form a dense joint (Fig).Upsetting takes place while the
current is flowing and continues until after the current is shut off. The upsetting
action mixes the two metals homogeneously and pushes out many of the impurities
of the atmosphere.
(v) The welding current is cut off.
(vi)Upsetting force is released as the weIded joint has cooled to the desired
temperature.
(vii) Work pieces are unclamped.

GRAPHS:

Fig.a)single phase AC b)DC

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Proper pressure should be applied.

2. Work material should be cleaned properly.

RESULT:

The required butt joint is obtained by using resistance (upset) butt welding.

71
GAS WELDING:

Gas Welding or Oxy-fuel gas welding is a general term used to describe any welding
process that uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. The most
commonly used fuel is acetylene (C2H2) gas. The heat source is the flame obtained by
combustion of oxygen and acetylene. When mixed together in correct proportions
within a hand-held torch or blowpipe, a relatively hot flame is produced with a
temperature of about 3300ºC (6000ºF). The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame
can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen toacetylene.
The combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2 H2) is a two-stage reaction. Chemical
reactions are as follows:-
Stage 1: In the first stage, the supplied oxygen and acetylene react to produce Carbon
Monoxide and Hydrogen. Approximately one-third of the total welding heat is
generated in this stage.
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + heat

Stage 2: The second stage of the reaction involves the combustion of the CO and H2.
The remaining two-third of the heat is generated in Stage 2. The specific reactions of the
second stage are:
2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + heat
H2 + ½ O2 = H2O + heat

Fig: Gas Welding (Oxygen–fuel gas) process

72
TYPES OF FLAMES:

Three different types of flames can be obtained by varying the oxygen–acetylene

(or oxygen– fuel gas)ratio.

Neutral Flame: When the ratio of

oxygen-acetylene (or oxygen–fuel gas)
is between 1:1 and 1.15:1, all reactions
are carried to completion and a neutral
flame is produced. As the supply of
oxygen to the blowpipe is increased, the
flame contracts and the white cone
become clearly defined, assuming a
definite rounded shape. This type of
flame is the one most extensively used
by the welder, who should make himself
thoroughly familiar with its appearance
and characteristics.

Oxidizing flame: A higher ratio of

oxygen-acetylene (or oxygen–fuel gas),
such as 1.5:1, produces an oxidizing
flame, which is hotter than the neutral
flame (about 3600°C or 6000°F). With
the increase in oxygen supply, the inner
cone will become shorter and sharper,
the flame will turn a deeper purple color
and emit a characteristic slight "hiss".
An oxidizing flame is only used for
specialapplications.

73
Carburizing flame: Excess fuel compared to oxygen produces a carburizing flame. The
excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen, and the flame
temperatureisnotasgreat(about3050°Cor5500°F).

This type of flame is mainly used for hard surfacing and should not be employed for
welding steelasunconsumedcarbonmaybeintroducedintothe weld and produce a hard,
brittle, deposit.

GAS WELDING/CUTTING EQUIPMENT:

The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen source and a fuel gas
source, regulators, hoses, non-return valve, check valve and torches.
Regulator: The regulator is used to control pressure from the tanks by
regulating pressure and flow rate of gas. It releases the gas at a constant rate
from the
cylinder despite the pressure in the cylinder
becoming less as the gas in the cylinder is
used.
Hoses: The hose is usually a double-hose
design i.e. there are two hose joined together.
The oxygen hose is green and the fuel hose is
red.
Non-return valve: Between the regulator
and hose and ideally between hose and torch
on both oxygen and fuel lines, a non-return
valve and/or flashback arrestor should be
installed to prevent flame/oxygen-fuel
mixture being pushed back into either
cylinder and damaging the equipment.

74
Check valve: A check valve lets gas flow inone direction only. Not to be confused with
flashback arrestor, a check valve is not designed to block a shockwave. A check valve is
usually a chamber containing ball that is pressed against on end by a spring. Gas flow in a
particular direction pushes the ball out of the way while no flow or flow on the other way
lets the spring push the ball into the inlet thus blockingit.

Torches: The torch is the part that the welder holds and manipulates to make the
weld. It has a connection and valve for Oxygen and also a connection and valve
for Fuel, a handle for grasp, a mixing chamber for mixing of the fuel and oxygen,
a tip where the flame forms. A welding torch head is used to weld metals and can
be identified by having only two pipes running to the nozzle and no oxygen blast
trigger. A cutting torch head is used to cut metals and can be identified by having

three pipes that go to an around 900 nozzle and also by oxygen-blast trigger that
provides oxygen to blast away material whilecutting.

75
 EXPERIMENT-8

A) STUDY OF ELECTRODE CHARACTERISTICS OF

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

ELECTRODE SIZE:

Electrode size affects the weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at fixed current.
Electrode size also influences the deposition rate. At any given current, a small diameter
electrode will have a higher current density and a higher deposition rate than 107 a larger
electrode. However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller
electrode, and produce a higher deposition rate at higher amperage. For the same values
of current, arc voltage and welding speed, an increase in electrode diameter results in a
slight increase in the spread of the bead.

Weld position Metal thickness Electrode diameter Root Electrode

(mm) (mm) diameter (mm)

All 3 to 6 3.2
6 4 -
9 6 4
Down hand 12 8 4
12 6 5
16 8 5
16 6 5
20 to 25 9 5

Vertical 6 3.2 -
8 to 12 4 3.2
16 to 20 5 4
25 5 5

Horizontal
6 to 9 4 3.2
12 to 20 6 4
25 6 5

76
ELECTRODE WORK ANGLE:

The electrode may be held perpendicular to the workpiece or, tilted forward or backward
with respect to the weld pool. As the arc stream tends to align itself along the axis of the
electrode, the weld pool shape is different in each case, and so is the shape of the weld
bead. It is observed that in forehand welding, molten metal flows under the arc, the depth
of penetration and reinforcement are reduced while the width of the weld increases,
whereas in backhand welding the pressure of the arc scoops the molten metal from
beneath the arc, the depth of penetration and height of reinforcement increases while the
width of the weld is reduced. The electrode in perpendicular position results in bead
geometry in between those obtained in the above two cases.

ELECTRODE STICK-OUT AND MELTING RATE:

The distance between the current pick-up tip and the arc root, called electrode stick out,
has a considerable effect on the weld bead geometry. Normally the distance between the
contact tip and the work is 25-40 mm. 108 The increase in melting rate of the electrode as
a result of increase in electrode stickout is proportionate to the product of current density
and stick-out. The electrode melting rate in kg/min is given by the relationship, Electrode
melting rate = 1 1000 0.35 + d 2 645 + 2.08 × 10−7 × IL × 25.4 d 2 1.22 (5.1) Where d, L
and I are the diameter of the electrode, electrode stick-out in mm and current density
respectively. The melting rate of the electrode increased with the increase in the stick out.
This effect is particularly more significant with smaller diameter electrode since electrode
heating is caused by the electrode electric resistance, which increases with the decrease in
the electrode diameter. The depth of penetration decreases with the increase in electrode
stick-out. This factor needs to be given due consideration where deeper penetration is
required. The heat affected zone decreased with the increase in stick- out. A mutual
influence of the arcs was quite strong and consequently melting rate was high in twin-
wire welding. He further reported that arc energy melted more filler material per wire in
twin-wire welding than in single-wire welding and with the same welding parameters,
this required higher wire feed speed in twin-wire welding.

77
 Table. AWS electrode classification system

Last digit Power supply Arc action Type of flux Penetration

characteristics
0 10,dc+; Digging 10,organic; 10,deep
20,ac; 20,mineral 20,medium
Or dc
1 Ac or dc+ Digging Organic Deep
2 Ac or dc medium ductile medium
3 Ac or dc soft ductile light
4 Ac or dc Soft Ductile light
5 Dc+ medium Low hydrogen medium
6 Ac or dc+ medium Low hydrogen medium
7 Ac or dc Soft mineral medium
8 Ac or dc+ medium Low hydrogen medium
*E=electrode. First set of digits (xxx or xx) = tensile strength*1000 psi.next to last
digit:1=all positions; 2= flat and horizontal position; 3= flat positions only

B)STUDY OF ARC LENGTH AND WELDING SPEED ON BEAD

CHARACTERISTICS

ARC LENGTH

Every commercial welder will tell you that the arc length, also called arc gap, is the
distance between the part that has to be welded and the electrode tip. The arc length
depends on the arc stability, the weld current and the concentricity of the part. The task of
the commercial welder here is to keep the electrode at a certain distance from the surface
so that there is enough place to avoid stubbing out. In general, the arc length is 0.10 inch
and this measurement is taken as a base. One half of the weld penetration is combined
with the base measurement and this results in the arc length for a certain amperage.

78
Fig a)Drag or contact Fig b)standoff

WELDING SPEED:

Welding speed is the linear rate at which an arc is moved along the weld joint. With any
combination of welding voltage and welding current, the effect of changing 106 the
welding speed confirms to a general pattern. If the welding speed is increased, power or
heat input per unit length of weld is decreased and less filler metal is applied per unit
length of the weld, resulting in less weld reinforcement. Thus, the weld bead becomes
smaller. Weld penetration is affected more by welding speed than any variable other than
current. This is true except for excessively slow speeds when the molten weld pool is
beneath the welding electrode. Then the penetrating force of the arc is cushioned by the
molten pool. Excessive speed any cause undercutting, porosity, arc blow, uneven bead
shape, cracking and higher slag inclusion in the weld metal. Higher welding speed results
in less heat affected zone and finer grains. Within limits, welding speed can be adjusted
to control weld size and penetration. Relatively slow welding speed provides time for
gases to escape from the molten metal, thus reducing porosity. An excessive slow speed
produces a convex bead shape which is subject to cracking and excessive arc exposure
which is uncomfortable for the operator. Too low welding speed may also result in a
large molten pool that flows around the arc, resulting in rough bead, slag inclusions and
burn through of the weld plate. The welding speed did not affect the metal deposition rate
significantly.

79
C)STUDY OF WELDING CURRENT ON BEAD PENETRATION:

WELDING CURRENT:

Welding amperage Welding current is the most influential parameter because it affects
bead shape, controls the rate at which electrode is melted and therefore also controls the
deposition 104 rate, heat affected zone, the depth of penetration, and the amount of base
metal melted. Penetration and reinforcement increase with the increase in welding
current. If the current is too high at a given welding speed, the depth of fusion or
penetration will also be too high so that the resulting weld may tend to melt through the
metal being joined. High current also leads to waste of electrodes in the form of excessive
reinforcement and produces digging arc and undercut. This over welding increases weld
shrinkage and causes greater distortion. Bead width increases with welding current until a
critical value is reached and then starts decreasing if the polarity used is DCEP. When
DCEN polarity is employed bead width increases with the increase in current for entire
range. For the same flux, heat affected zone also increases with the increase in welding
current. If the current is too low, inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may result.
Too low current also leads to unstable arc, inadequate penetration and overlapping.

Fig.a) Current too low

b) Current correct

c) Current too high

80
 EXPERCISE NO: 9

DETERMINATION OF WELD CHARACTERISTICS USING DC AND AC

POWER SOURCES

AIM:To Study the effect of polarity on weld strength and effected heat affected zone in
arc welding.

EQUIPMENT & MATERIAL REQUIRED:

D.C welding machine (input supply voltage 230 V. single phase.50 hertz frequency.
maximum welding current 200 amps). Bench vice tensile testing machine, metallurgical
microscope. MS. Plates of 100X50X5 mm (2 NOS.)

TOOLS REQUIRED: Hack saw, chipping hammer, wire brush, safety goggles, hand
gloves, face shield, files.

WELDING TERMINOLOGY:

BLANKING: It is the material support provided at the root side of a weld to in the
control of penetration.

BASE METAL: to be metal added during a single pass of welding. The Bead appears as
a separate material from the base metal.

BEAD OR WELD BEAD: Bead is the metal added as a single pass of welding. The
bead appears as a separate material from the base metal.

CRATER: In arc welding, a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool at the point
where the arc strikes the base metal plate.

DEPOSITION RATE: The rate, at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time, is
the deposition rate and is normally expressed as Kg/h.

FILLET WELD: the metal fused into the corner of a joint made of two pieces placed at
approximately 900 to each other is termed fillet weld.

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PENETRATION: It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the metal as
measured from THE TOP SURFACE OF THE JOINT.

PUDDLE: the portion of these weld joint that by the heat of welding is called puddle.

ROOT: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joint by welding arc nearest.

TACK WELD: A small weld, generally used to temporally hold the two pieces together
during actual welding, is the tack weld.

WELD FACE: It is the exposed surface of the weld.

WELD METAL: The metal that is solidified in the joint is called weld metal. It may be
only base metal or a mixture of base metal and filler metal.

WELD PASS: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along of the joint
which results in a weld pass.

DESCRIPTION:

PRINCIPLE OF ARC:

An arc is generated between two conductors of electricity, cathode and anode

(considering direct current, DC), when they are touched to establish the flow of current
and then separated by a small distance. An arc a sustained electric discharge through the
ionized gas column called plasma between the two electrodes. Electrons liberated from
the cathode move towards the anode at the velocity, large amount of heat is generated. In
order to produce the arc the potential difference between the two electrodes the two
electrodes should be sufficient to allow them to move across the air gap. The larger air
gap required higher potential differences. If the air gap becomes to large for the voltage
the arc may be extinguished.

STRAIGHT AND REVERSE POLARITY: when more heat is required at the work
piece side for welding thicker sheets or for the work materials which have high thermal
conductivity such as aluminum and copper the work is made as anode liberating the large
heat near it. This is termed as straight polarity or DCEN. This gives rise to higher

82
penetration required in thick work pieces.However for the thinner materials where
required polarity or DCEP in revers polarity the penetration is small.

Fig a)DC (+ve ground) b)DC(-ve ground) c)AC

Fig straight polarity Fig. Reverse polarity

Selection of electrodes:

The electrodes for welding operation should be selected properly depending on the
required of the requirements of the welding. the main points to be considered are
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 1. The composition of the metal which determines the electrode composition.
2. The tensile strength of the required joint.
3. The thickness of the base metal. For thinner metals the current setting should be
lower. The required metal deposition rate. The type of the arc welding equipment
used.
4. The weld position (flat, horizontal, vertical, overhead). A flat position can
accommodate large size electrode.
5. The electrodes are marked with six digit numerical associated by a prefix, and
suffix. The meaning of the and various values it can take is shown in figure.

Fig. Tungsten electrode tips

HEAT AFFECTED ZONE:

A heat effected zone (HAZ) of a weld is the part of welded joint which has heated to
temperature up to the solidus of the parent material resulting in carrying degree of micro
structure as a consequent of heated and cooling cycle. When the metals and alloys
without polymorphous transformation (Cu, Ni and Al) are welded. The micro structure in
the HAZ remains unaltered through grain growth or recrystallization may takes place,
while in the metals and alloys with polymorphous transformation (steels) significant
microstructure changes takes place in HAZ that in turn influence the welded joint.

84
 Fig. Heat affected zone

PROCEDURE:

1. Given two MS plates are filed at an angle of 45 degrees at the surface to be

joined.
2. Groove is formed when we put two pieces together.
3. The electrode is to fixed in the electrode holder
4. The connections to be given such that electrode holder
5. The connections to be given such that electrode in negative and work piece is
positive.
6. Now welding is be done carefully for the half length of the plates.
7. The work piece is to be cut in to two half by power hack saw.
8. The beds are polished, etched with two percent nital solution and died under the
microscope whose magnification factor X 10 factor for heat effected zone.
9. By gripping the beads between the jaws of tensile machine and load is applied
until the work piece and reading is to be noted.
10. The same procedure is repeated for the remaining half which is welded by the
reversed polarity and the results are to be compared.

85
GRAPHS:

Fig. Dropping arc voltage Fig.constant arc voltage Fig. rising arc voltage

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Edge preparation should be done very carefully.

2) Before welding ensure that the surface are extremely clean.
3) While welding always use face shield or goggles.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

1. What is a weld bead?

2. Write the difference between lap and butt joint?
3. What is DCEN?
4. What is DCEP?
5. When do use DCSP and DCEP?
6. What is the effect of polarity on weld strength and HAZ?

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 EXPERIMENT-10

STUDY ON TIG AND MIG WELDING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION:

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING:

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is as inert gas shielded arc welding process using non
consumable electrode. The electrode may also contain 1 to 2% thoria mixed along with
core tungsten or tungsten with 0.15 to 0.4% zirconia. The pure tungsten electrodes are
less expensive but will carry less current. The thoriated tungsten electrodes carry high
currents and are more desirable because they can strike and maintain stable arc with
relative ease. The zirconia added tungsten electrodes are better than pure tungsten but
inferior to thoriated tungsten electrodes.
A typical TIG welding setup is shown in fig.

It consists of a welding torch at the centre of which is the tungsten electrode. The inert
gas is supplied to the welding zone through the annular path surrounding the tungsten
electrode to effectively displace the atmosphere around the weld puddle. The TIG
welding process can be used for the joining of a number of materials though the most
common ones are aluminium, magnesium and stainless steel.
The power sources used are always the constant current type. Both DC and AC power
supplies can be used for TIG welding. When DC is used, the electrode can be negative

87
(DCEN) or positive (DCEP). With DCEP is normally used for welding thin metals
whereas fro deeper penetration welds DCEN is used. An Ac arc welding is likely to
give rise to a higher penetration than that ofDCEP.

Fig. TIG DCRP Fig Base metal penetration

88
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING

AIM: To prepare a V – Butt Joint Using TIG Welding.

MATERIAL AND APPARATUS REQUIRED: MS flat 50 x 60 X 10 mm3 ---2No.s

Tong, Chipping Hammer, goggles Tungsten Electrode, Ceramic Nozzle and Filler rod.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Transformer, Rectifier and Argon gas cylinder.

THEORY:
The Endeavour of welder is always to obtain a joint which is as strong as the base metal
and at the same time, the joint is as homogeneous as possible. To this end, the complete
exclusion of oxygen and other gases which interfere with the weld pool to the detriment
of weld quality is very essential. In manual metal arc welding, the use of stick electrodes
does this job to some extent but not fully. In inert gas shielded arc welding processes, a
high pressure inert gas flowing around the electrode while welding would physically
displace all the atmospheric gases around the weld metal to fully protect it.

The shielding gases most commonly used are argon, helium, carbon dioxide and mixtures
of them. Argon and helium are completely inert and therefore they provide completely
inert atmosphere around the puddle, when used at sufficient pressure. Any
contaminations in these gases would decrease the weld quality.
Argon is normally preferred over helium because of a number of specific advantages. It
requires a lower arc voltage, allows for easier arc starting and provides a smooth arc
action. A longer arc can be maintained with argon, since arc voltage does not vary
appreciably with arc length.
It is more economical in operation. Argon is particularly useful for welding thin sheets
and for out of positionwelding.
Helium: The main advantage of Helium is that it can with stand the higher arc voltages.
As a result it is used in the welding where higher heat input is required, such as for thick
sheets or for higher thermal conductivity materials such as copper or aluminium.

89
Carbondioxide is the most economical of all the shielding gases. Both argon and helium
can be used with AC as well as DC welding power sources. However, carbon dioxide is
normally used with only DC with electrode positive.

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the edges of the work pieces to be joined to the required Vshape.
2. Finish the edges using emerypaper.
3. Place the work pieces on the work table in the required position.
4. Set the current of the machine to 100A.
5. Fix the tungsten electrode to the electrodeholder.
6. Required size of the nozzle is selected and it is fixed to thetorch.
7. Adjust the inert gas flow rate to the requiredrate.
8. Select the filler rod (same as base metals) of requireddiameter.
9. Touch the electrode to the work, so that current flow will be established andthen
separated by a small distance and the arc will begenerated.
10. First tack weld is done on the workpieces.
11. Move the electrode slowly along the length of the joint with the filler rod, so
thatthe filler metal will be deposited in thejoint.
12. Repeat the operation for the second pass, so that required amount of filler
metalwill be deposited on the workpieces.

90
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. Always use a shieldwhile welding.
2. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leathershoes.
3. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check foropenings.
4. Select the parameters of the machine properly based on the metals tobe welded.
5. Set these parameters properly before performing theoperation.
6. Inflammable and combustible materials are removed from the vicinityof
weldingoperations.
RESULT:

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METAL INERT GAS (MIG):
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) is an arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode
consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide shielding.The
process is illustrated in Figure 2. Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a
constant rate to the arc, matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler metal is
the thin wire that’s fed automatically into the pool where it melts. The filler metal
used in the rod must be compatible with the metal to be welded, the composition
usually being very close to that of the base metal.
The coating on the rod consists of powdered cellulose mixed with oxides, carbonates,
and other ingredients, held together by a silicate binder. Metal powders are also
sometimes included in the coating to increase the amount of filler metal and to add
alloying elements. The heat of the welding process melts the coating to provide a
protective atmosphere and slag for the welding operation. It also helps to stabilize the
arc and regulate the rate at which the electrode melts.

Fig . MIG welding system Fig. spray arc metal transfer(MIG)

Since fluxes are not used, the welds produced are sound, free of contaminants, and as
corrosion- resistant as the parent metal. Argon, helium, and carbon dioxide can be
used alone or in various combinations for MIG welding of ferrous metals.

(1) Thisweldingprocessisrelativelynewandonlyrecentlyhasbeenadoptedforusebythe

U.S. Army in the field. Much use of this welding process will be made in the repair

92
of aluminum hull trackedvehicles.
(2) Gas metal-arc (MIG) welding is process in which a consumable, bare wire
electrode, is fed into a weld at I controlled rate of speed. A blanket of inert gas
(argon, helium, or a mixture of the two as used in TIG welding) shields the weld
zone from contamination. This process produces high welds without the use of
fluxes or the necessity of post cleaning the weld.
(3) TheMIGweldingunitisdesignedformanualweldingwithsmalldiameterwire

electrodes using a spool-on-gun torch as shown in figure on the following page.

(There are MIG welding systems that have the spool located away from the torch
gun, but the principle operation is the same as for the type system discussed here.
The complete system consisting
ofthetorch,avoltagecontrolbox,andaweldingcontactorareshowninfigure.Thetorch
handle contains n complete motor and gear reduction unit that pulls the welding
wire
electrode from a 4 inch diameter spool containing one pound of wire electrode;
mounted in the rear of thetorch.
Three basic sizes of wire electrode may be used: 3/32 inch; 3/64 inch; and 1/16
inch. Any type of metal may be welded, provided the welding wire electrode is of
the same composition as the basemetal.
(4) The unit is designed for use with an ac-dc conventional, constant current type
welding powerSupply.

Fig. penetration effects

93
 Table.MIG shielding gas

METAL GAS GAS EFFECTS

Aluminum Argon Helps to remove surface oxides
Argon-25% Oxide removal plus
Helium-75% Porosity control
Copper Argon Reduces sensitivity to surface cracks
Argon-25% Counteracts high thermal conductivity
Helium-75%
Magnesium Argon Helps to remove surface oxides
Nickel Argon or Helps to control base metal fluidity and
Argon-50 to 25% provides good wetting
Helium-50 to 75%
Steel, Low alloy Argon-98% Eliminates undercutting
Oxygen-2%,
Argon-75% Reduce undercutting
Oxygen-25%
Steel, Mild Carbondioxide Low spatter
Steel , Stainless Argon-99 to 95% Oxygen adds to arc stability and
Oxygen-1 to 5% reduces undercutting
Titanium Argon Improves metal transfer

94
FORMING

95
 EXPERIMENT-11

STUDY OF METAL FORMING:

Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed plastically to

take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called die,
punch etc. depending on the type of process.

PLASTIC DEFORMATION:

Stresses beyond yield strength of the workpiece material is required.

Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming

Classification of forming:

Classification of metal forming processes

Classification of basic bulk forming processes

BULK FORMING:
It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change. The surface area-
to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working conditions
ROLLING:
In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between two
rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The rotating
rolls draw the slab into the gap and compresses it. The final product is in the form of
sheet.

96
FORGING:
The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours. The die
shapes are imparted into the final part.

EXTRUSION:
In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take the shape
of the die hole as its cross section.

WIRE OR ROD DRAWING:

similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled through the die opening to
take the cross-section

SHEET FORMING:
Involves plastic deformation of sheets like deep drawing, cutting, bending, hemming,
flanging, curling, stretch forming/stretching, stamping etc.

97
HAMMERS:
Hammers operate by applying an impact loading on the work piece. This is also called
as drop hammer, owing to the means of delivering impact energy.
When the upper die strikes the work piece, the impact energy applied causes the part
to take the form of the die cavity. Sometimes, several blows of the hammer are
required to achieve the desired change in shape
Drop hammers are classified as:
Gravity drop hammers, power drop hammers

GRAVITY DROP HAMMERS :

Achieve their energy by the falling weight of a heavy ram. The force of the blow is
dependent on the height of the drop and the weight of the ram.

Fig.1.Gravity Drop Hammer

POWER DROP HAMMERS :

Accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam.

98
PRESSES:
The force is given to the forging billet gradually, and not like impact force.

MECHANICAL PRESSES:
In these presses, the rotating motion of a drive motor is converted into the translation
motion of the ram. They operate by means of eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints.
Mechanical presses typically achieve very high forces at the bottom of the forging
stroke.

HYDRAULIC PRESSES :
hydraulically driven piston is used to actuate the ram.

SCREW PRESSES :
apply force by a screw mechanism that drives the vertical ram. Both screw drive and
hydraulic drive operate at relatively low ram speeds.

99
 LATHE SPINNING

AIM: To study the various metal forming processes and different types of mechanical
press and hammers.

THEORY: Spinning

Spinning is one of the oldest methods of shaping sheet metal, the process involves the
applications of lateral pressure to a rapidly revolving blank,causing it to assume the
shape of a framer which is rotating with it.the mode of deformation of the metal during
spinning is a mixture of bending and stretching making the process most suitable for
shaping of hollow parts from ductile metals and alloys fig (1) gives the diagrammatic
representation of the basic priniciple of spinning the equipment for external spinning
process consists a lathe to the chuck of which the former is attached the blank is held
between the former and a tail plate and simple

forming tools ,generally bars with rounded ends are used by the operator to form the
material over the former.

100
The special features of spinning are:

1.low equipment cost

2 .low tool cost

3. some complex parts of re –entrant shape can be very economically produced by

spinning

The limitation of the process is that the process depends very much on the operators
skill used to fold the metal over the former reducation in thickness of the metal is only
slight and since the reduction cannot be accurately predetermined the finished parts are
not always uniform and close tolerances cannot be maintained

101
 EXPERIMENT NO: 12

CONVENTIONAL FORWARD EXTRUSION

AIM: To extrude cylindrical billets or given material(Al, lead, etc.) through dies of
various included angles and exit diameters following conventional forward extrusion
process and draw the following graphs.

1. Extrusion pressure Vs die angle

2. Extrusion pressure Vs Ln(R)

EQUIPMENT TO BE USED:

Hydraulic power press of 20 tonnes capacity ,set of extrusion dies of different included
angles (30°45°,60°,80°,120°,150°,180°),lubricant (Grease/oil),plunger drum block
,billets with diameter equal to the I.D of extrusion chamber, set of extrusion with
different exit diameters to obtain required extrusion rations.

THEORY:

Forward Or Direct extrusion: In this process the slag or the billet is kept in the
container portion of the die .the required force is applied to the slug by means of the
slug by means of the ram through the pressure plate ,as shown in fig.1(a).in this
process the direction in which the material leaves the die is the same as that of punch
motion :hence the name forward extrusion .in case of hollow forward extrusion(also
called Hooker Extrusion)the slug is a hollow piece ,in this case the punch has a
shoulder as shown in the Fig1(b)and acts as a mandrel, the bottom of the cup may be
either closed or open end ,at the beginning of the process the mandrel should extend
up to the level of the die shoulder and project a definite distance past the die. during
the downward motion of the punch the metal is forced through the annular opening a
cup, the flanges cannot be avoided in this process but it can be reduced to a very small
thickness by having proper tool design in case the flange is to be removed it has to be
machined.

102
Back ward or In direct extrusion:

In solid backward extrusion the die is mounted on to the end of the follow ram and
enter the container as shown in fig 2(a),during the travel of the ram the die applies
pressure on the billet and deformed metal flows throught the die opening in the
directions opposite to that of ram motion hence the name backward extrusion ,here the
amount of scrap I reduced to about 5 to6% (in forward extrusion it is about
18to20%)of billet weight and extrusion force is less by about 25 to30%0due to
the complex design of tools it find only limited applications.

(a) Solid work piece (b) Hollow work piece

103
Side Extrusion :

Here the movement of the material is in a direction perpendicular to that of ram

motion as shown in fib2(a)the force required is very high and hence used mostly in
the case of non ferrous metals of highly plastic metals like lead.

Fig.2(a) side extrussion

Hydrostatic extrusion:

This is a new process in which a to the liquid medium is used for the transmission of
the force to the work piece due to the hydrostatic pressure the ductility of the material
is increased even brittle materials like W ,cast iron stainless steel etc ,can be formed
the pressurized fluid acts as lubricant because of this the extruded product has a good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy ,the principle of hydrostatic wire drawing is
given in fig.3(b)

Fig.2(b).hydrostatic extrusion

104
Forces: in an idealized case of extrusion where frication is zero and the deformation is
uniform and the material is non strain hardening ,the extrusion pressure is given by

P=extrusion pressure=𝜎‫ﻩﻩ‬extrusion pressure=𝜎In(A0/Af)

It is found that actual (practical) extrusion pressure are about 50% greater a con
empirical form of equation which takes into account the effects of frication and di is
given by

P=𝜎o(a+b In(Ao/Af))

It is found that actual (practical) extrusion pressure are about 50%greater,A con
empirical form of equation which takes into account the effects of friction and di is
given by

𝐴0
P=𝜎𝒐 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝐼𝑛 (𝐴𝑓))

Where a and b are constants for strain hardening materials 𝜎o should be replacement
average flow stress ,for a material with a stress –strain curve of the form 𝜎 = 𝑘
average stress is given by

The extrusion ratio (Ao/Af), die geometry extrusion speed and temperature effect
extrusion pressure the type of extrusion (forward/backward)also influence pressure
because of the friction between the billet and the container

105
PROCEDURE:

Apply lubricant on the die plunger ,dummy block and in the bore of ext .cylinder the
required extrusion die at `the back end of the extrusion chamber and fix the die
support block in position .introduce the billet into the chamber then place the dum
block in position and the plunger is made to contact the dummy block the hydraulic
pump of the power pack is switched on and the ram of the drive cylinder is movement
forward with the direction control valve kept in the forward position as the billet gets
extruded through the die the maximum fluid pressure reached in the drive cylinder is
noted from the pressure gauge fixed on the line this is the hydraulic pressure in the
drain cylinder at the ram travel the direction control valve is reversed so that the ram
starts moving in the backward direction the hydraulic pump is switched off the die
support block is removed and the die together with the product is taken out and the
product end is sawn off . This procedure is repeated for other dies as well.

OBSERVATIONS:

C/S area of product =Af= 𝜋/𝟒𝒅2e

De= diameter of extrusion chamber =27mm

Dd = diameter of drive cylinder (piston diameter)=254mm

Max Hydraulic Max Max Die R=Extn

hydraulic C/S pressure extrusion extrusion angle/Degrees Ratio
pressure Area of drive force pressure
from Drive cylinder C/S area
pressure cylinder under no of ext
gauge load cylinder
AD=𝜋/ pn AD=(p-pn) AD(p- AO/Af
𝜌 4(𝑑 d)2 pn)=AD(p-
pn) A0

106
GRAPHS:

1.Draw a graph between extrusion pressure (Y-axis) and included angle of die (X-axis)
and included angle of die (X-axis)and locate the optimum die angle position which
gives the lowest extrusion pressure

2. Draw a graph between the extrusion pressure (Y-axis) and LogeR

DISCUSSION:

1. Explain the effect of perfect reduction on the mechanical properties of the product
like yield strength , ultimate strength and hardness.

2. List out the lubricants used for cold and hot extrusion.

3. Explain the term canning

4. Compare extrusion with rod drawing

5 .Explain the terms frictional work ,redundant work homogenous work and total work

6. Give a schematic of the actual experimental set up and indicate the names of the
names of the parts.

107
 EXPERIMENT NO-13

BLANKING / PUNCHING OPERATIONS MECHANICAL PRESS

(C -FRAME PRESS)

AIM: a. To study the working of various types of die sets, die elements etc.

b. To carry out Blanking / Punching operations on the given metal strips (M.S.
A1.etc.) and study the effect of die clearance on bank / hole shape.

THEORY:

BLANKING:

Blanking is a process of cutting along a closed contour. In this process, the punch
penetrates into the sheet and pushes it through the die. The compressive stress acting
in the metal give rise to the stress distribution, as shown in Fig.l. The dragging down
of the free edges of the sheet produces tensile stresses there, which are responsible for
the flaking off of the surface scales. Due to the diagonal pinching of the metal between
the approaching faces of punch and die, the metal in between is subjected to
compressive stresses, leading to relative shear and fracture of the metal.

There stages are involved in the conventional blanking operation. In the first stage, the
punch presses the sheet and the latter is subject to elastic deformation, as shown in Fig
2 (a). With subsequent penetration of the punch, the plastic deformation commences
and proceeds as shown in (b). With more and more penetration the surface tensile
stresses in the sheet metal go on increasing and at one stage the ultimate tensile
strength of the material is exceeded giving rise to fractures at the cutting edges as
shown in (b). In the third stage, the cracks propagate with further increase inpunch
stroke (Fig c), and when the area of cross section reduces sufficiently, it fractures
suddenly causing a tensile cleavage fracture. Fig.3 gives the general view of the
blanked stamping and the pierced hole. Corresponding to the 3 stages of the blanking
process, the blanked surface contains 3 regions.

Zone 1 — a small thin ring corresponding to elastic deformation.

Zone 2 — a big shining band corresponding to plastic deformation

Zone 3 — a dull irregular surface corresponding to cleavage fracture.

108
Proper clearance is selected between the punch and die depending on the material, then the
two fractures from the cutting edges of the punch and die will meet, and a smooth fracture
will be obtained. If the clearance is too large, the two fractures will not meet and give rise to
secondary fractures as shown in Fig.2 (d) to (f). Mechanical presses of crank of eccentric type
are mostly used for blanking and shearing due to small working stroke and high production

109
rate. The sudden release of load after blanking is not advisable in hydraulic presses. For
this

reason, hydraulic presses are not preferred.If, however hydraulic presses are
inevitable, then some damping devices are incorporated in the press. We have seen
that in conventional blanking some clearances between punch and die is a must and
because of this the cut surface will never be square.The defects occurring in blanking
can be quantified (as shown in Fig.4) with the following parameters:

a. Edge bending Se
b. Fracture depth tf and
c. Burr height h b

The magnitude of these defects depends upon the material, tools used, sequence of
cutting process employed and the machine. When the blanked surface serves as a
functional surface to carry load or motion, or if it has to serve as a matching
surface, it must be smooth, without fracture and with little dimensional
inaccuracies, and in general it 'must be normal to the surface.' To achieve this, fine
blanking process is. employed. In conventional blanking two stresses are involved:
One is the shear stress which causes plastic deformation and the when hydrostatic
compressive stresses which produces irregular surfaces. Siebel has shown that
when hydrostatic compressive stresses are super imposed during cutting, the
shear fracture strength increases more than the shear flow stress. In conventional
blanking one gets fracture because the fracture strength is lower than the shear
flow stress. By the superimposition of a hydrostatic stress, this condition can be
reversed viz., the shear flow strength is lower than the shear fracture-strength and
thus the fracture can be postponed. In actual practice the tool design for pure
hydrostatic pressure in very complicated. So a mechanical tool design
consisting of a blank holder impingement ring, developed by Fritz Schiess in
Switzerland, is used frequently.

Fig. 5. Shown the basic principles of fine blanking tool set-up. As shown in Fig 5(b),
the ring shaped blank holder impresses the sheet all along the circumference of the
contour to be cut, before the actual shearing commences. This displaces the

110
material in the radial direction there by compressing the material to be blanked.
The induced compressive stresses are similar to the shearing process, the counter
punch is loaded against the main punch and both the punches move down as shown in
(c). This enables the blank to remain plane. Because of the hydrostatic type of
compressive stresses induced by the blank holder ring, the fracture is postponed and
full plastic deformation occurs, the blank holder and main punch go back to their original
position and simultaneously the counter punch ejects the blank as shown in (e). Thus, during
ejection also the bending of the blank is prevented.

Even though a triple action mechanical press is ideally suitable for fine blanking, it is never the
less possible to use the existing double action press with a suitable tooling.

FIG. 5

111
EQUIPMENT TO BE USED FOR BLANKING / PUNCHING:
C-Power press available in the lab. Blanking or punching die, a set of punches to vary
the die clearances, die holder plate, clamps solid stripper plate.

PROCEDURE:
The given sheet metal strips are cut to suit the sheet metal guiding gap in the solid
stripper plate. The die holder, die and solid stripper plate are fixed in position on the
bed of the press. One of the punches in the set fixed in ram and clamping bolt is
tightened. Alignment of die and punch is checked out by operation the ram manually.
The metal strip is slided into the die when the ram is at the top dead center position
and the motor is switched on. Press the foot pedal only once and release so that the
ram comes down and carries out the Blanking / Punching operations, Remove the
blank scrap from the die and observe the edges of blank or hole to assess the various 3
zones burr, fracture edges radius). Repeat the test with other punches in the set and
determine which combination gives the best profile for the blank hole without
secondary shear zones and arrive at the optimum die clearance (approximate).
Study also the given die sets and make suitable sketches showing the names of the
parts. Describe also the working of die sets like simple, compound and combination
dies.

DISCUSSIONS:

1.Compare the various types of die.

2. Draw suitable' sketches for knockouts, spring strippers, pilots, stock stops, punch supports
etc.

3.Describe the procedure for estimating the blanking / punching loads, stripping loads and
methods of reducing press tonnage in the case of multiple punch arrangements.

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 EXPERIMENT-14

(A) FATIGUE TESTING

AIM: To study the effect of fluctuating stress normally encountered in the cyclic
loading of materials in service.

REQUIREMENTS:

1. Specimen with the correct design

2. Vernier callipers
3. Dead weight as load
4. Wrench for tightening the bolt of specimen holder

DESCRIPTION: The schematic diagram of the fatigue testing machine is shown in

Fig.1. It consists of a 3-phase motor with 2800 rpm speed. The machine is designed to
carry out testing of two specimens simultaneously. The samples for fatigue test can be
of three types as shown in Fig.2 depending upon the loading scheme provided by the
machine. The specimens can be either cyclically loaded in the axial manner [Fig.2 (a)]
or in a rotating manner [Fig.2 (b) and (c)]

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Important Parameters and Equations: A fluctuating stress cycle can be considered
to be made up of two components, a mean or steady stress σm, and an alternating or
variable stress σa. We must first consider the range of stress σr . As can be seen from
Fig. 3a & 3b, the range of stress is the algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum stress in a cycle. Thus,

For a fully reversed stress cycle, as shown in Fig.3 (a), the Stress Ratio, R is -1 and if
the stresses are partially reversed, R becomes a negative number less than 1. If the
stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, the stress ration becomes zero.
If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, the stress ratio becomes a positive
number less than 1.

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The results of fatigue crack initiation tests are usually plotted as maximum stress,
minimum stress or the stress amplitude on (y-axis) against the number of cycles to
failure, N (on the x-axis). The number of cycles to failure is generally plotted on the
logarithmic scale, while stress is plotted either on the linear or logarithmic scale. The
regime in which the peak load is above the yield strength of the material is referred to
as the low cycle fatigue. Components usually endure < 104cycles during low cycle
fatigue. In contrast, when the peak cyclic stress is below the yield strength of the
material, the component undergoes more than 104 cyclic reversals and the regime is
referred to as the high cycle fatigue. Fig.4 depicts some of the general characteristics
of fatigue.

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The peak stress in case of cantilever bar testing is obtained by the following formula.
For the four-point cantilever bending the peak stress, σais given by

Where Mb is the bending moment =PI/2, d is the diameter of the sample, P is the
applied load L is the length of the sample. For the single-end cantilever testing

Where x = distance along the length from the fixed end and maximum value of x is 1 .

PROCEDURE:

1.Polish the sample surface as smooth as possible and observe for any surface defects
and deep scratch/machining marks. Reject the sample if you find any defects.

2.Measure dimensions of the given specimen of mild steel.

3.Fit the specimen is in the sample holder such that it passes through the opening
provided in the rod on which the loads are seated.

4.After fitting the sample, keep the desired load on the seat provided for the loads.

5.Switch on the instrument to conduct the fatigue test and record the time for the
failure, when it occurs.

6.Note the appearance of the fractured surface in each case.

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EXPERIMENTAL DATE COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION:

1. Calculate the peak stress from the formula mentioned above.

2. From the time taken for fatigue failure, calculate the number of cycles to failure

[N = RPM x time for failure(min)].

3. Report the value of σa and N.

4. Report the appearance of the fractured surface.

5. Make S-N plots using results of all the batches and obtain the endurance limit.

CONCULSION: The fatigue tests of mild steel will give the value of stress below
which it can endure infinite number of cycles which is important from the engineering
design point of view.

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 EXPERIMENT-14

(b) FORMABILITY TEST

AIM: To study the Erichsen sheet metal testing machine & perform the Erichsen sheet
metal test.

REQUIREMENTS: Cupping test machine, test specimen, vernier calliper, steel rule.

THEORY:
This is a mechanical test used to determine the ductility and drawing properties of
sheet metal. It consists in measuring the maximum depth of bulge or cup which can be
formed before fracture.
Cupping number is the depth of impression at fracture, in the cupping test, usually
expressed in millimetres.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the dimension of the test piece.

2. Place the test piece in the machine dies and touch the penetrator.

3. Rotate the handle of the machine to penetrate the penetrator in the test piece by
pressing the retaining ring.

4. As soon as crack appears in the test piece stop rotating the handle.

5. Determine the depth of cup from med,which is the cupping number.

OBSERVATION:
1. Thickness of testpiece: 0.5 to 2 mm.

2. Rotation speed: 5 to 20 mm per minute.

3. Diameter of ball: 20 mm

S.NO Test Piece Readings Cupping

thickness(mm) numbers
Initial Final

1
2

PRECAUTION:
1. Test piece should be perfectly flat.
2. Testpiece should be free from foreign matter.
3. The cup formed should be continuously watehed.
4. The handleshould be rotated uniformly and continuously.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Handle being rotated with jerks.
2. Test piece not perfectly flat.

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 EXPERIMENT NO -15

WATER HAMMER FORMING

AIM: To deform the given circular blanks (Al, M.S, etc)with water hammer forming
technique using free forming or profile dies and draw the following graphs :

1. Polar deflection Vs height of fall OR d/R Vs energy (E)

2. Radial strain Vs Distance from centre of blank

3. Hoop strain Vs distance from centre of blank.

EQUIPMENT TO BE USED: Water hammer forming equipment available in the

lab, sheet metal blanks of required thickness(0.5mm to 4mm) in annealed condition
,grease ,free forming or profile die ,drop weight and tools for marking for machining
grid on blanks for strain measurement.

THEORY: A diagrammatic representation of the system it consists of a thick walled

cylinder containing a water column 2,which separates a piston 3,from the sheet metal
work piece the forming energy is derived from the kinetic energy of a drop weight
energy is transferred to the work piece by pressure waves generated in the liquid
column when the drop weight 5.energy is transferred to the work piece by pressure
waves generated in the liquid in the liquid column when the weight strikes the piston
a complex pattern of waves is set up and pressure produced (60 to 20atm) near the
work piece can be used to deform it to the shape of the die the set up can be adapted
for free forming ,die forming or tube bulging the type of components which can be
produced by this method are identical to those by electro hydraulic process the
efficiency of the process is about 50% which is high compared to the 10% attained in
explosive and electro hydraulic forming.

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 1)Cylinder 2)Water column 3)Piston 4) Workpiece 5)Weight

Fig. Water hammer forming

Dies are almost indentical to those used in electro hydraulic with a vaccum between
the work piece and die seals (O-rings) prevent water leaking into the die cavity.die
materials range from epoxy resin for small quality production to steel for high
production runs water is the usual transmitting medium but hydraulic oil can be used
with very similar results

PROCEDURE:

Mark the required radial lines and circles on the annealed blank apply grease to both
sides of the sheet metal blank and to the die, position in the die holder and place the
sheet metal blank of the top of the die keep the pressure cylinder on top of the sheet
metal blank and lock the upper flange by means of the swing bolts fill the cylinder
with water and introduce the plunger into the pressure cylinder through the guide bush
provided on the upper flange the drop weight is taken to the required height (Distance
between the weight and plunger can be noted from the scale provided at back of the
hammer)and weight is released after the blow is given to the plunger (water should not
leak during the blow)the upper flange is unlocked from the die holder and the
specimen is taken out for measurement of polar deflection and strains ,for radial and
hoop strain measurement the requires grid lines(circles and radial lines)should be

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drawn on the annealed blank before grease is applied and the blank is placed over the
die

1.Measure polar deflection (deflection at the centre of specimen )with the help of
depth micrometer of any other suitable device

2.Select suitable segments along a radial line and estimate the surface strain
experienced by the blank at the mid point of these segments by noting the intial and
final length of the segment may be measured by means of thin wire stretched over the
curved segment

3.Follwing a similar procedure select suitable segments a long periphery of each

circle and compute the hoop strain by noting the intial and final lengths of each
segments.

OBSERVATIONS:

Graph 1 : polar Deflection ,(d) Vs height of fall ,H

OR

d/R Vs Energy ,E

Radius of die =R, mm

Specimen materials = Specimen thickness= Max .dia of blank=

Specim Drop Height of Fall Potential Polar d/R

en no weight H, m Energy Deflection
choose E=WH D, m
W ,kg

Graph 2:

𝜺r Radial strain Vs Distance from the centre of blank specimen thickness =

Max.dia of blank =

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Specimen No Distance of Initial length of Final length of 𝜺r Radial strain
radial segment segment on the radial segment of segment
chosen from radial line ,ro rf Ln(rf/ro)
the centre of
blank ro

GRAPHS:

1. Draw a graph between polar deflection (Y-axis)and Height of fall (X-axis)

or d/R Vs Energy.

2. Draw a graph between radial strain(Y-Axis) and distance from the centre
(X-axis).

DISCUSSION:

1. Sketch a set up showing tube bulging.

2. Explain why a higher efficiency is obtained in this process compared to explosive

and electro hydraulic processes.

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