CIRCUITS 2

Course Outline
I. Sinusoidal Voltages
1. Generation of Alternating Voltages
2. Alternating Voltage and Current Equation
3. Waveforms of Alternating Quantity
4. Maximum Effective and Average Values of Alternating Quantity

II. Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

1. Resistance Circuits
2. Capacitance Circuits
3. Inductance Circuits
4. Series – Resistance – Inductance Circuits
5. Series – Resistance – Capacitance Circuits
6. Series – Resistance – Inductance – Capacitance Circuits

III. Parallel and Series Parallel

1. Basic Parallel Circuit
2. Equivalent Impedance or Parallel Circuit
3. Power in Parallel Circuit
4. Admittance, Conductance, Susceptance

IV. Resonance in Series and Parallel

1. Series – Resonance Circuit
2. Frequency Variation in Series RLC Circuit
3. Inductance Variation in Series RLC Circuit
4. Capacitance Variation in Series RLC Circuit
5. Parallel Resonance Circuit
6. Frequency Variation in Two Branch Parallel Circuit
7. Resistance Variation in Two Branch Parallel Circuits
8. Capacitance Variation in Two Branch Parallel Circuits

V. Non – Sinusoidal Wave

1. Harmonics
2. Odd and Even Harmonics
3. Current, Voltage and Power on Harmonics AC System
4. Effective and Average value of voltages and Current in Harmonics AC
System
Generation of Alternating EMF
Electromotive Force (emf) – voltage which is produced by moving a conductor winding
in a magnetic field or by altering the direction of flux.
Alternating current can be produced by:
1. Changing the flux in the coil

d∅
e=N x10-8 volts
dt
where:
e = Induced emf
N = number of turns
d∅
= rate at which flux in Maxwell changes through the coil
dt
2. Moving the coil through the magnetic field so that the flux cutting result.
3. Altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil.

e = βlvsinθx 10-8 volts

where:
e = generated voltage
β = flux density
l = length of wire in inches
V = velocity of the conductor

Cgs English mks

lines wb
B = Gauss B= B=
¿2 m2
l = cm l = in l=m
cm ¿ m
V= V = sec V=
sec sec
Example:
Calculate the average induced emf in a coil 300 turns through which the flux
changes from 250000 to 20000 maxwell in 0.15 sec.

Solution:
d∅
e=N x10 -8
dt

( 250000−20000 ) max
= (300T) [ 0.15 ]
x 10-8

e = 4.6 volts

Alternating emf – voltage which varies in magnitude and direction periodically.

Period (t) – smallest time separating recurring values of cycle

1
t=
f
Frequency – number of rotation of generation
cycle
f= or hertz (Hz)
sec
named after a German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
For a 2- Pole Machine – one cycle takes place from 0 – 2 π rad. If the rate of the coil is
expressed in rev/sec, since
1rev = 3600 = 2 π rad : f=cycle/second
1cycle/(1second/f) = 2πrad/(1second/f) = 2πf rad/second
W = 2πf rad/second
angular velocity or angular frequency
For a machine of n Number of Pole – one cycle takes place between P/2 pair of poles or
there are P/2 cycle/rev. If the coil retakes in N rev/sec. Then,
f=PN/2 (cycle/sec) or Hz
where:
P= number of pole
N= speed of rotation (rps)rev/sec
If N = rev/min(rpm)
f= PN/2 * rev/min* 1min/60sec
f= PN/120 (Hz)

Example:
1. An alternator has six poles a.)What speed must the machine be driven to
develop 60 cycles? 25 cycles? b.) What frequency is developed if the speed is
rev
1000 ? 1600 rpm?.
min
2. A conductor 50 mm long moves at a velocity of 2.5 meters per second across a
wb
magnetic field of 0.90 2 ? What is the voltage generated?
m
3. A piece of conductor 10 cm long moves across a magnetic field of 10000 gauss
cm
at a velocity of 120 , what voltage appears across the conductor.
sec
Solution:
PN rev
1a.) @ 60 cycles 1b.) f= @ 1000
120 sec
PN (6)(1000)
f= =
2 120
 2f
N= f = 50 Hz
P
2(60)
=
6
rev
N = 20
sec
PN rev
@ 25 cycles f= @ 1600
120 sec
PN (6)(1600)
f= =
2 120

2f
N= f = 80 Hz
P
2(25)
=
6
25 rev
N=
3 sec
2. Given: e = ?
wb
β = 0.90
m2
l = 50mm
m
V = 2.5
sec

e = βlvsinθ
wb -3 m
= (0.90 2 )(50x10 )( 2.5 )(sin 90⁰)
m sec
e = 0.1125 volts

3. Given: e = ?
β = 10000 Gauss
l = 10cm
cm
V = 120
sec
 e = βlvsinθ x10 -8
cm
=[ (10000 )(10cm)( 120 )(sin 90⁰) ] x10-8
sec
e = 0.12 volts

According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

d∅
e = -N
dt
d∅
= -N max cosωt
dt
d
= -N ∅ max cosωt
dt
= -N∅ max (-ωsinωt)

= ωN∅ max sinωt @ ∅ max = β max . A

= ωN β max A sinωt

e = ωN β maxAsinθ
where:
e = instantaneous voltage
ω = angular velocity
N = number of turns
β = flux density (Tesla)
∅ max = maximum flux (Wb)

A = area (m2)

Example:
A rectangular coil of 5cm x 10cm has 50 turns and supported in an axle which
lies along of its shorter sides. The axle of the coil is normal to a large uniform magnetic
wb
field in which a flux density is 0.1 2 and coil is rotated about an axle at 1000 rpm.
m
Calculate the instantaneous voltage and emf at the instant when the coil plane makes
an angle of 45⁰ in the field of direction.
Solution:
Given:
wb
β = 0.1
m2
N = 50T
A = 5x10-3 m2
rev 2 πrad 1min rad
ω= 1000 x x = 104.7198
sec 1 rev 60 sec sec

e=?
e = ωN β maxAsinθ
rad wb
= (104.7198 )(50T)( 0.1 2 )( 5x10-3 m2)(sin90⁰)
sec m
e = 2.1680 volts

emf @ 45⁰
e = ωN β maxAsinθ
rad wb
= (104.7198 )(50T)( 0.1 2 )( 5x10-3 m2)(sin45⁰)
sec m
e = 1.8512 volts

Sinusoidal Alternating Current

 e = Em sinωt
E Em sin ω t
i= =
R R
i = I m sinωt
Example:
1. An alternating current is given by i = 50sin377t. What is the time taken to
generate 4 cycles.
2. A 60 cycle current has a maximum value of 6A. What will be the instantaneous
voltage value of current at :
a. 0.0025sec after the wave passes through in a positive direction.
b. 0.01042sec after the wave passes through in zero positive direction.
c. What is the time taken to reach a value of 5.45A after passing through a
maximum positive value?.
Solution:
1. i=50sin377t
T=?

T=4t T=8π/2*377
=4(1/f) : f=w/2π T=0.0667sec
=4/(w/2π)
=8π/2w
I=50sin377t ; w=377
2. Im=6A , 60Hz
a. 0.0025sec
b. 0.01042sec
 i=Imsinwt
=6sin(2π*60)t
i=6sin377t

a. 0.0025sec
i=6sin377t
i=6sin[(377*0.0025r)
i=4.854A

b. 0.01042sec
i=6sin377t
=6sin(377*0.01042r)
i=-4.2484A

c.

i=6sin377t
5.45=6sin377t
377t=sin-1(5.45/6)
t=3.022msec
 T=[(1/60)/2]-3.022msec
T=5.311333msec

Wave and Representation of Sinusoidal Waves

Positive Sine Wave

Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Negative Sine Wave

Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Positive Cosine Wave
 Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Negative Cosine Wave

Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Leading and Lagging Sine Wave

Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Leading and Lagging Cosine Wave

Wave Diagram Vector Diagram

Phase – meant fraction of time period of that AC when has elapsed the current through
the zero position or reference.

In Phase – if two alternating quantities attain their maximum and minimum values at the
same time.

Out of Phase – does not attain their maximum and minimum values at the same time.
RMS(Root Mean Square) Value
- Value of AC is given by the steady current which then flowing a given circuit.
- Also known as EFFECTIVE VALUE

2
RMS Value = ( Areaunder thecurve )
√ base
Average Value
- Average value of instantaneous value of half cycle.

Areaunder the curve

Average Value =
base
Example:
Draw the wave and vector diagram of the following:
e1 lags e2 by 30⁰
e3 lags e4 by 15⁰
e5 lags e1 by 35⁰
e3 lags e4 by 5⁰
Use reference as e3 @ Em = 100V
e3 = 100sin377t
e1 = 100sin(377t + 30⁰)
e2 = 100sin(377t + 60⁰)
e4 = 100sin(377t - 10⁰) = -100cos¿t + 75⁰)
e5 = 100sin(377t - 5⁰) = -100cos¿t + 85⁰)
Sinusoidal Sine Wave

2
Erms = ( Areaunder thecurve)
√ Base
π
e1 dωt 2 π e 2 dωt
=
√ ∫ 2 π +∫ 2 π
0 π

π 2π
= 1
2π √ [
∫ Em sin
0
2 2
ωtdωt+ ∫ Em sin ωtdωt
0
2 2
]
π 2π
=
√ 1
2π [∫ (0
1−cos 2 ωt
2 )
dωt +∫
π
1−cos 2ωt
2
dωt ( ) ]
π 2π
=
√ Em 2
2π [∫ ( 0
1−cos 2 ωt
2 )
dωt+ ∫
π
1−cos 2 ωt
2
dωt ( ) ]
π 2π
=
√ Em 2
4π [∫ ( 0
ωt−
sin 2 ωt
2
+ ∫ ωt −
π
sin 2 ωt
) ( 2 )]
2
=
√ Em
4π ([ π − sin22 π )−(0− sin2 0 )+( 2 π − sin24 π )−( π− sin22 π )]
Em 2
=
√ 4π
( π + 2 π−π )

Em 2 = Em
ERMS =
√ 2 √2
max
IRMS =
√2
 max
RMS =
√2

Areaunder the curve

EAVE =
Base
π
e dωt
=2∫
0 2π
π
1
= ∫ Emsinωtdt
π 0

Em
= [ −cosωt ] π
π 0
Em
= [ −cosπ +cos 0 ]
π
Em
= [−(−1 ) +1 ]
π
2 Em
EAVE =
π
2
Ave = max
π

Half Wave Rectified

π
e2 dωt
ERMS =
√∫ 2π
0

π
Em 2
=
√ 2π 0
∫ sin2 ωtdt
 π
Em 2 1−cos 2 ωt
=
√ 2π 0
∫ 2
dωt

Em 2 sin 2 ωt π
=
√ 4π [
ωt−
2 ]
0

Em 2
=
√ [(4π
π−
sin 2 π
2 )(
− 0−
sinθ
2 )]
Em 2
=
√ 4
Em
ERMS =
2
max
Rms =
2

π
edωt
Eave = ∫
0 2π
π
1
= ∫ ( Emsinωt ) dωt
2π 0

Em
= [ −cosωt ] π
2π 0
Em
= [ −cosπ +cos 0 ]
2π
Em
=
2π
[−(−1 ) +1 ]
Em
Eave =
π
max
Ave =
π

Triangular Wave
 y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1
ℑ−0
= π
−0
2
2ℑ
m=
π
π

IRMS =
√
4∫
0 2π
2
i 2 dt

=
√ 2
∫
π 0
2
2 Imt
π (dt

π
)
=
√ 8ℑ
π3
2 2

π
∫ t 2 dt
0

=
√ 8 ℑ2 t 3
π3 3 0
2[]
8 ℑ2 π 3
=
√
ℑ
π3 8 [ ]
−0

IRMS =
√3
 max
RMS =
√3
π
2
IAVE = 4∫ idt
0 2π

π
2
= 2 ∫ 2 Imt dt
π 0 π
π
2
= 4 ℑ ∫ tdt
π2 0
π
4 ℑ t2
= 2
π 2 0
2 []
2 ℑ π2
=
π2 4 [ ]
−0

ℑ
IAVE = 2

max
AVE =
2

Semi – Circular Wave

Let x = t, y = e
YRMS = ERMS : a = Em
 a
y 2 dx
YRMS =
√∫
−a 2a
a
= 1
√ ∫
2 a −a
( a2−x 2 ) dx

3
=
√ [ 1 2
2a
a x−
x a
3 −a ]
=
√ [( 1
2a
a3
3 )(
a3− − −a3 +
a3
3 )]
1 2 3 2 3
=
√ 2a 3 [
a+ a
3 ]
1 4 3
=
√ 2a 3 ( )
a

2 2
=
√ 3
a

2
YRMS =
√3
a

2
ERMS =
√3
Em

Summary
Form Factor (ff) Peak/Crest Factor

RMS Value max Value

ff = pf =
AVE Value RMS Value
Assignment:
1.

2.

3. What is RMS value of the following periodic voltage having the following: 5V for
2sec, 10V for 3sec, 0V for 1sec, -6V for 4sec and so on…

ERMS =
( Areaumder the curve )2

Em
√ Base

Σv 2 x t
=
√
e
π
dt 2π Base
-Em
2 2 2
= 5 2 +10 3 + −6 ( 4)
√
( ) ( ) ( )
10
ERMS = 7.0285 Volts
100V

4 8 12 16

EAVE = Areaunder the curve

t
2 6 10 14

Base
-100V
 Σvt
=
Base
5 ( 2 ) +10 ( 3 ) +0 ( 1 ) +(−6)(4 )
=
10
EAVE = 1.6 Volts

RMS Value
ff =
AVE Value
7.0285
=
1.6
ff = 4.3928

Summation of In-Phase Sinusoidal Wave

When two or more sinusoidal voltage a current waves are in phase and have the
same frequency, they may be added to yield a sine wave of the same frequency. The
resultant wave will then have a maximum value that is equal to the maximum values of
the component waves.

Summation of out-of-phase waves[

 When two or more sinusoidal voltages or current waves are out-of-phase but has
the same frequency, a point by point summation will not yield a maximum value for the
resultant of the maximum value of the individual waves. The reason that the maximum
value of the instantaneous value do not occur of the same instant of time.

Illustration:
e 1=Em1 sinwt

e 1=Em2 coswt

e T =?

e T =e1 + e2

¿ Em1 sinwt + Em 2 coswt

Vector Solution:

EmT =√ Em21 + Em 22

Em1
cosθ=
EmT
Em 2
sinθ=
Em T
EmT
e T =( Em1 sinwt + Em2 coswt )
EmT

Em1 Em2
[
¿ EmT ( sinwt )
( )
EmT
+ ( coswt )
( )]
Em T

¿ EmT ( sinwt cosθ+coswt sinθ )

e T =EmT sin ( wt + θ )

Example:
1.
i 1=10 sinwt

i 2=5 coswt

i 2=? Wave and vector solution:

Wave:

i T =i2 +i 1 ℑT =√10 2+5 2

5 √5
¿ ( 10 sinwt +5 coswt ) =5 √ 5
5 √5
5
−¿ ¿
10
θ=tan

θ=26.56 °

[
¿ ( sinwt ) ( 510√ 5 )+( coswt ) ( 5 5√5 )]
¿ 5 √5 [ sinwt cos 26.56 ° +coswt sin 26.56° ]

i T =5 √5 sin ( wt +26.56 ° ) ans.

Vector solution:

iT ℑT = √ 102 +52
i2
α2
¿ 5 √5
θ i1
θ=26.56 °

i T =ℑT sin ( wt +θ )

i T =ℑT cos ( wt−α )

i T =5 √5 sin ( wt +26.56 ° ) ans.

2. e 1=12 sin wt

π
e 2=8 sin wt +( 3 )
e T =?

Vector solution:
e t =e1 + e2

π
¿ 12 sin wt +8 sin wt + ( 3 )
 π π
(
¿ 12 sin wt + 8 sin wt cos
3 )(
+ 8 coswt sin
3 )
¿ 12 sinwt +4 sinwt +4 √ 3 coswt
4 √ 19
e T =[ 16 sinwt +4 √3 coswt ]
4 √ 19
2
EmT = 162 + ( 4 √ 3 )
√
EmT =4 √ 19

16 4 3
[
e T =4 √3 ( sinwt ) ( 4 √ 19
+ ( coswt ) √
) (
4 √ 19 )]
¿ 4 √ 19 [ sinwt cos 23.41 °+ coswt sin 23.41 ° ]

e T =4 √19 sin ( wt +23.41 ° ) ans.

Vector solution:
By cosine law:

Em2T =Em 21+ Em 22−2 Em1 Em 2 cosα

Em2T =122 +82−2 ( 8 )( 12 ) cos 120 ° e 2=8

e mT =?
EmT =4 √ 19 Volts

8 4 19
= √ α2
sinθ sin 120 60 °
θ=23.41° θ e 2=12
e T =EmT sin ( wt + θ )

¿ 4 √ 19 sin ( wt + 23.41° ) ans.

A.S.

∑ E V =8sin 60
¿ 4 √3

∑ E H =¿12+8 cos 60 ¿
¿ 16
2 2
EmT = √∑ E H + ∑ EV
¿ 4 √ 19 Volts

θ=tan
−1 ∑ EV
∑ EH
θ=23.41°

RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE and CAPACITANCE CIRCUITS

1. A pure resistance in AC circuits takes a current in phase with the impressed
voltage. This implies that the power factor is unity.

I E
I E
2. A pure inductance in AC circuits
take a current that lags the impressed voltage by90 °. This implies that the power
factor is lagging.

E
I
E I
3. A pure capacitance
circuit takes a current that leads the impressed voltage by90 °. This implies that
the power factor is leading.

E
I

Power factor (pf) – phase angle or phase difference between

the voltage and current.
Pf = cosθ
- Reciprocal of figure of remit

AC THROUGH PURE OHMIC RESISTANCE

i
E
i
e=Emsinwt
Emsinwt
i= =Imsinwt
R
P=ei
¿ ( Emsinwt ) ( Imsinwt )

¿ Em sin 2 wt
1−coswt
¿ EmIm [ 2 ]
EmIm EmIm
¿ − coswt
2 2

Pave =EI = ( Em ) ℑ
√2 ( √2 )
=
EmIm
2
Where E & I are

effective values

AC TROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE

E
i
I

e=Emsinwt P

i=Imsin ( wt−90 ) e

P=ei
¿ ( Emsinwt ) Imsin ( wt −90 )
EmImsin 2 wt
¿ =EIsin 2 wt
2
Deriving i
di
e L =L
dt
di e
=
dt L
 I

e
∫ di=∫ L dt
1
i= EmsinwLdt
L∫
Em
i= sinwLdt
L ∫
Em −coswt
i=
L ( w )
−Emcoswt Em
i= ; ℑ=
wL wL
i=−Imcoswt

i=Imsin ( wt−90 ° )

Em Em
ℑ= = ; Pure inductor
wL X L

X L =wL=2 πfL Ω

X L =¿Inductive reactance

L=¿Inductor (H)

AC THROUGH PURE CAPACITANCE

I i

E
e=Emsinwt
i=Imsin ( wt +90 ° )
P=ei
P= ( Emsinwt ) ( Imsin ( wt +90 ° ) )
EmIm
P= sin2 wt
2
Pave =0

DERIVATION OF i
q=Ce
dq de
=C
dt dt
d
i=C Emsinwt
dt
i=CEm ( Wcoswt )
i=WCEmcoswt
i=Imcoswt

i=Imsin ( wt +90 ° )

Em Em
ℑ=wCEm= =
1 Xc
wc

1 1
X c= = ; Capacitive reactance
wC 2 πfC

Example:
1. An inductance of 0.205 H is connected to a 120 V, 60Hz source. Determine:
a. Inductive reactance
b. Current in the circuit
c. Show the wave and vector diagram
2. A 150 µF capacitance is connected to a150 V, 50 Hz source. Determine:
a. Current in the circuit
b. Show the time and phasor diagram
 3.

iT

iR iL iC

π
(
C=200 sin 500 t +
4 ) Find: iR,iL, iC, iT

ANSWER:
1.L=0.205 H
f =60Hz I

a. X L =2 πfL
¿ 2 π ( 60 Hz ) ( 0.205 H )
¿ 77.2832Ω
E 120
b. I = = =1.5527 A
X L 77.2832
2. 1 1
X c= =
2 πfC 2 π ( 50 ) ( 10−6 )

150 V ,50 Hz
 X c =21.2207 Ω

150V
a. I = =7.0686 A
21.2207Ω

b. e i
I

3.
π
e
ie= =
(
200 sin 5000t +
4 ) i =?
L
R 20
di
e L =L
dt
eL
di=∫ dt
L
1
iL= e dt
L∫ L
1 π
iL=
5 mH
∫ (
200 sin 5000 t+ dt
4 )
200 π
iL=
( 5 mH ) ( 5000 ) [ (
−cos 5000 t+
4 )]
π
[
i L =−8 cos 5000 t+
4 ]
X L =wL=5000 ( 5 x 10−3 )=25 Ω

π
iL= =
e (
200 sin 5000 t+
4 )
XL 25 π
i L =8 sin 5000t−(4 )