HIND BRAIN

Hindbrain, also called rhombencephalon, region of the developing vertebrate brain that is

composed of the medulla oblongata, the Pons, and the Cerebellum. The hindbrain coordinates
functions that are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm, motor activity, Sleep,
and wakefulness. It is one of the three major developmental divisions of the brain; the other two
are the midbrain and Forebrain..

The hindbrain is the region of the brain formed by the pons, medulla oblongata (also known as
just the medulla), and the cerebellum. Together, these three structures govern our autonomic, or
'automated' body systems, controlling everything from our heart, breathing, and sleep patterns to
our bladder function, sense of equilibrium, and fine motor control.
STRUCTURE OF HINDBRAIN:
The hindbrain is comprised of the pons, medulla, and cerebellar structures of your brain, which
together essentially act as the 'commander in charge' of your automated systems.
The CEREBELLUM:

The cerebellum is located behind the top part of the brain stem (where the spinal cord
meets the brain) and is made of two hemispheres (halves).

The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other
parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum coordinates
voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in
smooth and balanced muscular activity. It is also important for learning motor behaviours

It controls the balance of the body and Co-ordinates the voluntary movement of the body. The
cerebellum is important for movement, for balance and for coordination. It has the ability to
control the shift movement between the sound and sight stimuli. It is also associated with Time.
The cerebellum is located behind the top part of the brain stem (where the spinal cord meets the
brain) and is made of two hemispheres (halves). The cerebellum receives information from the
sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor
movements. The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance,
coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity. It is also important
for learning motor behaviours.

The pons:

The pons is the largest part of the brainstem, located above the medulla and below the midbrain.
It is a group of nerves that function as a connection between the cerebrum and cerebellum (pons
is Latin for bridge).

The pons develops from the embryonic metencephalon (part of the hindbrain, developed from

the rhombencephalon), alongside the cerebellum.

It controls:

 Facial sensation and the ability to bite, chew and swallow

 Eye rotations away from the center of your body

 Facial expressions and facial movements
 Transmission of sound from your ears to your brain
 Breathing functions such as breath intensity and frequency.
 Accessory roles in sleep patterns and your sense of equilibrium and posture.

The Medulla

The medulla is a structure of the brain located in the brain stem. The brain stem begins just
above the spinal cord and continues to the center of the brain. The brain stem is void of any
cerebral functioning but instead controls lower level functioning. The medulla is primarily
responsible for breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and coughing.
It is also the area responsible for many reflexes like swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and
sneezing. The medulla oblongata also helps transfer information from the body to different areas
of the brain.

Location
By anatomical terms of location, it is rostral to the spinal cord and caudal to the pons, which is in
turn ventral to the cerebellum.
For a human or other bipedal species, this means it is above the spinal cord, below the pons, and
anterior to the cerebellum.
Anatomy
Two parts: open and closed

The medulla is often thought of as being in two parts:

 an open part (close to the pons)

 a closed part (further down towards the spinal cord).
The opening referred to is on the dorsal side of the medulla, and forms part of the fourth
ventricle of the brain.

The Spinal Cord

It can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it,
the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes
messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called
reflexes.
Structure
The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous
system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than the length of the bony spinal column.
The human spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata and continues through the conus
medullar is near the first or second lumbar vertebrae, terminating in a fibrous extension known as
the filum terminale.
It is about 45 cm long in men and 43 cm long in women, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the
cervical and lumbar regions. In cross-section, the peripheral region of the cord contains
neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor neurons. Internal to this peripheral
region is the gray, butterfly shaped central region made up of nerve cell bodies. This central
region surrounds the central canal, which is an anatomic extension of the spaces in the brain
known as the ventricles and, like the ventricles, contains cerebrospinal fluid.
The three meninges that cover the spinal cord -- the outer dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and
the innermost pia mater -- are continuous with that in the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres.
Similarly, cerebrospinal fluid is found in the subarachnoid space. The cord is stabilized within
the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments which extend from the enveloping pia
mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of
the second sacral vertebra.

The spinal cord is a tail-like structure embedded in the vertebral canal of the spine. The adult
spinal cord is about 40 cm long and weighs approximately 30 g. The spinal cord is attached to
the underside of the medulla oblongata, and is organized to serve four distinct tasks:

1. to convey (mainly sensory) information to the brain;

2. to carry information generated in the brain to peripheral targets like skeletal muscles;
3. to control nearby organs via the autonomic nervous system;
4. to enable sensorimotor functions to control posture and other fundamental movements.
Spinal cord segments
The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments, with motor nerve roots exiting in
the ventral aspects and sensory nerve roots entering in the dorsal aspects. The ventral and dorsal
roots later join to form paired spinal nerves, one on each side of the spinal cord.

There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:

 8 cervical segments (cervical nerves exit spinal column above C1 and below C1-C7)
 12 thoracic segments (thoracic nerves exit spinal column below T1-T12)
 5 lumbar segments (lumbar nerves exit spinal column below L1-L5)
 5 sacral segments (sacral nerves exit spinal column below S1-S5)
 1 coccygeal segment (coccygeal nerves exit spinal column at coccyx)
Because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not
correspond to vertebral segments in adults, especially in the lower spinal cord. In the fetus,
vertebral segments do correspond with spinal cord segments. In the adult, however, the spinal
cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.
For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and
L2.
Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for
each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal
cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots.
As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column,
the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina.
There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

 Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which

innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The
vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
 Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which
innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3, and is found
about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.
Embryology
The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. As the neural tube
begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog or SHH. As
a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH and this will induce the basal plate to
develop motor neurons. Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein
(BMP). This will induce the roof plate to begin to also secrete BMP which will induce the alar
plate to develop sensory neurons. The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus
limitans.
Additionally, the floor plate will also secrete netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants
to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white
commissure where they will then ascend towards the thalamus.

Lastly it is important to note that the past studies of Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini
in the chick embryo have been further proven by more recent studies which demonstrated that
the elimination of neuronal cells by programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct
assembly of the nervous system.

Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in neuron and muscle
development, but is probably not involved in the initial formation of connections between spinal
neurons.

FUNCTION OF BRAIN

Amygdala :Helps in storing and classifying emotionally-charged memories. It plays a significant

role in producing emotions, especially fear and jealousy. In teenagers, the Amygdala is more
active than the Frontal Lobe; individuals with an enlarged Amygdala have been diagnosed with
manic-depressive disorder.

Broca’s Area :This part of the Neocortex controls speech, language recognition and facial
nerves.

Brain Plasticity: A process which refers to how nerve cells and neurons physically change
inside the brain, in response to a change in environmental circumstances over time and/or in
response to brain injury. Current research in the field of stroke recovery and addiction has proved
revealing.

Cerebellum :The portion of the brain (located in the back of the brain) which helps coordinate
movement, such as balance, posture, movement and muscle coordination. The Cerebellum
contains half of all the neurons in the brain but comprises only 10% of the brain

Cerebral Cortex : This is the main area involving thinking, decision-making, emotions and the
five senses.

Corpus Callosum :This structure connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain, and
facilitates communication between the two. it is important for intelligence, consciousness and
self-awareness. It is the largest White Matter structure in the brain, and reaches full maturity in
the twenties.

Frontal Lobe : The front part of the brain, involved in planning, judgment, reasoning, impulse
control, organizing, problem solving, selective attention, personality, personality and a variety of
“higher cognitive functions”, including behavior and emotions.

➢ The Prefrontal cortex (front of the Frontal Lobe) is important to personality.

➢ The posterior (back) of the Frontal Lobe serves to modify movements

Both lobes grow measurably between ages10 and 12 (with girls’ growth spurt generally coming a
little earlier than boys), and then shrink in the twenties as extraneous branches and pruned back
into efficient, well-organized circuitry.

Gray Matter and White Matter – The neuron highways! Using the concept of a computer as an
analogy: gray matter can be thought of as the actual computers themselves, whereas the white
matter represents the network cables connecting the computers together. The brain can adapt to
white matter damage. Unlike gray matter, which peaks in development in a person’s twenties,
the white matter continues to develop and peaks about middle age. In terms of oxygen
consumed, 6% will be used by the brains white matter and 94% by the gray matter. The
development of Multiple Sclerosis as well as protein build-ups associated with Alzheimer’s both
affect white matter

Hippocampus: Its primary role is memory formation, classifying information and long-term
memory. Leading thought hypothesizes that this area also intuitively informs a person of their
place within an environment. People with extensive damage to this part of the brain may suffer
amnesia. Furthermore, in Alzheimer’s Disease, this area is among the first to suffer damage.

Hypothalamus :It controls many body processes, such as heart rate and feelings of hunger and
thirst, as well as circadian (24-hour cycle) rhythms. It is located above the brain stem.Failure to
get 8-9 hours of sleep each night can disrupt teens circadian rhythm ‘clock’.

Medulla Oblongata: This governs involuntary processes, such as breathing, swallowing,

defecation (ie, need to use toilet), digestion and heart rate. It is located on the lower half of the
brain stem, next to the Pituitary Gland.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY

Perceptual constancy is perceiving objects as having constant shape, size, and colour regardless
of changes in perspective, distance, and lighting. Perceptual constancy, also called object
constancy, or constancy phenomenon, the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar
objects as having standard shape, size, colour, or location regardless of changes in the angle of
perspective, distance, or lighting.
Even though the retinal image of a receding automobile shrinks in size, the normal, experienced
person perceives the size of the object to remain constant. Indeed, one of the most impressive
features of perceiving is the tendency of objects to appear stable in the face of their continually
changing stimulus features. Though a dinner plate itself does not change, its image on
the retina undergoes considerable changes in shape and size as the perceiver and plate move.
What is noteworthy is stability in perception despite gross instability in stimulation. Such
matches between the object as it is perceived and the object as it is understood to actually exist
(regardless of transformations in the energy of stimulation) are called perceptual constancies.

Dimensions of visual experience that exhibit constancy include size, shape, brightness, and
colour. Perceptual constancy tends to prevail for these dimensions as long as the observer has
appropriate contextual cues; for example, perception of size constancy depends on cues that
allow one a valid assessment of his distance from the object. With distance accurately perceived,
the apparent size of an object tends to remain remarkably stable, especially for highly familiar
objects that have a standard size. Thus, people’s heads all tend to look the same size regardless
of distance; similarly, an object identified as a lump of coal tends to look black even when
intensely illuminated.

The experience of constancy may break down under extreme conditions. If distance is
sufficiently great, for example, the perceived size of objects will decrease; thus, viewed from an
airplane in flight, there seem to be “toy” houses, cars, and people below. To the extent that they
prevail, the constancies lend the perceiver’s experience and behaviour relative stability. Imagine
an alternative, kaleidoscopic perceptual world in which everything seems to change, solid objects
apparently swelling, shrinking, and warping with every movement. Breakdown in perceptual
constancy seems to complicate the course of some psychiatric disorders in which the perceptual
boundary between the sufferer and the external world is weakened. Normal constancies also can
be intentionally overcome, as in paintings of flabby watches and distorted people that apparently
depict the unique perceptual world of the artist.
Visual Perceptual Constancies
There are many common visual and perceptual constancies that we experience during
the perception process.
Size Constancy

Within a certain range, people's perception of a particular object's size will not change,
regardless of changes in distance or size change on the retina. The perception of the image is still
based upon the actual size of the perceptual characteristics. The visual perception of size
constancy has given rise to many optical illusions.

Shape Constancy
Regardless of changes to an object's orientation, the shape of the object as it is perceived is
constant. Or, perhaps more accurately, the actual shape of the object is sensed by the eye as
changing but then perceived by the brain as the same. This happens when we watch a door open:
the actual image on our retinas is different each time the door swings in either direction, but we
perceive it as being the same door made of the same shapes.

Distance Constancy

This refers to the relationship between apparent distance and physical distance. An example of
this illusion in daily life is the moon. When it is near the horizon, it is perceived as closer to
Earth than when it is directly overhead.

Color Constancy

This is a feature of the human color perception system that ensures that the color of an object
remains similar under varying conditions. Consider the shade illusion: our perception of how
colors are affected by bright light versus shade causes us to perceive the two squares as different
colors. In fact, they are the same exact shade of gray.
Auditory Perceptual Constancies
Our eyes aren't the only sensory organs that "trick" us into perceptual constancy. Our ears do the
job as well. In music, we can identify a guitar as a guitar throughout a song, even when its
timbre, pitch, loudness, or environment change. In speech perception, vowels and consonants are
perceived as constant even if they sound very different due to the speaker's age, sex, or dialect.
For example, the word "apple" sounds very different when a two year-old boy and a 30 year-old
woman say it, because their voices are at different frequencies and their mouths form the word
differently... but we perceive the sounds to be the same. This is thanks to auditory perceptual
constancy!

The Experimental Method

 The experimental method is usually taken to be the most scientific of all methods, the 'method
of choice'.  The main problem with all the non-experimental methods is lack of control over the
situation.  The experimental method is a means of trying to overcome this problem.  The
experiment is sometimes described as the cornerstone of psychology: This is partly due to the
central role experiments play in many of the physical sciences and also to psychology's historical
view of itself as a science.  A considerable amount of psychological research uses the
experimental method.

An experiment is a study of cause and effect.  It differs from non-experimental methods in that
it involves the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other
variables constant.

 Experiments in the Laboratory:

In psychological experiments (like experiments in other fields) we try to keep all aspects of the
situation constant except one - the one we are looking at.  For example, suppose we want to
investigate which of two methods is more successful at teaching children to read.  The aspect
that we vary is called the independent variable (IV) and we change this in a very precise
way.  In this example the teaching method is the independent variable. We call the factor which
we then measure, in our example it would be some measure of the childrens reading ability,
the dependent variable (DV), because, if our ideas are correct, it depends on the independent
variable.  In our example, the childrens reading ability depends on the teaching method used.

The variable which is being manipulated by the researcher is therefore called the independent
variable and the dependent variable is the change in behaviour measured by the researcher.

All other variables which might affect the results and therefore give us a false set of results are
called confounding variables (also referred to as random variables).  Examples of confounding
variables in the example given might include the following

 Differences in the instructions given by an experimenter or in the stimulus materials

being used (which could be overcome by standardising instructions and materials foe all
those taking part)
 Differences between participants, e.g. in their age (which could be eliminated as a
variable by using a single age group, or alternatively it could be made more constant by
ensuring that the age structure of each of the groups taking part in the experiment is very
similar).

By changing one variable (the IV) while measuring another (the  DV)  while we control all
others, as far as possible, then the experimental method allows us to draw conclusions with far
more certainty than any non-experimental method.  If the IV is the only thing that is changed
then it must be responsible for any change in the dependent variable.

Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants
into 2 groups, the experimental group and the control group, and then introduce a change for
the experimental group and not the control group.  Suppose we wish to see if people sit at a
library table for a shorter time if someone comes and sits at the same table than if they remain
alone.  First we must measure the average amount of time people sit when they are alone.  This is
the control condition and it gives us a baseline against which to judge our results.  Then we send
a confederate to sit at the same table and we measure the average amount of time the person sits
there.  This is the experimental condition. 

A control group, then, is a group for whom the experimenter does not change the IV.  The
experimental and control groups must be matched on all important characteristics, e.g. age, sex,
experience etc.

Advantages of laboratory experiments:

1.      Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established.  It has
already been noted that an experiment differs from non-experimental methods in that it
enables us to study cause and effect because it involves the deliberate manipulation of one
variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.  Sometimes the independent
variable (IV) is thought of as the cause and the dependent variable (DV) as the effect.
2.      It allows for precise control of variables.      The purpose of control is to enable the
experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected (the IV), in order to
observe its effect on some other variable (the DV); control is intended to allow us to
conclude that it is the IV, and nothing else, which is influencing the DV.

3.      Experiments can be replicated.  We cannot generalise from the results of a single

experiment.  The more often an experiment is repeated, with the same results obtained, the
more confident we can be that the theory being tested is valid.  The experimental method
consists of standardised procedures and measures which allow it to be easily repeated.

4.      It is also worth noting that an experiment yields quantitative data (numerical amounts of
something) which can be analysed using inferential statistical tests.  These tests permit
statements to be made about how likely the results are to have occurred through chance.

Limitations of laboratory experiments:

1.      Artificiality:  The experiment is not typical of real life situations.  Most experiments are

conducted in laboratories - strange and contrived environments in which people are asked to
perform unusual or even bizarre tasks.  The artificiality of the lab, together with the
'unnatural' things that the subjects may be asked to do, jointly produces a distortion of
behaviour.   Therefore it should be difficult to generalise findings from experiments because
they are not ecologically valid (true to real life).   

2.      Behaviour in the laboratory is very narrow in its range.  By controlling the situation so
precisely, behaviour may be very limited. 

3.      A major difficulty with the experimental method is demand characteristics.   Some of the
many confounding variables in a psychology experiment stem from the fact that a
psychology experiment is a social situation in which neither the Subjects or the
Experimenters are passive, inanimate objects but are active, thinking human beings.  Imagine
you’ve been asked to take part in a psychology experiment.  Even if you didn’t study
psychology, you would be trying to work out what the experimenter expected to find
out.  Experimenters too have expectations about what their results are likely to be.  Demand
characteristics are all the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the
experiment.

4.      The experimental method as used in psychology has a history of using biased

or unrepresentative sampling.  George Miller (1962) estimated that 90% of U.S.
experiments have used college students (who are accessible and 'cheap') and yet the results
still tend to be generalised to the U.S. population as a whole, and often beyond that to
Britain, Western Europe, etc.  But there is no reason to believe that U.S. college students are
typical of any other group in terms of gender, age, personality, social class background or
any other subject variable which can influence how subjects will perform in any
experimental situation.  What's more, these students are often psychology students who are
required to participate in research as a course requirement!
5.      It has already been noted that a strength of the experimental method is the amount of
control which experimenters have over variables.  However it must also be noted that it is not
possible to completely control all variables.  There may be other variables at work which the
experimenter is unaware of.  In particular, it is impossible to completely control the mental
world of people taking part in a study.   

6.      A very major problem with the experimental method concerns ethics.  For example,
experiments nearly always involve deceiving participants to some extent and the very term
'subject' implies that the participant is being treated as something less than a person. Recently
the use of the experimental method has come under considerable criticism for the way that
researchers often break ethical guidelines.  It is also important to recognise that there are very
many areas of human life which cannot be studied using the experimental method because it
would be simply too unethical to do so.

7.      Another issue is to do with normative data.   Some researchers consider that an important

advantage which experiments have over, say, observational techniques is the random
assignment of research participants to experimental conditions.  This helps to reduce the
problems of analysis caused by systematic differences between people.  Other psychologists,
however, argue that grouping people together in this way, and trying to cancel out individual
differences so that we only look at a group norm, is limited in how much it can tell us
because it ignores what is special about people.

 Mainly because of the above limitations psychologists are increasingly more likely to use other
non-experimental methods - and in particular more qualitative methods.

 The Field Experiment:

Sometimes it is possible to carry out experiments in a more natural setting, i.e. in ‘the field ’.  A
famous example of this is the series of studies carried out by Piliavin et al (1969) in which they
arranged for a person to collapse on an underground train and waited to see how long it was
before the person was helped.  One of the independent variables they used was the appearance of
the ‘victim’:  whether he was carrying a walking stick or whether he appeared to be drunk. As
with the laboratory experiment, the independent variable is still deliberately manipulated by the
researcher. However it is not possible to have such tight control over variables in the field, but it
does have the advantage of being far less artificial than the laboratory.

 Natural Experiments:

 In some circumstances, psychologists can take advantage of a natural situation in order to carry
out an investigation in circumstances which they cannot themselves manipulate.  For example, a
primary school may decide to try out a completely new reading scheme and the effects of this
could be compared with a similar school using a different reading scheme.  A local hospital may
decide to have mixed wards rather than separate wards for men and women.  The effects on the
patients of being in these wards could be compared with those in single-sex wards.
 This is not a true experiment because the psychologist is unable to manipulate or control
variables.  For this reason it is sometimes referred to as a quasi-experiment.  It is possible,
though to compare two groups, the equivalent of an experimental and a control group.  It has the
advantage that the participants are unaware that they are taking part in an investigation and it is
certainly not as artificial as a laboratory setting.

Psychology as a science of Behaviour

Psychology is one of the behavioural sciences — a broad field that spans the social and natural
sciences.
Psychology attempts to understand the role human behaviour plays in social dynamics while
incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental
functioning.
Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behaviour, and social interaction.
Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behaviour as it
actually occurs.
Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and
the brain or nervous system.
There are several branches of psychology.
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behaviour and mental life of animals other
than human beings.
It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behaviour, such as ethology.
Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behaviour and mental
processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its
own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary
links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology
by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behaviour systems as seen in
neuroscience of psychology.
Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of behaviour, thought and
emotion, commonly called an individual's personality.
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental
psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the
world and how these processes change as they age.
This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.

William Mc Doughall-1949 Psychology is the investigation of human & animal behaviour & of
the mental & physiological processes associated with the behaviour.

Meaning of Behaviour in psychology:

In psychology, behaviour consists of an organism's external reactions to its environment. Other
aspects of psychology, such as emotions, thoughts, and other internal mental processes, don't
usually fall under the category of behaviour.

Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the
debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behaviour began. The first school
of thought,

Structuralism: was advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt.
Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance in psychology. The
following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and
understanding of psychology:

Structuralism vs. Functionalism: Structuralism was the first school of psychology, and focused
on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major structuralist thinkers
include

Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of
the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of William James.
Major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.

Behaviourism: Behaviourism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Based
upon the work of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner, behaviourism
holds that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes, rather than by internal forces.
Behaviourism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including classical
conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.

Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud was the found of psychodynamic approach. This school of
thought emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the
human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. Other major
psychodynamic thinkers include Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and Erik Erikson.

Humanistic Psychology: Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and

behaviourism. Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth,
and self-actualization. Major humanist thinkers included Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that we experience things as
unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather that breaking down
thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the gestalt psychologists believed that you must
look at the whole of experience. According to the gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.
Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental
processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field
of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics. One of the most influential theories from this school of
thought was the stages of cognitive development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.