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European
Recommendations
for the
Design, Detailing
and Application of
Fastenings for
Sandwich Panels
ECCS TC7 TWG7.9
Sandwich Panels and related Structures
Authors Wim Bakens, Ivan Balazs, Andrej Belica, Klaus Berner, Nicholas Brown, Sebastien
Charton, JM Davies, Mircea Georgescu, Paavo Hassinen, Simo Heikkilä, Antti
Helenius, Lars Heselius, David Izabel, Karsten Kathage, Saskia Käpplein, Jörg
Lange, Philip Leach, Jan-Christer Mäki, Thomas Misiek, Youcef Mokrani, Bernd
Naujoks, Ute Pfaff, Lars Pfeiffer, Ralf Podleschny, Zbigniew Pozorski, Kari
Rantakylä, Keith Roberts, Daniel Ruff, Helmut Saal, Johan Schedin, Robert Xiao,
Danijel Zupancic
Language English
Pages 114 p.
ISBN 978-9063-63-09-73
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other-
wise, without the prior permission of the copy-right owner
CIB assumes no liability regarding the use for any application of the material and information con-
tained in this publication.
Copyright © 2019 CIB – International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Con-
struction
Photo cover credits Matthias Möldner (EJOT Baubefestigungen GmbH, Bad Laasphe, Germany)
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | II
PREFACE
PREFACE
This document provides the guidance on design, detailing and application of fas-
tenings for sandwich panels. As the current and existing “Preliminary European
Recommendations for testing and design of fastenings for sandwich panels” has
been mainly written from the manufacturer’s point of view that focuses more on the
determination of resistance values against the test results. This document will pro-
vide guidance for designers and contractors and therefore is focusing more on
loads and actions on fastenings of sandwich panels. For readers interested in the
background information, references to other publications are given, for example to
other ERs, standards or scientific papers.
This document has been prepared by the Joint Committee of ECCS TC7 TWG7.9
and CIB Working Commission W056. The members of the Joint Committee who
contributed to the document are:
NOTATION
NEd design value of the tensile force ECc compression modulus of the core
VEd design value of the shear force fCc compression strength of the core
NRk characteristic value of the tensile fu,F1 tensile strength of the external
resistance face
VRk characteristic value of the shear fu,F2 tensile strength of the internal
resistance face
max u maximum allowable value of fu,II tensile strength of the supporting
head deflection structure
NRd design value of the tensile re- d external thread diameter of the
sistance screw, usually the nominal diame-
VRd design value of the shear re- ter
sistance d0 diameter of the hole
dW diameter of washer
D overall depth of the panel dpd self-drilling screw: max (d1, ddp)
dC continuous depth of the panel self-tapping screw: predrilling di-
core material, dc = D - (tF1 + tF2) ameter
DF distance between top of support- d1 core diameter of the thread
ing structure and top of external ddp diameter of drill-point
face at point of fastening def effective diameter
b1 width of the ribs of the external P pitch of the thread
face (see EN 14509)
fu,SG tensile strength of the material
tF1 design sheet thickness of the ex- of the screw
ternal face as,SG ratio of shear to tensile
tF2 design sheet thickness of the in- strength
ternal face FAs,SG Load-bearing capacity of the
tII design sheet thickness of the thread of the screw
supporting structure FAs,MG Load-bearing capacity of the
tnom,F1 nominal sheet thickness of the inside thread in the supporting
external face structure
tnom,F2 nominal sheet thickness of the R(AMG,SG) Reduction divisor for
internal face combined failure in both threads
tnom,II nominal sheet thickness of the
supporting structure t1 is the smaller of the thickness of
the timber side member or the
V | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
SYMBOLOGY
CONTENTS
1
The presentation of the supporting structures both in the text or figures must inevitably be limited
to exemplary cross-sectional shapes and manufacturing processes. However, unless explicitly
mentioned in individual cases, this does not result in any general limitation with regard to the scope
of application of these recommendations.
2 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
1 INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION RANGE
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 3
2 DEFINITIONS
2 DEFINITIONS
fastener connecting element in a fastening
fastening interaction of fastener with surrounding material
connection group (one or more) of fasteners
component I the component which is next to the head of the fas-
tening screw, usually the sandwich panel to be fastened
component II the component which is opposite to the head of the fas-
tening screw, usually the supporting structure
direct fastening fastening of sandwich panels which penetrates both
faces of the panel (through fastening). The fasteners
head is visible. Direct fastenings are sometimes referred
to as visible fastenings.
hidden fastening fastening of sandwich panels along their longitudinal
joints, taking advantage of the geometry of the joint. The
fastening is not visible. If no adapter plates are used
(through fastening), the fastener is penetrating the panel
sometimes also using a steel plate under the head of
the fastener for increase of pull-through resistance. If
adapter plates are used, the fastener is referred to as
indirect fastening. Hidden fastenings are often referred
to as concealed fastenings.
indirect fastening fastening using special adapter plates, screw is not
penetrating the panel, usually a hidden fastening, i.e.
fastening is hidden in the longitudinal joint between ad-
jacent panels.
sealing washer annular washer with vulcanized sealing usually made of
EPDM
saddle washer prismatic washer for crest-fastening of panels with pro-
filed faces. The width corresponds to the width of the rib
of the external face. Saddle washers are usually provid-
ed with a rubber foam sealing.
self-drilling screw screws with a drill-point so that the drilling of the hole,
the tapping of the female and screwing-in is done in one
operating sequence
self-tapping screw screw which taps the female thread in an existing hole
i.e. self-tapping screws require pre-drilling.
concrete screw hardened screw for fastening to concrete structures,
often double-threaded, taps a thread into the concrete
4 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
2 DEFINITIONS
screws in one part with a drill-point which has not to be welded on. Corrosion re-
sistance is considerably lower than for austenitic stainless steel and high hardness
after heat treatment makes them vulnerable to hydrogen embrittlement and stress
corrosion cracking.
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
4.1 Actions and loads
Shear forces in fasteners are mainly caused by self-weight loading2 of the panel or
roof thrust caused by self-weight or snow (Fig. 4.1). Other possible sources are
forces from lateral stabilisation of the supporting beams, purlins or rails (see ECCS
publication no. 135/CIB publication no. 379 (2014)), diaphragm action (including
seismic actions) or forces from restraint thermal movements. The design value of
the shear force caused by action effects is denoted with VEd. Determination of ac-
tion effects is based on the different parts of EN 1991. For a complete overview on
actions acting on sandwich panels see ECCS publication no. 136/CIB publication
no. 401 (2015).
Shear loads in connections are predominantly transferred by the internal face of
the panel (tF2), therefore failure occurs by elongation of the hole in the internal
face. Tilting of the fastener is prevented by sandwich panel itself. With the usual
sheet thicknesses of sandwich panels, shear failure of the fastener itself rarely oc-
curs.
Fig. 4.1: Shear forces in fasteners caused by self-weight and roof thrust
Tensile forces in fasteners are predominantly caused by wind suction (Fig. 4.2) or
2
Self-weight loading of wall panels may also be transferred via support angles at base points or
above large openings by reinforced girts.
10 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
restraint thermal deformation (Fig. 4.3). Other possible sources for tensile forces
are forces from torsional stabilisation of the supporting beams, purlins or rails, see
ECCS publication no. 135/CIB publication no. 379 (2014) or inertia forces caused
by seismic actions. The design value of the tensile force caused by action effects
is denoted with NEd. Determination of action effects is based on the different parts
of EN 1991. For normal applications increased action effects from wind gusts need
not to be taken into account when calculating the action effects. These are usually
considered when determining the resistance values and therefore covered by the
resistance values, see ECCS publication no. 127/CIB publication no. 320 (2009).
EN 14509 gives additional information on temperature loads. For a complete over-
view on actions acting on sandwich panels see ECCS publication no. 136/CIB pub-
lication no. 401 (2015).
Possible failure modes are pull-out failure from the supporting structure (tII) or pull-
over/pull-through failure through the external face of the panel (tF1). With the usual
sheet thicknesses of sandwich panels, tensile failure of the fastener itself rarely
occurs.
Fig. 4.3: Deflection of the fasteners and tensile forces in fasteners caused by restraint thermal de-
formation (here: summer design situation)
Fig. 4.4: Deflection u of the head of the fasteners caused by restraint thermal deformation
Exposure of roof panels to high snow loads might lead to a transverse compres-
sion deformation (shortening) of the core material at supports. This might cause a
gap between the external face and the washer or an improperly compressed seal-
ing, both causing leakage. Roof panels with indirect fastenings or wall panels in
general are not affected. Some national regulations and/or customers require
checking the value of transverse compression deformation, for example for alti-
tudes above 1000 m (see also EN 1991-1-3). The verifications may be done using
the formulas and requirements given in Annex B. See RAGE (2014a) for further
requirements and additional verifications.
The tensile and shear loads in fastenings shall be calculated for ultimate limit state
(ULS) using the theory of elasticity. This approach is different to the one used in
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 13
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
the design of the panels itself, where plastic hinges at intermediate supports are
usually assumed for ULS design (see EN 14509, chapter E.7.2.1). If this would be
done in design of fastenings, tensile forces caused by restraint thermal defor-
mation would be supressed. See references for detailed information on structural
analysis of sandwich panels. For ULS, the combination according to Eq. (4.1) ap-
plies.
Eq. (4.1)
The value of head deflection shall be calculated for fatigue limit state (FLS) using
the formulas given in Annex A and a characteristic value of temperature difference
of DT = T2 - T1 = -70 K only. This value is based on an assumed installation tem-
perature of 10° C and a temperature of the outer face of 80° C. The later assump-
tion is conservative and has become firmly established as good practice.
The value of transverse compression deformation of the core at supports shall be
calculated for serviceability limit state (SLS) using the theory of elasticity for calcu-
lation of support reactions and by means of the compressive modulus ECc accord-
ing to EN 14509. For SLS, the characteristic (rare) combination according to Eq.
(4.2) applies.
Ed = å Gk , j + Qk ,1
j³1
Eq. (4.2)
where Qk,1 is the characteristic value of actions caused by snow load. For the rare
combination, creep effects do not need to be considered.
N Rk = min{N Rk ,I ; N Rk ,II }
Eq. (4.3)
and
respectively. Failure of the fastener itself is usually covered by the resistance re-
lated to component II, however it will not become decisive with usual applications
in sandwich panels.
The resistance values can be determined by tests (see chapter 5) or by calculation
(see chapter 6 and table 4.1).
I 6.2.2
NR,k
II 6.3.2 6.3.2 6.3.3
I 6.4.2 -a) 6.4.2
VR,k
II -b) -a) 6.4.4
max. u 6.5.2
max. wS -c)
a)
Determination of resistance of fastenings of sandwich panels on aluminium supporting struc-
tures has to be based on tests.
b)
Within the application range given in chapter 6.4.2, no further verification of the characteristic
shear resistance of the supporting structure has to be done.
c)
The value of transverse compression deformation is usually limited to wS,Ck = 1 mm.
The characteristic values of resistance depend on spacing, edge distance and ar-
rangement of the fasteners and have to be checked against the test provisions or
application range of calculation formulas.
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 15
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
Partial safety factors for resistance values apply in design. The design values of
resistance are calculated by dividing the characteristic values with the partial safe-
ty factor gM:
N Rk ,I
N Rd ,I =
gM
Eq. (4.5)
N Rk , II
N Rd , II =
gM
Eq. (4.6)
V Rk , I
V Rd ,I =
gM
Eq. (4.7)
V Rk , II
V Rd , II =
gM
Eq. (4.8)
u Rk
max u º u Rd =
g M,f
Eq. (4.8)
wS ,Ck
max wS º wS ,Cd =
g M , ser
Eq. (4.8)
Usually, a partial safety factor of gM = 1.33 applies for ultimate limit state design of
fastenings of sandwich panels, but deviating values may be given in some approv-
als or in some national specifications. EN 1995-1-1 gives gM = 1.3 for timber sup-
porting structures, but since differences are negligible, gM = 1.33 is applied uni-
formly for ultimate limit state design.
For serviceability limit state and fatigue limit state, gM,ser = 1.00 and gM,f = 1.00 ap-
ply. As partial factors are set to unity, the designation "max u" and "max wS" usual-
ly apply.
The following proofs have to be made:
16 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
N Ed
£ 1 .0
N Rd ,I
Eq. (4.9)
N Ed
£ 1.0
N Rd , II
Eq. (4.10)
V Ed
£ 1 .0
V Rd , I
Eq. (4.11)
V Ed
£ 1 .0
V Rd , II
Eq. (4.12)
u
£ 1 .0
max u
Eq. (4.13)
wS
£ 1.0
max wS
Eq. (4.14)
In case of repeated shear forces with load reversal (shear forces with changing
direction), interaction has to be checked if VEd ³ 0.25 VRd,I using
N Ed V
0.75 × + Ed £ 1.0
N Rd , I V Rd , I
Eq. (4.15)
Deviating interaction approaches may be used if proven by tests. See also Kilian et
al. (2015) for enhanced interaction approaches. Care should be taken in cases
were equivalent static forces are used to design for effects actually associated with
a load reversal (e.g. wind loads or seismic loads in structures with sandwich pan-
els serving as bracing). In these cases, interaction should be checked using Eq.
(4.15).
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 17
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
In any case, for the supporting structure (component II) the interaction equation
N Ed V
+ Ed £ 1 .0
N Rd , II V Rd , II
Eq. (4.16)
2 2
æ N Ed ö æ ö
ç ÷ + ç V Ed ÷ £ 1 .0
çN ÷ çV ÷
è Rd , II ø è Rd , II ø
Eq. (4.17)
However, application of Eq. (4.16) is generally not covered by the ETAs of the fas-
teners.
18 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
4 DESIGN OF FASTENINGS
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 19
5 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY TESTING
Although the equations given in this chapter allow for calculation of characteristic
values of resistance, they are also based on tests. These equations were derived
by evaluating large numbers of tests. As these tests cover only a limited applica-
tion range, application of the equations is limited to this specific range, usually ex-
pressed by material properties of the sandwich panel, the supporting structure or
fastener and washer, but also spacing and edge distance. For applications outside
the specified scope, design shall be based on tests unless otherwise specified in
the following.
6.2.1 Background
First investigations on pull-through resistance of fastenings for sandwich panels
were done by Hassinen (2005), restricted to sandwich panels with flat or lightly
profiled faces and a mineral wool core. The design approach given here for direct
fastening of sandwich panels with flat or lightly profiled faces was published by
Hassinen & Misiek (2009). This approach was amended for crest-fastening without
saddle washers of panels with profiled faces by Misiek & Ummenhofer (2012). Lat-
est research by Ungermann & Lübke (2012) led to more sophisticated approaches
for panels with flat or lightly profiled faces, but generally confirmed the approaches
given below.
with
ECc compression modulus of the core
fCc compression strength of the core
dW diameter of the washer
tF1 design core sheet thickness of the external face
fu,F1 tensile strength of the external face
30 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
The simulated central support test according to EN 14509 uses the design re-
sistance NR,k,I according to EN14509. Therefore the use of NR,k,I according to Eq.
(6.1) might lead to a reduced wrinkling stress at the central support.
This approach does not cover reduction of resistance due to repeated loading as it
can be neglected for smaller diameters of washers. As a simplified approach, re-
sistance should be reduced to 75% in cases where first summand gives more than
20% of the total resistance calculated (i.e if FC,k > 0.25 FF,k).
æ ö
2
æ 8× d w ö
( )
- çç ÷÷
ç ÷
N Rk , I = 2 .21 × ECc × f Cc × dW2 + 0.65 × t F 1 × fu , F 1 × dW × ç 0.55 + 0.45 × e è p ×b1 ø ÷
ç ÷
è ø
Eq. (6.2)
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 31
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
applies with
b1 width of a rib, see Fig. 6.1
and the application range as given with Eq. (6.1), but only polyurethane or polyiso-
cyanurate core material with auto-adhesive bond.
6.3.1 Background
As there is no difference in failure modes and resistance, design procedures for
calculation of pull-out resistance given in EN 1993-1-3 (2006) and EN 1999-1-4
(2007) do also apply for fastenings of sandwich panels.
Latest design procedure for supporting structures made of steel or aluminium was
developed by Hettmann (2008). The procedure is related to the one used for met-
ric screws and nuts, but taking into account the local deformation behaviour of the
supporting structure, usually also consisting of thin sheets. Compared to the
aforementioned equations, this approach leads to both higher and more realistic
results, but requires much more effort.
For supporting structures made of timber, EN 1995-1-1 applies. The design proce-
dures given there require pull-out parameters determined by tests, but may be also
estimated by design equations.
with
FAs,SG Load-bearing capacity of the thread of the screw
FAs,MG Load-bearing capacity of the inside thread in the supporting structure
R(VMG,SG) Reduction divisor for combined failure in both threads taking into ac-
count failure of both threads.
The load-bearing capacity of the thread of the screw is calculated using Eq. (6.4).
é æ a öù t ×p
FAs ,SG = 1.2 × a s ,SG × f u ,SG × ê0.15mm + (d - d pd )× tanç ÷ ú × d pd × II
ë è 2 øû P
Eq. (6.4)
with
as,SG ratio of shear to tensile strength (0.70 for austenitic stainless steels and 0.61
for low-alloy carbon steels)
fu,SG tensile strength of the material of the screw (930 N/mm² for austenitic stain-
less steels and 1190 N/mm² for low-alloy carbon steels)
tII design core sheet thickness of the supporting structure.
and dimensions d, dpd, P and angle a according to Fig. 6.2.
d pd = max{d dp ; d1}
Eq. (6.5)
applies. The load-bearing capacity of the inside thread in the supporting structure
is calculated using Eq. (6.6).
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 33
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
Eq. (6.6)
with
ì0.9 × d pd d pd £ 4mm
ï
t* = í d pd for 4mm < d pd £ 5mm
ï1.1 × d d pd > 5mm
î pd
Eq. (6.7)
ì p 2
ï × t II + t II × j EA t II £ 0.60mm
P
ïé ù
ïê(2p - j )2 × P ... ú
d ïïê 4p
c
ú for
F *As ,MG = 0.60 × f u ,II × × íê
2 ï + (P - 0.15mm) × ç æ 2p ö ú t II ³ max{t*;4.90mm}
ê × t II - 2p + j c ÷...ú
ïê è P ø ú
ïê ú
ïê+ j EA × æç P - 0.15mm - ö
P
× j EA ÷ ú
îïë è 4p ø û
Eq. (6.8)
the exponent
æ F * As,MG (t II = t *) ö
lnçç ÷
0 .95 × F * (t = 0. 60 mm ) ÷
b= è ø
As , MG II
æ t* ö
ln ç ÷
è 0.60mm ø
Eq. (6.10)
æa ö p
j EA = (d - d pd ) × tan ç ÷×
è2ø P
Eq. (6.11)
34 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
2p
j c = 0 .15 mm ×
P
Eq. (6.12)
FAs ,MG
VMG , SG =
FAs ,SG
Eq. (6.13)
and
ì æ
1.95× 1- 1
ö
VMG ,SG £ 1
ï1 + 0.3 × e çè VMG ,SG ÷ø
R(VMG, SG ) = í for
ïî 1 + 0.3 × e 2.5×(1-VMG,SG ) VMG , SG > 1
Eq. (6.14)
ì0.45 × d × t II × fu , II t <P
N Rk , II = í if II
î0.65 × d × t II × fu , II t II ³ P
Eq. (6.15)
N Rk , II = 0.95 × f u , II × d × t II3
Eq. (6.16)
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 35
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
0 ,8
nef × f ax,k × d × lef
ær ö
Fax, Rk = × çç k ÷÷
1.2 × cos a + sin a è r a
2 2
ø
Eq. (6.17)
with
nef effective number of fasteners according to EN 1995-1-1, 8.2.3, Eq. (8.17)
fax,k characteristic withdrawal strength perpendicular to the direction of grain
d external thread diameter of the screw, usually the nominal diameter
lef effective length, penetration length of the thread, lef = lg - lb; lef ≥ 5·d
lg screw-in length - part of thread into component II including length of drill point
lb length of unthreaded part of the drill point
a angle between the force and the direction of grain
rk characteristic density
ra associated density related to fax,k, usually ra = 350 kg/m³ for timber of
36 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
EN 1995-1-1 requires lef ≥ 5·d which is often reduced to lef ≥ 4·d for fastenings of
sheeting profiles or sandwich panels. If this is done, this has to be supported by
test results: The characteristic withdrawal strength fax,k has to be determined with
this lower effective length. For spacings and edge distances see table 6.2
4.8 34 24 48 19
5.5 39 28 55 22
6.0 42 30 60 24
6.3 44 32 63 25
6.5 46 33 65 26
8.0 56 40 80 32
For fasteners with threads usually applied for fastening of sandwich panels to tim-
ber supporting structures, the characteristic withdrawal strength perpendicular to
the direction of grain can be calculated with
with
fax,k characteristic withdrawal strength perpendicular to the direction of grain in
N/mm²
rk characteristic density in kg/m³
0 ,8
æ ö
ç rk ÷
Fax , Rk = f ax ,k × d × lef × ç ÷
ç 350 kg 3 ÷
è m ø
Eq. (6.19)
for n = nef = 1.0. For the calculation of the characteristic load-bearing capacity, the
modification factor for duration of load and moisture content (see EN 1995-1-1,
table 3.1) has to be taken into account:
with
kmod modification factor for load duration class and moisture content described by
service class
Actions are assigned to one of the load-duration classes given in table 6.3. Exam-
ples of load-duration assignment are given in table 6.3, too. Since climatic loads
(snow, wind) vary between countries, the assignment of load-duration classes may
be specified in the National annex to EN 1995-1-1.
6.4.1 Background
As the internal face of the sandwich panel is usually thinner than the supporting
structure, failure of the internal face dominates load-bearing capacity of the fas-
tening. This is also expressed by the available design equations which base on the
properties of the internal face, only, but require minimum resistance of the support-
ing structure. For steel supporting structures this minimum resistance is defined by
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 39
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
VRk , I = 4.2 × t F3 2 × d1 × f u , F 2
Eq. (6.21)
with
tF2 design core sheet thickness of the internal face of the sandwich panel
d1 internal thread diameter of the threaded part of the fastener
fu,F2 tensile strength of the internal face
Within the application range, no further verification of the characteristic shear re-
sistance VRk,II of the supporting structure (component II) has to be done. For inter-
action verification for the supporting structure, VRk,II might be conservatively esti-
mated by evaluating Eq. (6.21) for tII = tF2 = 1.46 mm.
ì 0.4 × f h,k × t1 × d ef
ï
FV , Rk = min í Fax ,Rk
ïî1.15 × 2 × M y , Rk × f h,k × d ef + 4
Eq. (6.22)
with
fh,k characteristic embedment strength of timber member
t1 is the smaller of the thickness of the timber side member or the penetration
depth
def effective diameter: 1.1-times the thread root diameter, for which the simplified
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 41
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
assumption of 0.7·d can be made. For screws with partially smooth shank di-
ameter and a penetration depth > 4·d def is taken as the shank diameter
My,Rk characteristic yield moment of fastener
Fax,k characteristic axial withdrawal capacity of the fastener acc. to Eq. (6.17) or
Eq. (6.19)
Eq. (6.22) applies for tF1 ≤ 0.5·d, neglecting the effect of clamping of the fastener in
the sandwich panel. Clamping of the fasteners and assuming a plastic hinge in the
fastener as given by EN 1995-1-1, Eq. (8.10) should not be taken into account be-
cause the thin faces do not prevent deformation by elongation of holes and do not
allow evolution of a plastic hinge.
Eq. (6.22) assumes fasteners perpendicular to the direction of grain. Nails in end
grain should not be considered capable of transmitting lateral forces. Spacing and
edge distances according to Figs. 6.4 to 6.7 and table 6.5 apply.
a3,c
direction
of grain
direction a4,c
of force
direction d d
of grain a4,c
direction
of force
4.8 24 14 58 24 34 14 34 14
5.5 28 17 66 39 39 17 39 17
6.0 30 18 72 42 42 18 42 18
6.3 32 19 76 44 44 19 44 19
6.5 33 20 78 46 46 20 46 20
8.0 40 24 96 56 56 24 56 24
Based on the assumption of predrilled holes, including fastenings with self-drilling screws.
Designations according to EN 1995-1-1, see also Figs. 6.4 to 6.7.
See EN 1995-1-1 for detailed determination of spacings and edge distances or for applications
not covered here.
with
def effective diameter: 1.1-times the thread root diameter, for which the simplified
assumption of 0.7·d can be made. For screws with partially smooth shank di-
ameter and a penetration depth > 4·d def is taken as the shank diameter
rk characteristic density
For calculating the embedment strength, d can be used instead of def, causing no
significant difference in value. If not available, the characteristic yield moment of a
fastener is calculated with
44 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
with
fu,SGk characteristic tensile strength, in N/mm². A value of fu,SG = 500 N/mm² should
be assumed using this equation.
def effective diameter: 1.1-times the thread root diameter, for which the simplified
assumption of 0.7·d can be made. For screws with partially smooth shank di-
ameter and a penetration depth > 4·d def is taken as the shank diameter
The summand Fax,k/4 describes the effects of catenary action and has to be limited
to
Fax,Rk
£ 1.15 × 2 × M y,Rk × f h,k × def
4
Eq. (6.25)
VRk , II = FV , Rk × kmod
Eq. (6.26)
with
kmod modification factor for load duration class and moisture content described by
service class, see chapter 6.2.3.
For component I, an additional verification using Eq. (6.21) has to be done, taking
into account the resistance of the internal face. The smaller value applies.
When a force in a connection acts at an angle to the grain the possibility of splitting
caused by the tension force component VEd sina perpendicular to the grain shall
be taken into account. Splitting resistance shall be checked against the shear forc-
es on either side of the connection using the splitting capacity
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 45
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
N be
F90, Rk = 14 3
×h×
b
mm 2
1- e
b
Eq. (6.27)
with
h is the timber member height
be is the loaded edge distance to the center of the most distant fastener
b is the timber member width (width of support)
with
kmod modification factor for load duration class and moisture content described by
service class, see chapter 6.2.3.
6.5.1 Background
Allowable value of head deflection depends on material of the fastener, length of
cantilever (thickness of the panel) and rotational spring at point of clamping into
the supporting structure (thickness of the supporting structure). Calculation of head
deflection u(DT) is described in Annex A. As tests are comparatively time-
consuming and expensive, but demanded head deflection is usually much lower
than allowable value of head deflection determined in tests, simple and conserva-
tive equations were developed in Misiek et al. (2011) and Misiek et al. (2013).
6.5.2 Design equations for steel, aluminium and timber supporting structures
The design equations for austenitic stainless steel fasteners can be written as
ì D
ï0.3mm × F
max u = maxí tII
ïî 0.07 × DF
Eq. (6.29)
46 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
6 RESISTANCE DETERMINED BY CALCULATION
ì 2 DF
ï0.51mm × 2
max u = í tII
ï 0.023 × D
î F
Eq. (6.30)
These equations were originally developed for steel supporting structures, but give
conservative but not uneconomical values for aluminium supporting structures. For
timber supporting structures, the minimum value given with each equation is a
conservative approximation.
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 47
7 EXECUTION AND MAINTENANCE
This chapter gives information about basic requirements on execution and mainte-
nance. Additional information can be found in EN 1090-4 (2016), EN 1090-5
(2016), IFBS (2014), RAGE (2014a) and RAGE (2014b).
Fasteners according to European Standards, European Technical Assessments
(ETA), European Technical Approvals (ETA) or national technical approvals shall
be used in fastening the sandwich panels to the supporting structure or in the con-
nections between the adjacent sandwich panels.
The type of fastener with designation of the relevant European Standard, ETA or
approval (which states the dimensions, materials and mechanical properties of the
fasteners as well as characteristic values of the resistance of the connections)
shall be specified.
Layout drawings shall be prepared for the execution as a part of the execution
specification as defined in EN 1090-4 and EN 1090-5. With respect to fastening,
the following details shall be included:
- fasteners with type designation and material
- type and material of washer and/or saddle washer
- arrangement and separation distances (spacings, end and edge distances)
- predrill-diameter and pre-drilling depth for self-tapping screws, concrete
screws and spikes
- minimum effective length for timber supporting structures
- special assembly instructions depending on the type of fastening
The performance of fasteners will depend on the site methodology that may be
determined by procedure testing. Procedure tests may be used to demonstrate
that the required connections can be performed under site conditions.
7.5 Installation
both sides of the beam’s flanges, depending on the requirements defined in the
design. The pre-drill diameter of the self-tapping screws shall comply with the val-
ue given in the technical approval.
A minimum edge distance of ≥ 20 mm in direction of the span is required, if no
larger value is given by an approval or by the manufacturer.
Fasteners shall be placed perpendicular to the surface of the panel to obtain a
safe, water- and air-tight connection. This requirement might be a challenge in
cases in which the depth of the sandwich panels is large. Further information about
the mounting of regular sandwich panels can be found in the ECCS publication no.
62 (1990), IFBS (2014), RAGE (2014a) and RAGE (2014b).
The use of an additional guide in the screw gun to guarantee the perpendicular
direction of the screws in case of thick panels (> 100 mm) is recommended. The
limiting factors for variances may be the tightness of the sealants of the washer
under static and dynamic loads, the performance of the drilling operation and the
positioning of the screw end in the correct place in the supporting structure.
Fig. 7.1: Tightening of the screws of sandwich panels to the supporting structure (figure: IFBS
(2014))
7.6 Maintenance
The building owner is advised to have roofs and façades serviced at regular inter-
vals by qualified personnel with the necessary professional competence and expe-
rience and sufficient knowledge in order to avoid damage.
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 51
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Misiek Th, Käpplein S, Ulbrich D, (2013), Selecting materials for fastening screws for metal mem-
bers and sheeting, Steel Construction - design and research Vol. 6, pp. 39-46.
EN 1993-1-4, (2006). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-4: General rules - Supplemen-
tary rules for stainless steels. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
EN 1993-1-4/A1, (2015). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-4: General rules - Supple-
mentary rules for stainless steels. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brus-
sels.
General design
EN 1990, (2002). Eurocode: Basis of structural design. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de
Normalisation), Brussels.
EN 14509, (2013). Self-supporting double skin metal faced insulating panels - Factory made prod-
ucts - Specifications. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
prEN 14509-2, (2017). Structural double skin metal faced insulating panels - Factory made prod-
ucts - Specifications. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
EN 1993-1-3, (2006). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-3: General rules, Supplemen-
tary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Norma-
lisation), Brussels.
EN 1999-1-4, (2007). Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures. Part 1-4: Cold-formed structural
sheeting. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
ECCS TC7, (2008), The Testing of Connections with Mechanical Fasteners in Steel Sheeting and
Sections, ECCS publication no. 124, Brussels.
ECCS TC7 TWG7.9 and CIB W056, (2009), Preliminary European Recommendations for testing
and design of fastenings for sandwich panels, CIB publication 320 / ECCS publication no. 127,
Rotterdam/Brussels.
ECCS TC7 TWG7.9 and CIB W056, (2015), European Recommendations for the Determination of
Loads and Actions on Sandwich Panels. ECCS publication no. 136/CIB publication no. 401, Brus-
sels/Rotterdam.
52 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
REFERENCES
ECCS TC7 TWG7.9 and CIB W056, (under preparation), European Recommendations for the De-
sign of Sandwich Panels with Point or Line Loads. ECCS publication/CIB publication, Brus-
sels/Rotterdam.
EOTA, (2010), Fastening Screws for Sandwich Panels. CUAP 06.02/12, Common Understanding of
Assessment Procedure for European Technical Approval according to Article 9.2 of the Construc-
tion Products Directive, Brussels.
Hassinen P, Misiek Th, (2009), Fixings of sandwich panels in building applications, Nordic Steel
Construction Conference 2009 – Proceedings, pp. 263-271.
Misiek Th, Käpplein S, Hettmann R, Saal H, Ummenhofer Th, (2011), Rechnerische Ermittlung der
Tragfähigkeit der Befestigung von Sandwichelementen (computation of loadbearing capacity of
fixings of sandwich panels), Bauingenieur Vol. 86, pp. 418–424.
Misiek Th, (2010), Connections of Sandwich Panels / Spojevi sandwich panela, Presentation held
at the EASIE Workshop in Zagreb.
Structural analysis
SNPPA (2007), Formulaire de Résistance des Matériaux - Poutres avec prise en compte des dé-
formations dues à la flexion et á l'effort tranchant, Tomes 1 à 5. SNPPA Syndicat national du Profi-
lage des Produits Plats en Acier, Paris.
Naujoks B, Misiek Th, (2015), Praxisgerechte Nachweise zur Tragfähigkeit und Gebrauchstauglich-
keit von Sandwichelementen mittels Fachwerkmodellen (Practical checks at ultimate limit state and
serviceability limit state of sandwich panels using truss systems.). Stahlbau Vol. 84, pp. 890-907.
EN 14509, (2013). Self-supporting double skin metal faced insulating panels - Factory made prod-
ucts - Specifications. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 53
REFERENCES
Pull-out resistance
Pull-through resistance
Misiek Th, Saal H, Kathage K, (2008), Durchknöpftragfähigkeit der Befestigungsmittel bei Sandwi-
chelementen mit direkter Befestigung, Stahlbau Vol. 77, pp. 352-359.
Misiek Th, Ummenhofer Th, (2011), Crest-fixing of profiled sandwich panels without saddle wash-
ers, In: Advances in Steel and Aluminum Structures, Research Publishing Services, pp. 515-521.
Shear resistance
Käpplein S, Misiek Th, (2011), Tests on the in plane-shear resistance of sandwich panels - Connec-
tions of sandwich panels. EASIE - Ensuring advancement in Sandwich Construction through Inno-
vation and Exploitation; D3.2 - part 2,
http://digbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/volltexte/documents/1770941.
Käpplein S, Misiek Th, (2011), Connections of sandwich panels - Stiffness and load bearing capaci-
ty of shear loaded fastenings of sandwich panels. EASIE - Ensuring advancement in Sandwich
Construction through Innovation and Exploitation; D3.3 - part 3,
http://digbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/volltexte/documents/1770559.
ECCS TC7 TWG 7.4, (1990), Preliminary European Recommendations for Sandwich Panels – Part
II Good Practice. ECCS publication no. 62, Brussels.
EN 1090-4, (2018). Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures – Part 4: Technical re-
quirements for cold-formed structural steel elements and cold-formed structures for roof, ceiling,
floor and wall applications. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
EN 1090-5, (2017). Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures – Part 5: Technical re-
quirements for cold-formed structural steel elements and cold-formed structures for roof, ceiling,
floor and wall applications. Published by CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation), Brussels.
IFBS General Rules, (2014), General rules for the use of profiled metal sheeting - IFBS - Technical
Rules for Lightweight Metal Construction. IFBS International Association for Metal Building Enve-
lopes, Krefeld.
IFBS Installation, (2014), Guideline for the planning and installation of roof, wall and deck construc-
tions made from profiled metal sheeting - IFBS - Technical Rules for Lightweight Metal Construc-
tion. IFBS International Association for Metal Building Envelopes, Krefeld.
ANNEXES
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 59
ANNEX A: HEAD DEFLECTION
Both shear deformation (Fig. A.1) and bending rotation (Fig. A.2) at supports re-
sults in a relative displacement of both faces, related to a deflection of the head of
the fastener relative to the point of fixation at the supporting structure.
t
g=
GC
Eq. (A.1)
dw
g1 =
dx
Eq. (A.2)
The displacement u of the head of the fasteners can be calculated on the basis of
the superposition of displacements u(g) and u(g1) as shown in Fig. A.3.
60 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX A: HEAD DEFLECTION
e
DF
u = u(g 1 ) - u (g ) = g 1 × DF - g × e
Eq. (A.3)
with distance DF between top of supporting structure and top of external face at
point of fastening.
The calculated deflection u shall be less than the maximum allowable value of
head deflection max u as determined in chapter 6.5.
e2
S = AC × GC = × B× GC
dC
Eq. (A.4)
BD BF 1 + BF 2
a= =
BS BS
Eq. (A.5)
BS BS BS × d C
b= = =
S× L2
AC × GC × L2
B× e 2 × GC × L2
Eq. (A.6)
1+ a
l=
a× b
Eq. (A.7)
62 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX A: HEAD DEFLECTION
q0 × L
V= Eq. (A.8a)
2
V
g= Eq. (A.8b)
S
q0 × L3 q0 × L
g1 = + Eq. (A.8c)
24 × BS 2×S
Table A|2: Simply supported panel with a line load parallel to the supports
a
e= Eq. (A.9a)
L
L-a
VA = F × = F × (1 - e ) Eq. (A.9b)
L
V
gA = A Eq. (A.9c)
S
V F × e VA e
gB = B = = × Eq. (A.9d)
S S S 1- e
g A,1 =
F × L2
6 × BS
[ F
S
]
× 2 × e - 3 × e 2 + e 3 + × (1 - e ) Eq. (A.9e)
g B ,1 =
F × L2 3
6 × BS
[ F
]
×e - e - ×e
S
Eq. (A.9f)
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 63
ANNEX A: HEAD DEFLECTION
Table A|3: Simply supported panel with a temperature difference between the faces
g =0 Eq. (A.10a)
g1 =
[a F 2 × T2 - a F1 × T1 ] ×L Eq. (A.10b)
2×e
q0 × L3 × b é 1 1 lù
g= ×ê - × tanh ú
(BS + BD ) ë 2 l
Eq. (A.11a)
2û
q0 × L3 é 1 1 1 lù
g1 = ×ê + - × tanh ú
(BS + BD ) ë 24 2 × a × l a × l
Eq. (A.11b)
2 3
2û
64 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX A: HEAD DEFLECTION
Table A|5: Simply supported panel with a line load parallel to the supports
a
e= Eq. (A.12a)
L
F × L2 × b é sinh (l × (1 - e ))ù
gA = ×ê1 - e - úû
(BS + BD ) ë
Eq. (A.12b)
sinh l
F × L2 × b é sinh (l × e ) ù
gB = ×ê - e +
(BS + BD ) ë sinh l úû
Eq. (A.12c)
sinh (l × (1 - e )) ù ù
g A,1 =
F × L2 é 1
[
×ê × 2 × e - 3 × e 2 + e 3 +
( BS + BD ) ë 6
]1
a ×l2
é
×ê1 - e -
sinh l úû ú Eq. (A.12d)
ë û
sinh (l × e )ù ù
g B,1 =
F × L2 é 1 3
(BS + BD ) ë 6
[
×ê × e - e + ]
1 é
a ×l ë
× -e +
2 ê
sinh l úû úû
Eq. (A.12e)
Table A|6: Simply supported panel with a temperature difference between the faces
a F 2 ×T2 - a F1× T1
q= Eq. (A.13a)
e
q× L l
g =- × tanh Eq. (A.13b)
l 2
q ×L é1 1 lù
g1 = ×ê - × tanh ú Eq. (A.13c)
1+ a ë2 l 2û
A.4 Approximate calculation for single or multi-span panels with flat or pro-
filed faces
q0 ×L3 × e
u (q0 ) =
24 × (BS + BD )
Eq. (A.14)
q ×L× e
u (DT ) =
2
Eq. (A.15)
L1 = L 2 = L 3 = L = L
Eq. (A.16)
S
L× > 2. 5
BS
Eq. (A.17)
ì FEd 1 æ L + nk × k × e ö k ¹ 0.00
ï × × lnçç S ÷÷
ï ECc nk × k è LS ø if
wS = í
ï F e
Ed
× k = 0.00
ïî ECc LS
Eq. (B. 1)
with
FEd support reaction force
ECc compression modulus of the core
LS width of the support
k distribution parameter according to EN 14509
nk distribution factor, see figure B.1
To ensure tightness, screws with an additional thread under the head and washers
with dw ³ 19 mm and thickness of the cured-on elastomer seal ≥ 3.0 mm shall be
used.
68 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX B: TRANSVERSE COMPRESSION DEFORMATION
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 69
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Both the following examples are based on the examples given in Berner (1998),
Davies et al. (2001) and Naujoks & Misiek (2015). These examples are virtually
identical, with the exception of some small differences in loads. Compared to the
aforementioned references, additional actions and loads are covered here.
C2 Wall panel
C.2.1 System
Wall panel spanning vertical, lying over two spans with L = 4000 mm. The panel
has lightly profiled faces and a nominal thickness of 60 mm.
External face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F1 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F1 = 0.60 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143. Internal face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275
(fu,F2 = 390 N/mm²) according to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.50 mm
with special tolerance according to EN 10143.
The core material is polyurethane foam with shear modulus GC = 3.1 N/mm².
The panel will by fastened by hidden fastenings, using a load spreader plate
placed in the longitudinal joints between the panels. There is one load spreader
plate per panel of 1 m width, allowing fastening with up to three fasteners. In this
70 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
case two self-drilling screws 6.3 x L per load spreader plate are used at base and
intermediate supports (supports No. 1 and No. 2) and one self-drilling screw 6.3 x
L is used at top support (support No. 3). Both load spreader plates and fasteners
are made of stainless steel.
Supporting structure is a cold-formed C-section made from structural steel
S390GD+Z275 (fu,II = 420 N/mm²) according to EN 10346, nominal thickness is
tnom,II = 2.00 mm with normal tolerance according to EN 10143. Shear forces from
self-weight loading are transferred only by the base support (support No. 3), see
Fig. C.1.
3
Self-weight
A value of
kN
g k = 0.107
m²
is assumed throughout this example.
Wind suction
The value
kN kN
we = c pe,10 × q p = -0.50 × 0.50
= -0.25
m² m²
as given in the aforementioned references is based on pressure coefficient cp,10
which applies for the design of the sandwich panel. For design of fastenings, cpe is
calculated for each support, with size of the loaded area (see EN 1991-1-4, chap-
ter 7.2.1) simply defined from mid of span to mid of span.
End supports (supports No. 1 and 3):
3
Load not given in original examples
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 71
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
we = -0.32 kN
2000
mm
m²
4000 mm
we = -0.29 kN
m²
we = -0.32 kN
2000
mm
m²
Temperature
For assumed colour group 2, the following values T1/T2 and DT apply for design:
Winter temperature -20°C/+20°C DT = 40K
Summer temperature +65°C/+25°C DT = -40K
Depending on national regulations, higher values for external temperature T1 apply
for ultimate limit state design. For fatigue limit state (head deflection), a tempera-
ture difference of DT = T2 - T1 = -70 K applies for design.
NEd,3
NEd,2
NEd,1
VEd,1
Fig. C.3: Support reactions
wT = = = -11.5cm
8 8
Hence the force F will eliminate the deformation at mid of span of the equivalent
single span panel. For the deflection under a line load F
F × Leqv é L2eqv 1ù
wF = ×ê + ú
4 ëê12 × BS S úû
applies and therefore
4 × wT 4 × 11.5cm
F (wF = wT ) =
kN
= = 1.69
é L 2
1ù é ù m
Leqv × ê eqv + ú ê (800cm )2
1 ú
êë12 × BS S úû 800cm × ê 2
+ ú
ê12 × 1879579 kNcm kN ú
181.8
êë m m úû
The corresponding values of shear strain due to elastic shear deformation and
bending rotation at the support are
kN
1.69
F m = 4.65 × 10-3
gF = =
2×S kN
2 × 181.8
m
and
74 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
é ù
g 1F
é L2eqv
= F ×ê +
1 ù kN ê (800cm) 2
1 ú -2
ú = 1,69 ×ê + ú = 4.06 × 10
ëê16 × BS 2 × S ûú
2
m ê kNcm kN ú
16 × 1879579 2 × 181.8
ëê m m ûú
The angles g1 resulting from shear deformation of the core at end support and g
resulting from bending rotation have to be subtracted from each other. Head de-
flection is finally calculated
u = g 1 × DF - g × e = (g 1T + g 1F ) × e - (g T + g F ) × e
( ) ( )
= - 5.73×10-2 + 4.06 ×10-2 × 6.0cm - 0 + 4.65×10-3 × 5.866cm = -0.127cm
with DF » d for wall panels with flat or lightly profiled faces.
Pull-out resistance
There is one load spreader plate per panel of 1 m width, with two fasteners at base
and intermediate support, one fastener at top support.
Supporting structure is a cold-formed C-section made from structural steel
S390GD+Z275 (fu,II = 420 N/mm²) according to EN 10346, nominal thickness is
tnom,II = 2,00 mm with normal tolerance according to EN 10143. In case of normal
tolerances, tolerances have to be considered in calculation of design core sheet
thickness.
Design core sheet thickness of the supporting structure:
t II = t nom,II - t zinc - 0.5 × ttol = 2.00mm - 0.04mm - 0.5 × 0.16mm = 1.88mm
Dimensions of self-drilling screws 6.3 x L made of stainless steel:
d = 6.3 mm
d1 = 4.8 mm
ddp = 5.5 mm
P = 1.8 mm
a = 60°
{ }
d pd = max ddp ; d1 = max{5.5mm;4.8mm} = 5.5mm
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 77
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
æa ö p æ 60° ö p
j EA = (d - d pd ) × tan ç ÷ × = (6.3mm - 5.5mm ) × tan ç ÷× = 0.806
è2ø P è 2 ø 1.8mm
2p 2p
j c = 0 .15 mm × = 0 . 15 mm × = 0 . 524
P 1 .8 mm
F*As,MG for tII = 0.60 mm
d ép ù
F * As,MG = 0.60 × fu ,II × × ê × tII2 + tII × jEA ú
2 ëP û
N 6.3mm é p ù
= 0.60 × 390 × ×ê × (0.60mm) + 0.60mm × 0.806ú
2
ë1.8mm û
2
mm 2
= 820N
F*As,MG for tII = t* = 6.05 mm
é ù
ê(2p - jc )
2 P
... ú
ê 4p ú
d ê æ 2p ö ú
F *As , MG = 0.60 × f u , II × × ê+ (P - 0.15mm) × ç × t II - 2p + jc ÷...ú
2 ê è P ø ú
ê æ P ö ú
ê+ j EA × ç P - 0.15mm - × j EA ÷ ú
ë è 4p ø û
é ù
ê(2p - 0.524)
2 1.8mm
... ú
ê 4p ú
N 6.3mm ê æ 2p ö ú
= 0.60 × 390 × × ê+ (1.8mm - 0.15mm) × ç × 6.05mm - 2p + 0.524÷...ú
mm2 2 ê è 1.8mm ø ú
ê æ 1,8mm ö ú
ê+ 0.806 × ç1.8mm - 0.15mm - × 0.806÷ ú
ë è 4p ø û
= 23094N
æ F * As , MG (t II = t *) ö
ln çç ÷ ln æç 23094 N ö÷
0.95 × F * As , MG (t II = 0.60 mm ) ÷ø 0.95 × 820 N ø
b= è = è = 1.47
æ t* ö æ 6.05mm ö
ln ç ÷ ln ç ÷
è 0.60 mm ø è 0.60 mm ø
78 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Shear resistance
At support No. 1 there are two screws per load spreader plate and panel of 1 m
width.
Dimensions of self-drilling screws 6.3 x L made of stainless steel:
d = 6.3 mm
d1 = 4.8 mm
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 79
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Internal face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F2 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.50 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143.
Design core sheet thickness of the internal face:
t F 2 = t nom,F 2 - t zinc = 0.50mm - 0.04mm = 0.46mm
Characteristic value of shear resistance:
Interaction
Interaction verification has to be made for supporting structure only. While for
NRd,II, a specific value was derived in this example, there is no equation for explicit-
ly calculating the shear resistance VRd,II. VRd,II is conservatively estimated.
Characteristic value of shear resistance:
mm2
Design value of shear resistance
V 6817N
VRd ,II = Rk ,II = = 5.13kN
gM 1.33
Verification, with three fasteners at support No. 1
N Ed ,1 VEd ,1 1.19 kN 1.15kN
+ = + = 0.25 + 0.11 = 0.36 < 1.0
N Rd ,II VRd , II 2 × 2.41kN 2 × 5.13kN
80 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
C.3.1 System
Roof panel, lying over two spans with L = 3300 mm, with a slope of 10°. The panel
has a profiled external face with pitch of profile p = 333 mm and width of the crest
b1 = 35 mm. The internal face is lightly profiled. The nominal thickness is 60 mm,
the thickness at crest is D = 98 mm.
External face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F1 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F1 = 0.60 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143. Internal face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275
(fu,F2 = 390 N/mm²) according to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.50 mm
with special tolerance according to EN 10143.
The core material is polyurethane foam with shear modulus GC = 3.02 N/mm²,
compression modulus 3.5 N/mm² (not given in original examples) and compression
strength 0.11 N/mm².
The panel will by fastened by crest fastenings, using washers dw = 19 mm with
cured-on elastomer seals (no saddle washers). At base support (support No. 1),
there are three fasteners per panel of 1 m width and per support, with each crest
fastened. At intermediate and top support (supports No. 2 and No. 3), there are
two fasteners per panel of 1 m width and per support, with two crests fastened and
one crest unfastened per panel. Self-tapping screws 6.3 x L made of stainless
steel are used.
Supporting structure is a hot-rolled section made from structural steel S235JR (fu,II
= 360 N/mm²) according to EN 10025-2, nominal thickness is tnom,II = 5.00 mm.
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 81
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Shear forces from self-weight loading are transferred only by support No. 1, see
Fig. C.5.
Chapter C.4 deals with the identical system and sandwich panel, but fastened on a
supporting structure made of timber using a different type of fastener.
Self-weight
A value of
kN
g k = 0.166
m²
is assumed throughout this example. It is split into two components, one acting
perpendicular to the panel and the other one acting parallel to the panel:
kN kN
g k ,|| = g k × sin a = 0.166 × sin10° = 0.029
m² m²
kN kN
g k ,^ = g k × cosa = 0.166 × cos10° = 0.163
m² m²
4
Wind suction
Within the example, a panel spanning over zones G and H is assumed. The follow-
ing pressure coefficients apply after interpolation between values for 5° and 15°
slope:
Zone G cp,1 = -1.75
cp,10 = -1.00
Zone H cp,1 = -0.45
cp,10 = -0.75
Parameter e is assumed to be e = 6 m, therefore width of zone G is 0,6 m adjacent
to support No. 1 (end support). For design of fastenings, cpe is calculated for each
support, with size of the loaded area (see EN 1991-1-4, chapter 7.2.1) simply de-
fined from mid of span to mid of span.
Support No. 1, Zone G
4
Load not given in original example
82 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Snow
Snow loads are treated here because of shear forces from roof thrust. The value
kN kN
si = m × sk = 0.8 × 0.94 = 0.75
m² m²
applies. It is split into two components, one acting perpendicular to the panel and
the other one acting parallel to the panel:
kN kN
si ,|| = si × cosa × sin a = 0.75 × cos10° × sin10° = 0.128
m² m²
kN kN
si ,^ = si × cosa × cosa = 0.75 × cos10° × cos10° = 0.727
m² m²
Temperature
For colour group 2, the following values T1/T2 and DT apply for design::
Winter temperature 0°C/+20°C (for combinations including snow, not
relevant for design of the fastenings)
Winter temperature -20°C/+20°C DT = 40K
Summer temperature +65°C/+25°C DT = -40K
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 83
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Self-weight
For calculation of support reactions, the following parameters need to be calculat-
ed:
kNcm 2
2474198
B m
b = S2 = = 0.115
S×L
× (330cm )
kN 2
197
m
cm4 kN
8.858 × 21000 2 + 0
BF 1 + BF 2 m cm
α= = = 0.0752
BS kNcm2
2474198
m
1+ a 1 + 0.0752
l= = = 11.1
a ×b 0.0752 × 0.115
æ cosh (l ) - 1 ö
5 × (1 + l ) + 12 × b × çç1 - 2 × 2 ÷
è l × cosh(l ) ÷ø
e1 = = 1.211
æ tanh (l ) ö
4 × (1 + a ) + 12 × b × ç1 - ÷
è l ø
e1
e 2 =1- = 0,394
2
For background information on parameters see Davies et al. (2001). The charac-
teristic values of support reaction are
kN kN
Gk ,^,1 = Gk ,^,3 = g k ,^ × e 2 × L = 0.163 2 × 0.394 × 3.3m = 0.212
m m
kN kN
Gk ,^,2 = g k ,^ × e1 × L = 0.163 2 × 1.211 × 3.3m = 0.651
m m
All shear forces are transferred via support No. 1.
kN kN
Gk ,||,1 = g k ,|| × 2 × L = 0.029 2 × 2 × L = 0.190
m m
84 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Snow
For calculation of support reactions, the same parameters as for self-weight apply.
The characteristic values of support reaction are
kN kN
S k ,^,1 = S k ,^,3 = si ,^ × e 2 × L = 0.727 × 0.394 × 3.3m = 0.946
m m
kN kN
S k ,^, 2 = si ,^ × e1 × L = 0.727 × 1.211 × 3.3m = 2.907
m m
All shear forces are transferred via support No. 1.
kN kN
S k ,||,1 = si ,|| × 2 × L = 0.128 × 2 × 3.3m = 0.845
m² m
Wind suction
Support reactions for wind loads were determined by software.
Temperature
For calculation of support reactions, the following parameters need to be calculat-
ed:
æ cosh (l ) - 1 ö
3 × (1 + a ) × çç1 - 2 × 2 ÷
è l × cosh (l ) ÷ø
e5 = - = 2.28
æ tanh (l ) ö
1 + a + 1× b × ç1 - ÷
è l ø
e5
e6 = - = -1.14
2
1 1
1.2 ×10-5 × 20°C - 1.2 ×10-5 × -20°C
a × T - a F1 × T1 K K kN
q = F2 2 = = 0.735 ×10-4
e 6.529cm cm
For parameters a, b and l see above. The characteristic values of support reaction
are
- 4 kN kNcm 2
0.735 × 10 × 2474198
q × BS cm m = -0.629 kN
Tk ,^ ,1 = Tk ,^ ,3 = e 6 × = -1.14 ×
L 3300cm m
kN kNcm2
0.735 × 10-4 × 2474198
q × BS cm m = 1.259 kN
Tk ,^,3 = e 5 × = 2.28 ×
L 3300cm m
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 85
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Summary
Transverse support reactions are summarised in the following table.
l2 L è 2 ø 22.3 è 2 ø
The bending rotation at the support is
q × Leqv
é1 1 æ l öù
g 1T = ×ê - × tanh ç 2 L ÷ ú
1+a ë 2 l2 L è 2 øû
1
- 1.294 × 10 -4 × 660 cm
cm é1 1 æ 22 .3 öù -2
= ×ê - × tanh ç ÷ú = -3.59 × 10
1 + 0.0752 ë 2 22 .3 è 2 øû
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 87
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
× (660cm )
1
- 1.29 × 10 -4
2
cm 1 é æ 8 1 öù
= × × çç1 -
× ê1 - ÷÷ú = 6.41cm
8 è cosh(22.3 2 ) øû
1 + 0.0752 ë (22.3)2
Deflection at mid of span caused by a line load is
F × L3eqv
é1 1 1 æ l öù
wF = ×ê + - × tanh ç 2 L ÷ ú
(BS + BD ) ë 48 4 × a × l2 L 8 × a × l2 L
2 3
è 2 øû
and therefore
wT × ( BS + BD )
F (wF = wT ) =
é1 1 1 æ l öù
L3eqv × ê + - × tanh ç 2 L ÷ú
ë 48 4 × a × l2 L 8 × a × l2 L è 2 øû
2 3
æ kNcm 2 kN cm 4 ö
6.41cm × çç 24749197 + 21000 2 × 8.858 ÷
è m cm m ÷ø
=
é æ 22.3 ö ù
(660cm)3 × ê 1 + 1
-
1
× tanh ç ÷ú
ë 48 4 × 0.0752 × (22.3) 8 × 0.0752 × (22.3) è 2 øû
2 3
kN
= 2.20
m
Shear strain due to elastic shear deformation in the core is
F × L2eqv × b 2 L é sinh(l2 L × (1 - e )) ù
gA = ×ê1 - e + ú
(BS + BD ) ë sinh l2 L û
× (660cm)
kN 2
sinh(22.3 × (1 - 0.5)) ù
2.20
cm é
= × 0.0288 × ê1 - 0,5 + úû
ë
2 2
kNcm kN cm sinh 22.3
2474198 + 21000 2 × 8.858
m cm m
-3
= 5.19 × 10
The bending rotation at the support is
F × L2eqvé1 1 æ1 æ l ö öù
g 1F = ×ê - × çç - tanhç 2 L ÷ ÷÷ú
(BS + BD ) ë16 a × l2 L è 22
è 2 ø øû
× (660cm)
kN 2
2.05 é1
m 1 æ1 æ 22.3 ö öù
= ×
2 ê
- × çç - tanhç ÷ ÷÷ú
kNcm 2
kN cm ë16 0.0752 × (22.3)2 è2 è 2 ø øû
2474194 + 21000 2 × 8.858
m cm m
-2
= 2.74 × 10
88 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
The angles g1 resulting from shear deformation of the core at end support and g
resulting from bending rotation have to be subtracted from each other. Head de-
flection is finally calculated using
u = g1 × DF - g × e = (g1T + g1F ) × DF - (g T + g F ) × e
( ) ( )
= - 3,59×10-2 + 2,74×10-2 × 6,0 - 3,18×10-3 + 5,19×10-3 × 6,529cm = -0,110cm
with distance DF between supporting structure and head of fastener, i.e. DF = d
because of fastening in the trough.
Pull-through resistance
The panel will be fastened by crest fastenings without a saddle washer. Self-
tapping screws 6.3 x L made of stainless steel and washers dW = 19 mm with
cured-on elastomer seals were used.
External face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F1 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.60 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143.
Design core sheet thickness of the external face:
t F1 = t nom,F1 - t zinc = 0.60mm - 0.04mm = 0.56mm
Characteristic value of pull-through resistance:
æ ö
2
æ 8× d w ö
( ) ç ÷
- çç ÷
p ×b ÷
N Rk , I = 2 .21 × ECc × f Cc × d + 0.65 × t F 1 × f u , F 1 × dW
2
W × ç 0.55 + 0.45 × e è 1 ø ÷
ç ÷
è ø
ö æç ö
2
æ 8×19 mm ö
æ -ç ÷
÷
ç
= ç 2.21 × 3 .5
N
× 0 . 11
N
× (19 mm )2
+ 0 . 65 × 0 . 56 mm × 390
N
× 19 mm ÷ ×
÷ ç 0 . 55 + 0 . 45 × e è p × 35 mm ø
÷
è mm 2 mm 2 mm 2 ø è ø
= 1968 N
D
N Ed ,3 N Ed 1,131kN
= ,3
= = 0.38 < 1.0
å N Rd ,I å N Rd ,I 2 × 1.48kN
Pull-out resistance
The characteristic value of pull-out resistance is taken from the ETA of the fasten-
er, see Fig. C.8. As there are only characteristic values of tensile resistance (mini-
mum value of pull-through resistance and pull-out resistance) given, pull-out re-
sistance will be used for maximum thickness tnom,F1 (in ETAs often designated as
tN,F1).
90 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Interaction
Interaction verification has to be made for supporting structure only. While for
NRd,II, a specific value was derived in this example, the ETA does not differentiate
between VRd, VRd,I and VRd,II.
Verification, with three fasteners at support No. 1
N Ed ,1 V Ed ,1 NA VA 1.388 kN 0.190 kN
+ = Ed ,1 + Ed ,1 = + = 0.12 + 0.09 = 0.21 < 1.0
N Rd , II V Rd , II N Rd , II V Rd 3 × 3.76 kN 3 × 0.74 kN
C.4.1 System
Roof panel, lying over two spans with L = 3300 mm, with a slope of 10°. The panel
has a profiled external face with pitch of profile p = 333 mm and width of the crest
b1 = 35 mm. The internal face is lightly profiled. The nominal thickness is 60 mm,
the thickness at crest is D = 98 mm.
External face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F1 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F1 = 0.60 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143. Internal face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275
(fu,F2 = 390 N/mm²) according to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.50 mm
with special tolerance according to EN 10143.
The core material is polyurethane foam with shear modulus GC = 3.02 N/mm²,
compression modulus 3.5 N/mm² (not given in original examples) and compression
strength 0.11 N/mm².
The panel will by fastened by crest fastenings, using washers dw = 16 mm with
cured-on elastomer seals (no saddle washers). At base support (support No. 1),
there are three fasteners per panel of 1 m width and per support, with each crest
fastened. At intermediate and top support (supports No. 2 and No. 3), there are
two fasteners per panel of 1 m width and per support, with two crests fastened and
one crest unfastened per panel. Self-drilling screws 6.0 x 140 mm made of stain-
less steel are used.
Supporting structure is a purlin made of glued laminated timber GL 24h according
to EN 14080 in service class 2, characteristic value of density is rk = 380 kg/m³.
Shear forces from self-weight loading are transferred only by support No. 1, see
Fig. C.11.
Chapter C.3 deals with the identical system and sandwich panel, but fastened on a
supporting structure made of hot-rolled sections made from structural steel using a
different type of fastener.
96 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Table C.4: Loading, load duration class and modification factor kmod for
glued laminated timber according to EN 14081 in service class 2.
loading Load duration class kmod
self-weight Gk permanent 0.60
temperature Tk long-term 0.70
snow Sk medium-term 0.80
short-term to
wind W k 1.00
instantaneous
wind action and temperature action, a value of kmod corresponding to the wind ac-
tion should be used, while for a combination of temperature action only, the small-
er value of kmod corresponding to the temperature action applies.
For component I (sandwich panel) only combinations A, C, E and G with maximum
shear force or maximum tensile force need to be verified.
kN kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.212 + 1.5 × -0.689 + 1.5 × 0.6 × -0.629 = -1.388
m m m m
kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.212 + 1.5 × -0.629 = -0.732
m m m
kN kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.651 + 1.5 × -1.259 + 1.5 × 0.6 × -1.249 = -2.362
m m m m
98 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.651 + 1,5 × -1.259 = -1.238
m m m
kN kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.212 + 1.5 × -0.629 + 1.5 × 0.6 × -0.444 = -1.131
m m m m
kN kN kN
= 1.00 × 0.212 + 1,5 × -0.629 = -0.732
m m m
Pull-through resistance
The panel will by fastened by crest fastenings without a saddle washer. Self-drilling
screws 6.0 x 140 mm made of stainless steel and washers dW = 16 mm with cured-
on elastomer seals were used.
External face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F1 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.60 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143.
Design core sheet thickness of the external face:
t F1 = t nom,F1 - t zinc = 0.60mm - 0.04mm = 0.56mm
Characteristic value of pull-through resistance:
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 99
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
æ ö
2
æ 8× d w ö
( ) ç ÷
- çç ÷
× ÷
N Rk , I = 2 .21 × ECc × f Cc × d + 0.65 × t F 1 × f u , F 1 × dW
2
W × ç 0.55 + 0.45 × e è p b1 ø ÷
ç ÷
è ø
ö æç ö
2
æ 8 ×16 mm ö
æ -ç ÷
÷
× (16 mm ) + 0.65 × 0.56 mm × 390
N N N
ç
= ç 2.21 × 3.5 × 0.11
2
÷
× 16 mm ÷ × 0.55 + 0.45 × e è p ×35 mm ø
mm 2
mm 2
mm 2 ç ÷
è ø è ø
= 1747 N
Shear resistance
At base support there are two screws per panel of 1 m width.
Dimensions of self-drilling screws 6.0 x L made of stainless steel:
d = 6.0 mm
d1 = 3.9 mm
def = 1.1× d1 = 1.1× 3.9mm = 4.3mm
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 101
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Internal face is made from structural steel S320GD+Z275 (fu,F2 = 390 N/mm²) ac-
cording to EN 10346, nominal thickness is tnom,F2 = 0.50 mm with special tolerance
according to EN 10143.
Design core sheet thickness of the internal face:
t F 2 = t nom,F 2 - t zinc = 0.50mm - 0.04mm = 0.46mm
Characteristic value of shear resistance:
( )
f h,k = 0.082 × 1 - 0.01× def × r k = 0.082 × (1 - 0.01× 4,3mm) × 380 3 = 29,8
kg
m
N
mm2
The characteristic yield moment of fastener is unknown but can be calculated.
× (4.3mm) = 6654Nmm
N
M y , Rk = 0.3 × fu ,SG × def2.6 = 0.3 × 500
2.6
2
mm
Load-bearing capacity for one fastener
ì 0.4 × f h,k × t1 × d ef
ï
FV , Rk = miní Fax, Rk
ïî1.15 × 2 × M y , Rk × f h , k × d ef +
4
ì N
ïï 0.4 × 29.8 × 37mm × 4.3mm
mm 2 ì 1.90kN
= miní = min í
ï1.15 × 2 × 6654Nmm × 29.8 N × 4.3mm + 2.39kN î1.50kN + 0.60kN
ïî mm 2
4
ì1.90kN
= miní = 1.90kN
î2.10kN
The limitation
Fax, Rk
£ 1.15 × 2 × M y, Rk × fh, k × def
4
is fulfilled.
102 | European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
Interaction
European Recommendations for the Design, Detailing and Application of Fastenings for Sandwich Panels | 103
ANNEX C: DESIGN EXAMPLES
å
FV ,Rk × k mod
C
gM gM
1.338kN 0.190kN
= + = 0.25 + 0.07 = 0.32 < 1.0
2.39kN ×1.00 1.14kN ×1.00
3× 3×
1.33 1.33
D Tensile force at support No. 1 with smallest kmod:
D
N Ed ,1 VEd ,1 N Ed VEdD ,1
+ = ,1
+
åN Rd , II åV Rd , II
å
Fax ,Rk × k mod
D
å
FV ,Rk × k mod
D
gM gM
0.732kN 0.190kN
= + = 0.19 + 0.10 = 0.30 < 1.0
2.39kN × 0.70 1.14kN × 0.70
3× 3×
1.33 1.33