24 Research Methods in Biomechanics

To accomplish time normalization, the original data

for a given kinematic variable must be interpolated to both the ensemble average and the SD about that aver-
age. The ensemble average data for different movement
produces data equally spaced throughout the rescaled conditions within a study may be graphed and compared

ensemble average could be plotted along with ±1 SD

1.17). This process is not unique to linear kinematics and

can be applied to any type of signal, including angular
kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activity variables (e.g.,
this, we interpolate between data that are 5 ms apart to angular velocity, forces, moments of force, and EMGs).

in several ways, with the two most common being linear

interpolation and splining (with cubic or quintic splines).
ANGULAR KINEMATICS
For linear interpolation, it is assumed that the col-
lected data were separated by such a small time incre-
ment that motion between any two consecutive times orientation of single bodies. These are called segment or
was linear in nature. For example, if a marker moved in absolute angles, because they are usually referenced to
an absolute or Newtonian frame of reference. The second
class concerns the angle between two, usually adjacent,
computes the following position-time data: segments of the body. These are called relative, joint,
or cardinal angles, because they measure the angular
position of one segment relative to another.
0.311 s 1.186 m
0.312 s 1.187 m Segment Angles
0.313 s 1.188 m
0.314 s 1.189 m
of a human body segment in a 2-D plane. These absolute
angles follow a consistent rule called the right-hand rule
this method works well. In cases in which movements
counterclockwise and negative rotations are clockwise.
occur rapidly and the sampling rate is not excessively high,
a splining method can be used. The concept behind splines
the angle or rotation and then comparing the direction of
is the same as that with linear interpolation, although there
the thumb to the reference axes will indicate the sign of
is no assumption that the data within sampling intervals
an angle or rotation about a particular axis. If the thumb
points in the direction of a positive axis, then the angle or
rescaled time) to a series of cubic (third-order) polynomial
rotation is positive. For planar analyses, segment angles
equations, allowing the user to evaluate the equations at
any chosen time, not just the time of the original data.
to a right-horizontal line originating from the proximal
For this reason, these equations are called interpolating
splines. The quintic spline is similar to the cubic, except
researchers must identify the one they use.
advantage of quintic splines is that their second deriva-
tives are cubic splines, whereas the second derivatives
Angular Conventions
of cubic splines are lines. Thus, using quintic splines is Two conventions are used to quantify segment angles.
preferred if the data are to be double differentiated. The
resulting “acceleration” curves will therefore be continu-
ous curves rather than a series of connected line segments. -

average is created. From every trial to be included in the

(SD) are computed. This process is repeated for each time visualize.
 2400
2400 Shoulder
Shoulder

SJ

(mm)
1800 SJ

(mm)
Mean + SD
1800 Mean + SD
position
position
Vertical

1200
Vertical

1200

600
600
2400
2400
Shoulder
Shoulder
(mm)

1800
(mm)

1800 SJ
position

SJ
position
Vertical

1200
Vertical

1200
CMJ
CMJ

600
600 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0 0.5 1.0(s)
Time 1.5 2.0
Time (s)

E5144/Robertson/fig1.17/414847,415079/alw/r1-pulled
Figure 1.17 Ensemble average plots of the vertical position of a marker attached to the shoulder of a subject
E5144/Robertson/fig1.17/414847,415079/alw/r1-pulled
while performing vertical jumps. The top panel shows the mean ±1 standard deviation of four squat jumping (SJ)
trials. The bottom panel compares the ensemble from the squat jumps with the ensemble from 3 countermove-
ment jumps (CMJ).

90°

45°

+Y
−Z

180° 0° or
or 360°
+X +Y −180°

315° or
−45°

270° or −90°

+Z Figure 1.19 Two conventions for defining the

Figure 1.18 Right-hand rule for defining directions
E5144/Robertson/fig1.18/414848/alw/r1-pulled
of rotations.
absolute angles of segments. One convention always
E5144/Robertson/fig1.19/414849/alw/r1-pulled
measures angles in the range 0° to 360° whereas the
other uses a range from 180° to −180°.

25
26 Research Methods in Biomechanics

−70° or 290°

+
Joint Angles
−100° or 260° The human body is a series of segments linked by joints,
so measurement and description of relative or joint angles

a minimum of three coordinates or two absolute angles,

must remember that adjacent joints may have different

−35° or 325°
directions for the same type of motion. For example, if

Figure 1.20 Examples of absolute angles of

E5144/Robertson/fig1.20/414850/alw/r1-pulled
the lower extremity. All angles are taken from a right
horizontal from segment’s proximal end.
Discontinuity Problems
With both conventions, a problem arises when a segment
1.22). Notice that a biomechanical system that respects
system that is used by physiotherapists, anatomists, and
-
tions of joints. With the latter system, negative angles
are avoided by specifying the type of joint motion (such

-
rotated in the opposite directions through the larger angle
changes, although this is unlikely if the data sampling
rate was correct. To solve this dilemma, it is assumed that
to the next. When one is graphing angular histories,
Polar Coordinates
motion of individual points (such as markers) attached
to the body. Furthermore, the amount of linear displace-
ment of a point depends on its location with respect to the
axis about which the body rotates. Consider the motion
placed at the center of the clock will undergo no linear
displacement as the minutes tick by, but a marker at the
end of the hand will sweep out a circular path.

Marker 1 Marker 1

105°
Marker 2 125° Marker 2

Marker 3

a b

Figure 1.21 (a) Absolute versus (b) relative angles. E5144/Robertson/fig1.21b/415080/alw/r1-pulled

E5144/Robertson/fig1.21a/414851/alw/r1-pulled
 Planar Kinematics 27

Biomechanical Medical triangle. Using simple trigonometry, we can convert from

polar to Cartesian coordinates as follows:
160° 20° of flexion
x = r cos ! (1.13)
y = r sin !

If we consider the center of the clock to be the origin,

a marker farther from the center will have a greater
−135° 45° of flexion length, r. Thus, for one complete rotation, a point at the
end of the minute hand sweeps out a longer path than a
+ -
tesian coordinates are used most often in biomechanics
research, for some applications it is more convenient to
95° 5° of plantar flexion use polar coordinates. It is always possible, given the
Cartesian coordinates (x, y) of a point, to compute its
polar coordinates (r, !) using the following trigonometric
relationships:
Figure 1.22 Examples of relative angles of the
E5144/Robertson/fig1.22/414852/alw/r1-pulled
lower extremity. r = x 2 + y2 (1.15)

! = tan (y/x) (1.16)

P
Y

r P = (x, y)
y or
P = (r, )

O x
y P
r

(0, 0) X
x

Figure 1.24 Polar coordinates can represent the

Figure 1.23 The polar (r, !) and Cartesian (x, y)
E5144/Robertson/fig1.23/414853/alw/r2-pulled
coordinates for the minute hand of a clock.
The mathematical description of such angular-to-
polar coordinates,
an alternative to Cartesian coordinates. In the polar
system, as with the Cartesian system, two degrees of
freedom describe the planar position of a point on a
position of a point as readily as Cartesian coordinates.
E5144/Robertson/fig1.24/414854/alw/r2-pulled
Polar coordinates use the length of a line segment
joining the point and the origin (r) as one coordinate
and the angle between the line segment and a fixed
axis (!) as the second coordinate. The location of point
P can be expressed either as (x, y) in the Cartesian
system or as (r, !) in polar coordinates. Note that in
either system the point has two DOF.

(r) of the line Angular Time Derivatives

(!) between the
line and one of the reference axes (usually the axis right-
horizontal from the clock center) describes the second
and are written (r, !)
a line from the point to the reference axis forms a right
Just as with linear kinematic variables, differential
calculus and integral calculus are also used to deter-
chapter, angular displacement
in angular position. Angular velocity
rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
28 Research Methods in Biomechanics

time, and angular acceleration is the rate of change

of angular velocity with respect to time. Conversely,
angular velocity is the integral of angular acceleration
with respect to time and angular displacement is the
time integral of angular velocity. These three kinematic
variables are used to describe the angular motion of
rigid bodies during a motion sequence. The symbols
representing units of measure for these angular variables
were presented in table 1.2.
ensured, the angular velocities and accelerations can
is necessary.
Angular to Linear Conversion
In the earlier section on polar coordinates, we showed
how linear and angular motion are related. When a
rigid body undergoes angular rotation, it is possible
to calculate linear velocity and acceleration from the
known angular velocity and acceleration. Consider the

similar in form to those used for linear kinematics. The

r
velocity (") and acceleration (&) are
Now, attach to the body a 2-D reference frame with its
normal axis, is
=
i+1 i 1
(1.17)
2( t ) at right angles to the curvature of the path, whereas the
i

tangential axis is at a tangent

the body, this reference frame will rotate with the body
=
i+1 i 1

2( t ) so that the normal and tangential axes change their

i

orientations within the GCS. The angular motion of the

2 i+ body is described by its angular velocity (") and angular
=
i+1 i 1
or i
( t) 2 acceleration (&) within the GCS. Note that such a system
could represent a human body segment such as the thigh,
where ! represents the angular position and (t repre-
sents the time duration between adjacent samples (see knee joint, and r the length of the thigh.
i represents the -
ence system can be calculated from the equation vt = r",
the case with linear data, before these equations are where vt is the tangential velocity (i.e., in the direction of
applied, the raw angular positions must be smoothed to the tangential axis). Note that the normal velocity (vn) is
zero, because the length r is a constant (because points
the angular positions were derived from marker coor-

FROM THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

Pezzack, J.C., R.W. Norman, and D.A. Winter. 1977. An assessment of derivative determining techniques
used for motion analysis. Journal of Biomechanics 10:377-82.
This paper uses both direct kinematic measures of angle and
angular acceleration and indirect kinematics of markers to arm were computed. Then, the angular acceleration of the
assess two methods of smoothing digitized marker kinemat- arm was computed in three different ways—without data
ics, particularly angular acceleration. First, data from an smoothing, after smoothing with Chebyshev least-squares
aluminum arm that could be rotated only in the horizontal

from above while simultaneously measuring its angular

position with a potentiometer (see appendix C) and its linear
acceleration with a uniaxial accelerometer. The aluminum
arm was manually moved in several different ways. The
accelerometer was mounted so that it measured transverse
acceleration (a ), which was then converted to angular
acceleration by dividing by the distance from the arm’s
center of rotation to the accelerometer (& = at . Next, the
the three methods of computing angular acceleration.
First, the unsmoothed accelerations were very noisy,
although the waveform, on average, did follow the signal
derived from the direct measure of acceleration. Second,
-
 2.40 8.00
Analog Analog
Raw film data 6.00
2.00 Chebyshev

4.00
1.60
2.00

Alpha (rad/s2) × 10
Theta (rad)

1.20 0

−2.00
0.80
−4.00
0.40
−6.00
Theta vs time Alpha vs time
0 −8.00
1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80
a Time (s) b Time (s)
8.00 8.00
Analog Analog
6.00 Finite difference 6.00 Filtered finite

4.00 4.00

2.00 2.00
Alpha (rad/s2) × 10
Alpha (rad/s2 ) × 10

0 0

−2.00 −2.00

−4.00 −4.00

−6.00 −6.00
Alpha vs time Alpha vs time
−8.00 −8.00
1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80
c Time (s) d Time (s)

Figure 1.25 (a) Angular displacement of a humanly moved aluminum arm. (b) Angular acceleration of the
E5144/Robertson/fig1.25a-d/414855,415081,082,083/alw/r2-pulled
arm after differentiation without data smoothing. (c) After least-squares curve fitting and differentiation. (d) After
digital filtering and differentiation.
Journal of Biomechanics

placement signal did not follow the accelerometer signal
polynomial to even a relatively simple human motion was
not suitable. Third, after two time derivatives, the digitally
measured by the accelerometer. Some attenuation of the
signal occurred at the peaks, but these could have been
corrected by increasing the cutoff frequency. See the fol-
lowing section and chapter 12 for more details on the use
The importance of this paper cannot be overestimated.
In addition to successfully reducing the effects of high-
data from one of their trials so that other researchers could
evaluate their data-smoothing techniques (Lanshammer
shown to have acceptable smoothing capabilities. Wood
used optimally regularized Fourier series to appropriately
smooth human motion data.

29
30 Research Methods in Biomechanics

Y Y

r Q r Q

P P
N
T

P P
T

(0, 0) X (0, 0) X
a b

Figure 1.26 (a) Angular motion (!, ", and &) of a rigid body produces linear motion of points attached to it.
Point P is located at a distance r from fixed point Q. As the body rotates through the angle !, P scribes an arc
such that its (x, y) coordinates are constantly changing. (b) LCS attached at P allows conversion from angular
motion of the body to linear motion of the point P. The tangential axis (T) of the LCS describes a tangent to the
E5144/Robertson/fig1.26a-b/414858,415067/alw/r1-pulled
arc scribed by P, whereas the orthogonal axis N is directed toward the axis of rotation point Q. Angle ! is the
angle between the tangential axis and the right-horizontal and can be used to convert the tangential velocity (vt
= r!) into its x and y components.

also undergo tangential acceleration, computed from

the equation at = r&. This acceleration will be nonzero
if the body increases or decreases its angular velocity. If
the body rotates at a constant angular speed, the angular
and tangential accelerations will be zero.
Curiously, although the normal velocity is zero for
circular motions, there must always be a nonzero normal
acceleration (an) if the body is traveling in a circular
path. The normal acceleration is calculated as an = r"2.
This acceleration, also called centripetal acceleration, is
caused by the continual change of direction of the point
-
for more detailed consideration of these accelerations.
The normal and tangential velocities and accelerations
rotating body but can be converted to the GCS using
knowledge of the body’s angular orientation and simple
# is the
angle formed by the tangential velocity and the right-
horizontal, which is parallel to the X-axis in the GCS.
The vector can be resolved into the components vx and
v y, corresponding to the principal directions of the GCS,
using the equations vx = vt cos # and v y = vt sin #. Similar
transformations can be applied to the accelerations an
and at to express them in the GCS, as well.
Electrogoniometers
goniometer is a manual device for measuring joint
a). It is essentially a protractor with
rotates to measure angles. To measure joint angles
electronically during motion, electrogoniometers are
used. Typically, they are much less expensive than imag-
ing systems and allow data to be collected and viewed
immediately. Unfortunately, these devices do encumber
movement because various electronics must be attached
to the subject and most systems require cables to be run
to a data collection system.
The most common type of electrogoniometer uses a
potentiometer
constant voltage is applied across its terminals, and a
wiper that turns with the potentiometer taps off voltage
in an amount proportional to the amount of the turn (see
c
to one segment of the joint and the other to the adjacent
potentiometer to rotate and therefore change its output
-
ers, polarized-light photography, strain gauges, and
act as pure hinges; any translational motion of the joint
creates an erroneous angular rotation of the electrogoni-
ometer. In principle, designing self-aligning mechanisms
b
electrogoniometer system developed by Hannah and

a b
Wiper
Battery or
DC power
c
Figure 1.27 (a) Manual goniometer, (b) electrogoniometer, and (c) schematic of a potentiometer and elec-
trogoniometer circuit.
triaxial angular motion of the ankle, knee, and hip of
E5144/Robertson/fig1.27a-c/414857,415084,415085/alw/r2-pulled
this system was clinically valuable for some patients, it
is not as useful for examining people with severe dis-
they only measure joint angles. This prevents them from
recording absolute motion of the segments with respect to
a Newtonian frame of reference (in other words, a GCS),
which is necessary for performing inverse dynamics
analyses (see chapter 5). However, this type of system
is useful in clinical environments where immediate joint
kinematic information is required.
When selecting or building an electrogoniometer,
use a sensing element that is continually differentiable.
For example, as the wiper of most inexpensive potenti-
ometers moves, it jumps from one loop of a coil of wire
to another to vary its resistance. This contaminates the
output position data with discontinuity spikes that dis-
rupt the calculation of derivatives for obtaining angular
velocity or acceleration. To eliminate these discontinuous
steps, more expensive potentiometers have a continuous
strip of conductive material. There is usually a break at
one spot along the strip, and this portion must be placed
c).
Planar Kinematics 31
Potentiometer
Four-bar link
Wiper
Output
signal
transmits less light as the bend in the cable increases,
allowing continuous measurement of the amount of joint
-
to quantify the degree of bending in a steel wire—and
For example, a transducer that crosses the elbow can
simultaneously measure elbow flexion and forearm
supination. Yet another solution is to use a polarized-light
goniometer, which uses two sensors that are sensitive to
-
tions of the sensors are determined by the orientation of
each sensor within the polarized light plane.
Calibration of electrogoniometers is relatively
straightforward. If the electrogoniometer design allows,
it can be attached directly to a manual goniometer.
Moving the manual goniometer from one known posi-
tion to another while recording data from the electrogo-
niometer will provide a voltage measure equivalent to
an actual angular displacement. From these measure-
-
trogoniometer cannot be directly attached to a manual
goniometer, a similar procedure can be used while the
electrogoniometer is attached to the joint of interest.
32 Research Methods in Biomechanics

Angular Kinematic Data 80

Presentation 60

Angle (deg)
The presentation of angular kinematic data
is similar to that for linear kinematics, with 40
the most common format being the graphing
of !, ", or & as a function of time throughout 20
the movement (a history or time series). This
format is useful for comparison with other 0
kinematic and kinetic signals that occur simul-
a Time
taneously, particularly when one is trying to
relate the observed kinematics to the under- 30

Hip angle (deg)

kinematics is the angle-angle diagram, which 20
illustrates the coordinated motion of two seg-
ments or joints by plotting one versus the other.
The graphic must be carefully described and 10
annotated because the sense of time during
the movement is lost, but this weakness can
0
0 20 40 60 80
events on the angle-angle plot and placing
b Knee angle (deg)
small arrows that indicate the relative timing
sequence.

angular results is known as a phase plot, phase

portrait, or phase diagram. Here, the relation-
Angular velocity

ship between ! and "

joint is depicted, with ! on the horizontal axis
and " on the vertical axis. This presentation
has become popular among biomechanists
studying movement from a dynamic systems
perspective (see chapter 13), in which the
emphasis is on meaningfully representing the
kinematic state of a system as a window to the c Angular position
underlying control of that system. The phase
plot therefore is seen as an expression of the Figure 1.28 (a) Time series of knee angle; (b) angle-angle
plot of E5144/Robertson/fig1.28/414859,415086,415087/alw/r2-pulled
hip versus knee angle; and (c) phase plot of knee angular
velocity versus angular position.
shows examples of an angular kinematic time
series, angle-angle diagram, and phase portrait.
Note that in presenting angular kinematic data for groups some sort of imaging or motion capture system, usually
of trials or subjects, one can use the ensemble averaging video. Equations for differentiating these data to obtain
techniques that were discussed in the earlier section on both linear and angular velocities and accelerations
the presentation of linear kinematic variables.
processing and removing invalid information from these
SUMMARY data can be found in chapter 12.

This chapter outlined the major tools used by bio-
mechanists to collect, process, and present data about
the motion patterns of planar human movements. Data
that describe motions are called kinematics. The next
chapter expands on these concepts to handle motions
most kinematic studies begin with acquiring data from
the most important reason for collecting kinematic data
is to derive various kinetic quantities. Kinetics concerns
the causes of motion and often can be indirectly com-
puted from kinematic data and the inertial properties of
the bodies (see chapter 3). Chapters 5, 6, and 7 outline
how to derive such kinetic measures as mechanical work,
energy, power, and momentum from kinematics.
 Planar Kinematics 33

SUGGESTED READINGS
- Biomechanics of the
Vector Mechanics for Musculo-Skeletal System. 3rd ed. Toronto: Wiley.
Engineers; Statics and Dynamics
McGraw-Hill. Introduction to Biomechanics
for Human Motion Analysis
Biomechanical Analysis of Funda- Waterloo Biomechanics.
mental Human Movements. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics. Biomechanics and Motor Control of
Human Movement
Biomechanical Basis
of Human Movement. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Kinematics of Human Motion.
Wilkins. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.