2019 PDF

Acoustic noise source identification:
A study on a household refrigerator during the

starting of a reciprocating compressor
Santiago Montoya Ospina
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Minas, Departamento de Energı́a Eléctrica y Automática
Medellı́n, Colombia
2019
Acoustic noise source identification:
A study on a household refrigerator during the
Santiago Montoya Ospina
Thesis presented as a partial requirement to obtain the degree of:

M.Sc. in Engineering - Industrial Automation
Director:
Ph.D. Rosa Elvira Correa Gutiérrez
Co-director:
M.Sc. Raúl Esteban Jiménez Mejı́a
Area of research:
Modeling and control of acoustic noise
Research group:
Grupo de Investigación en Tecnologı́as Aplicadas - GITA
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Minas, Departamento de Energı́a Eléctrica y Automática
Medellı́n, Colombia
2019
To my beloved family
Nothing will ever please me, no matter how

excellent or beneficial, if I must retain the
knowledge of it to myself. And if wisdom were
given me under the express condition that it
must be kept hidden and not uttered, I should
refuse it. No good thing is pleasant to possess,
without friends to share it.
Seneca
Acknowledgments
I want to thank first to my thesis director Prof. Rosa Elvira Correa for her support and
guidance during the development of this work and during these two years of my master
studies. To my co-director and friend Raúl Esteban Jiménez for encourage me in research
and work in vibroacoustics, for guiding me and always give me feedback with the aim of
improving my work and my comprehension of the physical phenomena.
Thanks to GITA research group staff for having allowed me to be part of their amazing
group of work: Prof. Guillermo Mesa, Gilbert Bothia, Juan Fernando Ramı́rez and Juan
Camilo Salazar. I also want to thank to the professors part of the Electrical and Automation
Engineering Department with which I had the opportunity to take courses. I have to be
grateful with Industrias Haceb S.A. and specially to my friends there: Ruber Ruı́z, Victor
Echavarrı́a and Cesar Zapata for provide me the refrigerator for the experimental procedures
and important information for the development of this thesis.
Thanks to Carolina for always have kind and tender words of support for me. Finally, I
want to highlight the support I received from my family. This work and the majority of my
achievements are dedicated to you.
ix
Abstract
This thesis deals with the analysis of the sound radiated by a household refrigerator when a
reciprocating compressor starts its operation. The study was developed based on theoretical
analysis by means of numerical simulations and on a phenomenology basis by means of expe-
rimental tests performed on a real refrigerator under transient conditions during its startup.
The simulations was supported on the Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling
airborne and structure-borne sound phenomena and the measurements were carried out in
an engineering acoustic chamber with semi-anechoic characteristics. The main objective of
this work is to estimate what are the paths of principal contribution to the sound radiated
by the refrigerator under transient operation: directly through the air or indirectly from the
compressor through the structure cabinet of the refrigerator.
Keywords:
Source contribution, sound radiation, Transfer Path Analysis, Finite-Difference Time-
Domain, airborne sound, structure-borne sound
Content
Acknowledgments VII
Abstract IX
List of figures XII
List of tables XV
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Scope of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Structure of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling vibroacoustical phenomena 6

2.1 Airborne sound modeling with the FDTD method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Structure-borne sound modeling with the FDTD method . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Interface coupling between the air and solid medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Stability criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Meshing of the solution domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 Nonuniform grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.1 Reflective boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.2 Absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Transfer Path Analysis 26

3.1 The classical TPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Operational Transfer Path Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 OTPA based on least-squares solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 OTPA improvement with Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . 32
3.2.3 OTPA in time domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.4 Limitations and sources of error in OTPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Content xi
4 Sound radiation of a point excited simply supported elastic plate 37

4.1 FDTD simulation of the sound radiation of a point excited simply supported
elastic plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.1 Plate model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.2 Sound propagation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.3 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.4 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.1.5 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Experimental sound radiation of a point excited simply supported elastic plate 43
4.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Acoustic noise source identification on a household refrigerator during the

starting of a reciprocating compressor 48
5.1 Experimental noise source identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.1.1 Source and paths definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 Theoretical noise source identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2.1 Refrigerator structure model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2.2 Reciprocating compressor model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2.3 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.4 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6 Conclusions and future work 73

6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
List of figures
1-1 Scheme of a no frost household refrigerator taken from [1] . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1-2 Operating cycles of a 173 W thermal capacity reciprocating compressor of a
household refrigerator in terms of input power during two days of operation
(Plot data shared by Industrias Haceb S.A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2-1 Staggered grid with the sound propagation variables in space . . . . . . . . . 7

2-2 Leapfrog scheme for sound pressure and particle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2-3 Staggered grid with the variables that model the solid in space . . . . . . . . 12
2-4 Particle velocities on the interface between a plate and the air (red arrows)
for modeling the transmission of energy from the solid to the fluid medium. . 15
2-5 Nonuniform grid in a 2D problem of sound propagation of a solid and air . . 17
2-6 Partial mesh of a domain composed of air with a reflective boundary condition 18
2-7 Plane wave incident to an absorbing boundary in x-direction . . . . . . . . . 19
2-8 Exponential attenuation of a plane wave when the imaginary part is increased
from some point in x-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2-9 2D representation of an acoustic medium with PML regions in each one of its
outermost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2-10 Comparison of Liao, Mur and PML BCs for the same sound pressure sensing
point inside an acoustic space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2-11 Sound pressure inside the acoustic plane for different time steps comparing
Liao, Mur and PML BCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3-1 Scheme of the classical TPA for an active side with vibration and acoustic
noise sources and a passive side in which is determined a total sound pressure
due to each path contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3-2 Cross-Talk coherence between different input signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3-3 Flowchart for determining path contributions in time domain applying OTPA 35
4-1 Steel loss factor curve fitted to the constant value equal to 5×10−4 for each
1/3-octave band center frequency between 50 and 500 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4-2 Excitation source function applied to the FDTD plate model . . . . . . . . . 39
4-3 Scheme of a bending wave in a discretized plate. Red normal stress nodes:
Under compression, blue normal stress nodes: Under tension . . . . . . . . . 40
4-4 Position of the plate inside the air volume for the FDTD simulation . . . . . 41
List of figures xiii
4-5 Boundary conditions on the edges of the plate. Green arrow: Particle velo-
city node set to zero for modeling the SSBC. Red arrows: Particle velocity
nodes that model the transmission of energy from the solid to the air. Red
contour shear stress nodes: They are set to zero for modeling the air as
an inviscid fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4-6 Sound pressure sensing points location inside the FDTD simulation . . . . . 42
4-7 Experimental setup for measuring the sound radiated by the steel plate inside
the semi-anechoic chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4-8 Experimental setup scheme for measuring the sound radiated by the steel plate 44
4-9 Scheme for estimating the time of arrival of the sound pressure wavefront
based on the linear approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4-10 Sound pressure signals obtained through the FDTD simulations and the ex-
perimental measurements on the simply supported elastic plate . . . . . . . . 47
5-1 Simplification of the refrigerator used for the noise source identification analysis 49
5-2 Isolation of the motor fan and the evaporator expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5-3 Vibration level measurement on a lateral of a refrigerator cabinet. Left: Lateral
surface grid for measuring vibrations. Right: Vibration “hologram“ obtained
from the RMS of the vibration signals obtained on each point of the surface
grid (Shared by Applied Technologies Research Group - GITA) . . . . 50
5-4 Vibration levels for each center frequency for 1/3 octave bands between 63
and 250 Hz measured on one lateral of the refrigerator cabinet (Shared by
Applied Technologies Research Group - GITA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5-5 Isolation of the condenser vibration paths to the refrigerator cabinet . . . . . 52
5-6 Sensors location for the characterization of the source and the transfer paths.
a) Microphone 1 for characterizing the airborne sound radiation of the com-
pressor, b) Accelerometers 1 and 2 for characterizing the structure-borne paths
and the microphone 2 for the receiving point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5-7 Scheme of the sensors position for the experimental OTPA in the refrigerator 54
5-8 Scheme of the simplified structure of the refrigerator for the FDTD model . 56
5-9 Sound pressure recorded during the starting of the characterized reciprocating
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5-10 Scalogram of the sound pressure signal recorded during the starting of the
compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5-11 Real part of the monopole function modulated by the Gaussian pulse as the
model of the the airborne contribution of the compressor . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5-12 Scheme of the model of the airborne and structure-borne sound contributions
of the compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
xiv List of figures
5-13 Scalogram of the acceleration signal recorded during the starting of the com-
pressor for the characterization of the velocity nodes at the interface between
the compressor support plate and the refrigerator cabinet side panel . . . . . 63
5-14 Particle velocity function of the structure-borne contribution of the compressor 64
5-15 Variables distribution in the x-z plane at the interface between PUR and steel
for: a) The average of the density. b) The average of the shear modulus . . . 66
5-16 Sound pressure signals at the receiving point from the experimental measure-
ments and the theoretical simulations via FDTD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5-17 Principal components of the experimental and the theoretical signals obtained
from the PCA process previous to apply the OTPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5-18 Root Mean Square Error between the receiving signal and the synthesized
signal and remaining number of Principal Components obtained with different
thresholds. a) RMSE for the experimental case. b) Number of PCs remaining
for the experimental case. c) RMSE for the theoretical case. d) Number of
PCs remaining for the theoretical case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5-19 Synthesized signals for different thresholds in comparison to the receiving
signal. a) Experimental results. b) Theoretical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5-20 Contribution of each transfer path to the sound pressure signal at the receiving
point. a) Sound pressure levels of transfer paths and the sum of contributions
obtained experimentally. b) Sound pressure levels of transfer paths and the
sum of contributions obtained theoretically. c) Sound contribution ratio of
each transfer path obtained experimentally. d) Sound contribution ratio of
each transfer path obtained theoretically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
List of tables
3-1 FRF names depending on the related variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5-1 Mechanical properties of the sandwich panel of the structure of the refrigerator 56
1 Introduction
1.1. Background and justification

The disturbance of comfort in the daily life of persons is a key factor in the moment of making
a decision of buying any good or product, specially if that product is going to occupy a place
at home. A low acoustic noise is an important feature a customer takes into account in the
moment of buying an appliance like, for example, a refrigerator. In that sense, it is important
for engineers responsible to design consumer goods to count with proper models that permit
them to approach to operational characteristics of the final product without the necessity
of building prototypes nor physical devices, at first design stages, that require money and
time investment. For the case of modeling vibroacoustic phenomena, theoretical or virtual
models are in constant development because of the larger facilities required for performing
experimental measurements like reverberant, anechoic or semi-anechoic chambers.
Figure 1-1: Scheme of a no frost household refrigerator taken from [1]

2 1 Introduction
A simple scheme of a no frost household refrigerator is shown in Fig.1-1. In this figure can
be seen the main sources of acoustic noise in this kind of appliances that are part of a vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle. The compressor is in charge of augmenting the refrigerating
gas pressure until it reaches an overheated state. The overheated gas travels through the
condenser (not shown in Fig.1-1) exchanging heat with the surrounding environment and
then, changing part of the refrigerant phase to liquid. Then the refrigerant that has quality,
i.e. a fraction of the refrigerant is in liquid phase and the rest in vapor, reaches the expansion
device that in the majority of the refrigeration appliances is a capillary tube made of copper.
The capillary tube drops down the refrigerant pressure making it to change its phase to com-
pletely vapor. This expansion occurs at constant enthalpy, so the refrigerant exchange heat
with the internal space of the refrigerator in order to change its phase along the evaporator
coil. Finally the vapor that comes out of the evaporator gets to the compressor and the cycle
starts again. The motor fan is in charged of distributing the cold air inside the other spaces
of the refrigerator so that there be homogeneous temperatures inside each compartment.
Acoustic noise related to household refrigerators is one of the most discomforting sources,
not because they are the loudest but because these appliances work during the whole day
[2]. There are three main noise sources in household refrigerators: the compressor, refrigerant
expansion by throttling at the entrance of the evaporator and the motor fan in the case of
frost-free refrigerators [3]. Compressor comprises big amount of the global noise radiated sin-
ce it radiates sound directly to the air through its shell (air-borne sound). At the same time it
is connected to the cabinet structure and to the suction and discharge refrigerant pipes. The-
se links turn into transfer paths of vibrations that finally arrive to the surfaces of the cabinet
becoming in an indirect source of noise produced by the compressor (structure-borne sound).
Although nowadays new technologies like linear compressors have been developed, offering
quieter performance in comparison with reciprocating compressors [4], this type of technolo-
gies are expensive. This is why a large number of refrigerators with reciprocating compressors
are still produced and improve their design, considering the acoustic performance, requires
big effort through research. Therefore, the development of this thesis focuses on characterize
the noise produced by a reciprocating compressor working on a household refrigerator, but
putting special attention to transient excitations as in the startup of an operating cycle after
a defrosting stage.
Transient radiation of sound can be more disturbing than steady state radiation, since this
phenomena, even though are of short-duration, are of high amplitude [5] as the case of impact
loads over a structure or a run-up of a machine.
1.2 Scope of the thesis 3
200
100
Wattage [W]
50
150
0
Wattage [W]
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Time [Days]
100
50
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time [Days]
Figure 1-2: Operating cycles of a 173 W thermal capacity reciprocating compressor of a

household refrigerator in terms of input power during two days of operation
(Plot data shared by Industrias Haceb S.A)
Fig.1-2 shows the operation of a reciprocating compressor in terms of input power working
on a 375 L household refrigerator during two days. In a normal way of operation in which
constant door openings are performed by the user, change of thermal loads due to the entry
of food or the variation of climate conditions during the day, multiple starts and shutdowns
occur. All of those events are of transient nature which it involves sound radiation of high
amplitude on multiple occasions along the day. The zoomed plot in Fig.1-2 shows a portion
of a quarter day. It can be seen that during six hours the starts and shutdowns took place
between 10 and 15 minutes. In a condition where this cycles happen while a person sleeps,
specially during the early morning in which the background noise is lower, it can be translated
into big discomfort that not only affects the sleep and comfort of a user, but also in a
decreasing in the quality of the products and the customer perception of a manufacture
company of this type of goods.
1.2. Scope of the thesis

The aim of this thesis is to analyze through a numerical approach the structure of a hou-
sehold refrigerator, the interaction of the reciprocating compressor with this structure and
the way in which the sound transmitted through the air and the structure by the compressor
4 1 Introduction
occur. Finally, with the results obtained with this model, to be capable of estimating the
contribution of sound radiated through the air and the refrigerator structure as a consequen-
ce of the operation of the compressor when it starts.
To achieve this general objective the analysis is reduced considering only the compressor
as the only source in the refrigerator and discarding the effects of the motor fan and the
refrigerant throttling at the entrance of the evaporator. The applied model is intended to
be in time-domain in order to simplify the analysis of the transient phenomena during the
starting of the compressor. That is why the model will be based on the Finite-Different
Time-Domain method. For the validation of the model, the obtained results will be compa-
red with experimental measurements performed on a real household refrigerator working in
similar operational conditions modeled in the computational environment.
1.3. Structure of the thesis

This thesis is divided in six chapters and the current chapter is the introductory part of the
document.
Chapter 2 describes the Finite-Difference Time-Domain method applied to model vibroa-

coustical phenomena. First, there is a review of the principal equations that permits to model
the sound propagation through the air and through a solid medium. Then, how those equa-
tions can be expressed in a discrete scheme by means of the Finite-Difference Time-Domain
method is explained. Next, it is presented the manner in which the different domains can
be discretized, especially when a non-uniform mesh want to be used. Finally, the most used
boundary conditions with the Finite-Difference Time-Domain method are presented and
compared with a simple simulation.
Chapter 3 describes the Transfer Path Analysis method or the also known as Source Path
Contribution analysis. It is shown the classical Transfer Path Analysis approach, the most
relevant considerations when applying this method and its limitations. Then, the improved
Operational Transfer Path Analysis is explained, it is compared with the classical method
and its benefits and limitations are stated.
In chapter 4 the capability of Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling vibroa-

coustical phenomena is tested with the simulation of a point excited elastic plate. The re-
sults obtained with the simulation are compared with experimental measurements made on
a simply supported steel plate excited and subjected to the same conditions to the one mo-
deled in the computational domain.
Chapter 5 determines the fulfillment of the objectives of this thesis. In this chapter is pre-
1.3 Structure of the thesis 5
sented at first the experimental setup on a real household refrigerator for the estimation
of the noise contributions as a result of the starting of the reciprocating compressor. The
simplifications made during the test are explained and the definition of the transfer paths
are described. With the results from the measurements and applying the Operational Trans-
fer Path Analysis method the estimation of the contribution of noise sources was obtained.
The experimental contributions were compared with simulation results got from a model of
the structure of the refrigerator and the interaction with the compressor by means of the
Finite-Difference Time-Domain method. The simplifications, boundary conditions and the
models of the structure and the source are explained in this chapter.
At last, in chapter 6, conclusions based on the results obtained from the development of
the thesis are stated. Also, recommendations for further work are given according to the
observation of possible improvements that can be made to the proposed model in order to
get better approximations of sound propagation phenomena on this types of appliances.
2 Finite-Difference Time-Domain
method for modeling vibroacoustical
phenomena
Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method is a discrete numerical method intended for
solving differential equations that relates variables in space and time. It was first developed
and widely used in electromagnetism [6,7], but it has been used for solving problems related
to elastic waves in geomechanics, acoustics [8, 9] and vibroacoustics phenomena [10].
One of the advantages of FDTD is that the equations used for modeling the phenomena
are usually first order in comparison to another discrete methods like the Finite Element
Method (FEM) in which the equation used for modeling wave propagation problems is the
Helmholtz equation [11], that is second order in nature. The other and the main benefit of
this method is that the variables which are involved in the equations that model a problem,
are available in time-domain during each iteration. If it is necessary to perform an analysis
in frequency-domain it is only needed to apply the Fourier transform to the results obtained
during the FDTD simulation.
In the following sections the fundamental and constitutive equations for air- and structure-
borne sound will be revised, then the FDTD method will be explained, the method for
discretizing the equations in space and time, the stability condition and what are the types
of boundary conditions for modeling problems via FDTD.
2.1. Airborne sound modeling with the FDTD method

Sound propagation in a fluid medium like air, is defined by a couple of partial-differential
equations: the equation of continuity (2-1) and the Newton’s second law for a differential
volume of air (2-2)
∂p
= −ρ0 c2 ∇ · vi (2-1)
∂t
∂vi 1
= − ∇p (2-2)
∂t ρ0
2.1 Airborne sound modeling with the FDTD method 7
In the case in which sound propagation in space occur, there will be components of velocity
in the three Cartesian coordinates (vx , vy and vz ). For simplicity the next change of variables
will be used u = vx , v = vy and w = vz .
The equations that govern the phenomenon are shown next (Eq.2-3 - Eq.2-6)

∂p ∂u ∂v ∂w
= −ρ0 c2 + + (2-3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u 1 ∂p
=− (2-4)
∂t ρ0 ∂x
∂v 1 ∂p
=− (2-5)
∂t ρ0 ∂y
∂w 1 ∂p
=− (2-6)
∂t ρ0 ∂z
where p is the sound pressure, u, v and w are the particle velocities in x-, y- and z-direction
respectively, c is the speed of sound in air and ρ0 is the density of air.
(i,j+1,k)
Δz
(i,j,k)
(i+1,j,k)
Δx/2
(i,j,k+1) Sound pressure

Particle velocity x-direction
Δy
Particle velocity y-direction
z Particle velocity z-direction
y
Δx
x
Figure 2-1: Staggered grid with the sound propagation variables in space
2 Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling vibroacoustical
8 phenomena
FDTD is based on approximating the derivatives of first-order continuous functions to dis-

crete functions through a central difference scheme. In space the difference scheme is known
as the “Yee’s cell“ and for the case of sound propagation in air, Fig.2-1 shows the distribu-
tion of the variables in a staggered way, in which sound pressure is set apart half grid from
the velocity components in each Cartesian direction.
For the discretization of the functions in time, the so-called leapfrog scheme [12] is imple-
mented. Through this scheme the variables used to model are solved for each time step
independently. For instance, at time step n∆t the sound pressure is calculated with particle
velocity values calculated at time step (n − 0,5)∆t. It means that the leapfrog scheme is a
recursive scheme.
(n-1/2)Δt (n+1/2)Δt
t
(n-1)Δt nΔt (n+1)Δt
Sound pressure
Particle velocity
Figure 2-2: Leapfrog scheme for sound pressure and particle velocity
Approximating equation 2-3 by a central difference and the leapfrog scheme
pn |i,j,k − pn−1 |i,j,k un−0,5 |

i+0,5,j,k − u
n−0,5
|i−0,5,j,k
= − ρ 0 c2
∆t ∆x
n−0,5 n−0,5
v |i,j+0,5,k − v |i,j−0,5,k
+ (2-7)
∆y
n−0,5
w |i,j,k+0,5 − v n−0,5 |i,j,k−0,5
+
∆z
The subindex i, j and k indicate the position of each variable in x-, y- and z-direction
respectively.
Solving Eq.2-7 for the sound pressure at the actual time step n
un−0,5 | n−0,5
i+0,5,j,k − u |i−0,5,j,k
pn |i,j,k = pn−1 |i,j,k − ρ0 c2 ∆t
∆x
v n−0,5 |i,j+0,5,k − v n−0,5 |i,j−0,5,k
+ (2-8)
∆y
n−0,5
w |i,j,k+0,5 − v n−0,5 |i,j,k−0,5
+
∆z
2.2 Structure-borne sound modeling with the FDTD method 9
In the same manner, equations (2-4) to (2-6) can be discretized, but half a time step from
the pressure nodes
pn |i+1,j,k − pn |i,j,k

n+0,5 n−0,5 ∆t
u |i+0,5,j,k = u |i+0,5,j,k − (2-9)
ρ0 ∆x
pn |i,j+1,k − pn |i,j,k

n+0,5 n−0,5 ∆t
v |i,j+0,5,k = v |i,j+0,5,k − (2-10)
ρ0 ∆y
pn |i,j,k+1 − pn |i,j,k

n+0,5 n−0,5 ∆t
w |i,j,k+0,5 = w |i,j,k+0,5 − (2-11)
ρ0 ∆z
2.2. Structure-borne sound modeling with the FDTD

method
To model the wave motion in solid media it has been used the model of an elastic solid [10,13,
14] composed by the next two constitutive equations: the conservation of linear momentum
applied to a differential volume of solid (Eq.2-12) with a damping term proportional to
velocity and the generalized Hooke’s law for a homogeneous and isotropic material (Eq.2-
13). Both equations are expressed as derivatives with respect to time.
∂vi ∂σji
ρ = − βvi (2-12)
∂t ∂xj
dσji
= λεkk δij + 2µεij (2-13)
dt
where ρ is the material density, σji is the stress tensor, β is a damping constant proportional
to velocity, λ is the first Lamé constant and µ the shear modulus, both are properties of the
material and are known as the Lamé parameters and δij is the Kronecker delta function that
operates as follows (Eq.2-14)
(
0 if i 6= j
δij = (2-14)
1 if i = j
10 phenomena
εij and εkk constitute the strain-displacement relation. The first one is the Cauchy’s infini-
tesimal strain tensor (Eq.2-15) and the second one is the gradient of the particle velocity in
the solid medium (Eq.2-16) [15].

1 ∂vj ∂vi
εij = + (2-15)
2 ∂xi ∂xj
∂vk
εkk = (2-16)
∂xk
For a two dimensional case in the x-y plane, the equations (2-12) and (2-13) are expressed
as (Eq.2-17 - Eq.2-21)
∂us ∂σxx ∂σxy

ρ = + − βus (2-17)
∂t ∂x ∂y
∂vs ∂σxy ∂σyy

ρ = + − βvs (2-18)
∂t ∂x ∂y
dσxx ∂us ∂vs

= (λ + 2µ) +λ (2-19)
dt ∂x ∂y
dσyy ∂us ∂vs

=λ + (λ + 2µ) (2-20)
dt ∂x ∂y

dσxy ∂us ∂vs
=µ + (2-21)
dt ∂y ∂x
Partial differential equations (2-17) and (2-18) correspond to the change of momentum with
respect to time in x- and y-direction respectively in terms of stresses, equations (2-19) and
(2-20) are the change of normal stress in x- and y-direction with respect to time and equation
(2-21) corresponds to the change of shear stress with respect to time in x-y plane.
For a three dimensional case, another four equations must be added to the ones mentioned
above corresponding to the conservation of momentum and the normal stress in z-direction,
the shear stress for x-z and and y-z planes and the particle velocity in z-direction.
The nine partial-differential equations that describe the elastodynamic behavior of a linear
and isotropic material with damping in space can be written as (Eq.2-22 - Eq.2-30)
∂us ∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz

ρ = + + − βus (2-22)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vs ∂σxy ∂σyy ∂σyz

ρ = + + − βvs (2-23)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ws ∂σxz ∂σyz ∂σzz

ρ = + + − βws (2-24)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dσxx ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

= (λ + 2µ) +λ +λ (2-25)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
dσyy ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

=λ + (λ + 2µ) +λ (2-26)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
dσzz ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

=λ +λ + (λ + 2µ) (2-27)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z

dσxy ∂us ∂vs
=µ + (2-28)
dt ∂y ∂x

dσxz ∂us ∂ws
=µ + (2-29)
dt ∂z ∂x

dσyz ∂vs ∂ws
=µ + (2-30)
dt ∂z ∂y
In the above equations the subscript s refers to the solid medium and this notation will be
used from here on in order to differentiate the particle velocities in air.
12 phenomena
Δz Particle velocity x-direction

Particle velocity y-direction
Particle velocity z-direction
x,y,z - normal stress
xy - shear stress
z Δy
yz - shear stress
y xz - shear stress
Δx
x
Figure 2-3: Staggered grid with the variables that model the solid in space
Equations 2-22 to 2-30 can be discretized by approximating them by means of the central
difference and leapfrog schemes. The variables are disposed in a staggered grid as can be
seen in Fig.2-3 and for solving the system of equations in time through the leapfrog scheme,
the stresses are solved in a time step (n + 1)∆t and the particle velocities in (n + 0,5)∆t.
Solving for normal stresses and particle velocities in each direction and for shear stress in
each plane, the aforementioned equations are expressed as follows (Eq.2-31 - Eq.2-39)
n n
∆t σxx |i+1,j,k − σxx |i,j,k
un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j,k = un−0,5
s |i+0,5,j,k +
ρ ∆x
n n
σxy |i+0,5,j+0,5,k − σxy |i+0,5,j−0,5,k
+
∆y (2-31)
n n
σxz |i+0,5,j,k+0,5 − σxz |i+0,5,j,k−0,5
+
∆z
n−0,5
− βus |i+0,5,j,k
n n
∆t σxy |i+0,5,j+0,5,k − σxy |i−0,5,j−0,5,k
vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k = vsn−0,5 |i,j+0,5,k +
ρ ∆x
n n
σyy |i,j+1,k − σyy |i,j,k
+
∆y (2-32)
n n
σyz |i,j+0,5,k+0,5 − σyz |i,j−0,5,k−0,5
+
∆z

n−0,5
− βvs |i,j+0,5,k
n n
∆t σxz |i+0,5,j,k+0,5 − σxz |i−0,5,j,k−0,5
wsn+0,5 |i,j,k+0,5 = wsn−0,5 |i,j,k+0,5 +
ρ ∆x
n n
σyz |i,j+0,5,k+0,5 − σyz |i,j−0,5,k−0,5
+
∆y (2-33)
n n
σ |i,j,k+1 − σzz |i,j,k
+ zz
∆z
n−0,5
− βws |i,j,k+0,5
"
un+0,5 |i+0,5,j,k − un+0,5

n+1 n s s |i−0,5,j,k
σxx |i,j,k = σxx |i,j,k + ∆t (λ + 2µ)
∆x
n+0,5
|i,j+0,5,k − vsn+0,5 |i,j−0,5,k

vs
+λ (2-34)
∆y
n+0,5 #
ws |i,j,k+0,5 − wsn+0,5 |i,j,k−0,5
+λ
∆z
"
un+0,5 |i+0,5,j,k − un+0,5

n+1 n s s |i−0,5,j,k
σyy |i,j,k = σyy |i,j,k + ∆t λ
∆x
n+0,5
|i,j+0,5,k − vsn+0,5 |i,j−0,5,k

vs
+ (λ + 2µ) (2-35)
∆y
n+0,5 #
ws |i,j,k+0,5 − wsn+0,5 |i,j,k−0,5
+λ
∆z
"
un+0,5 |i+0,5,j,k − un+0,5

n+1 n s s |i−0,5,j,k
σzz |i,j,k = σzz |i,j,k + ∆t λ
∆x
n+0,5
|i,j+0,5,k − vsn+0,5 |i,j−0,5,k

vs
+λ (2-36)
∆y
n+0,5 n+0,5
#
ws |i,j,k+0,5 − ws |i,j,k−0,5
+ (λ + 2µ)
∆z
n+1 n un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j+1,k − un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j,k
σxy |i+0,5,j+0,5,k = σxy |i+0,5,j+0,5,k + ∆tµ
∆y
! (2-37)
v n+0,5 |i+1,j+0,5,k − vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k
+ s
∆x
14 phenomena
n+1 n un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j,k+1 − un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j,k
σxz |i+0,5,j,k+0,5 = σxz |i+0,5,j,k+0,5 + ∆tµ
∆z
! (2-38)
wn+0,5 |i+1,j,k+0,5 − wsn+0,5 |i,j,k+0,5
+ s
∆x
n+1 n vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k+1 − vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k

σyz |i,j+0,5,k+0,5 = σyz |i,j+0,5,k+0,5 + ∆tµ
∆z
! (2-39)
wn+0,5 |i,j+1,k+0,5 − wsn+0,5 |i,j,k+0,5
+ s
∆y
2.3. Interface coupling between the air and solid medium

Different approaches have been implemented for modeling the interface between different
media in FDTD. For structure-borne sound simulations the most common approach to si-
mulate the transmission of energy from a solid to a fluid, in the actual case the air, is to
consider that the particle velocity values normal to the solid surfaces are equal to the ones in
the air (Fig.2-4). This approach in the majority of studies requires to average the material
parameters located on the interfaces of the different media [10, 13, 16]: densities and Lamé
parameters.
A novel approach is proposed in [14] in which the calculation of the velocities on the interface
do not require the average of the material parameters, instead of that it is only taken into
account the solid density and the difference between the normal stresses on the solid and
the sound pressure in the air. Let’s consider the particle velocity node in z-direction on the
upper surface of Fig.2-4. For the calculation of this velocity node, if one assumes the air
as an inviscid fluid, i.e. shear stress nodes on the interface between solid and air are zero,
Eq.2-33 becomes
n
∆t σzz |i,j,k + pn |i,j,k+1
wsn+0,5 |i,j,k+0,5 = wsn−0,5 |i,j,k+0,5 + n−0,5
− βws |i,j,k+0,5 (2-40)
ρ ∆z
The positive sign in the first term of the parenthesis in Eq.2-40 indicates that a normal stress
under compression means an expansion, a drop in the sound pressure, in air; while a normal
tensile stress means a compression in air. This approach permits the transmission of energy
in both ways, from the solid to the air and vice-versa.
2.4 Stability criterion 15
Solid medium grid edge

Fluid medium (air) grid edge
Figure 2-4: Particle velocities on the interface between a plate and the air (red arrows) for
modeling the transmission of energy from the solid to the fluid medium.
2.4. Stability criterion

Usually FDTD simulations are solved by explicit methods in a recursive way as stated above.
The stability in an explicit time-domain simulation is defined by the Courant-Friedrichs-Levy
(CFL) condition (Eq.2-41) [17]. It determines the maximum time step permitted in order
to avoid numerical error dispersion and ensures the accuracy in the solution. This condition
implies that any wave cannot travel more than the minimum grid size in one time step.
1
∆t ≤ q (2-41)
c ∆x1 2 + 1
∆y 2
+ 1
∆yz 2
In Eq.2-41 c is the highest velocity of wave propagation in the media that are modeled and
in vibroacoustics problem is usually the velocity of the solid media. Eq.2-41 can be expressed
16 phenomena
as follows
1
∆t = CF L q (2-42)
c ∆x1 2 + 1
∆y 2
+ 1
∆yz 2
In Eq.2-42 CF L is the Courant-Friedrichs-Levy number and for complying the inequality of

Eq.2-41 must be CF L < 1.
2.5. Meshing of the solution domain

A commonly used criterion for defining the grid size of the solution domain mesh is to
satisfy that, for example for the grid size in x-direction, ∆x ≤ λmin /10 [7], where λmin is
the minimum wavelength that corresponds to the highest frequency of the excitation source.
There are cases in which it is impractical to mesh the entire domain with the same grid
size along a determined direction; in that cases it is recommended to apply a nonuniform
meshing to the domain.
2.5.1. Nonuniform grids

When the problem to solve is composed of different media with different material parameters,
it is not practical to mesh the whole domain with the minimum size required for satisfying
the stability of the solution because it requires a small time step, increasing the simulation
time due to the large amount of cells. In this cases, it is useful to mesh the solution domain
with grids of different size that cover the necessities of each of those media with the purpose
of guaranteeing the stability during the simulation (Fig.2-5).
In Fig.2-5 ∆xc is the coarse grid size in x-direction, ∆xf is the fine grid size in x-direction,
∆yc is the coarse grid size in y-direction and ∆yf is the fine grid size in y-direction.
With the objective of explaining the implications that have using a nonuniform grid, let’s
write the expression for calculating one of the particle velocities in x-direction on the interface
of the solid and air (red arrows). Applying a central difference approximation and assuming
the air as an inviscid fluid, it is obtained
∆t pn |i,j + σxx
n
|i+1,j
un+0,5
s |i+0,5,j = un−0,5
s |i+0,5,j + − βusn−0,5 |i+0,5,j (2-43)
ρ ∆xc /2 + ∆xf /2
The same procedure to obtain Eq.2-43 applies for calculating, sound pressures, normal and
shear stresses and for extending the analysis to three dimensions.
Another method proposed for reducing the simulation time is to scale the solution domain
2.6 Boundary conditions 17
by a factor greater than 1 [14]. This allows to obtain a greater time step and therefore to
reduce the simulation time. Finally, the scaled results can be calculated back to the original
dimensions.
Air
Solid
Δyc
Δyf
y
Δxc Δxf
Figure 2-5: Nonuniform grid in a 2D problem of sound propagation of a solid and air
2.6. Boundary conditions

For approaching the computational domain to a real domain, different approaches have been
proposed for modeling different conditions that may occur in reality like the impact of a
wave over a hard wall, the propagation of a wave along a free environments or the inclusion
of lossy media. These situations are modeled by means of the boundary conditions (BCs)
inside the solution domain.
2.6.1. Reflective boundary condition

This BC permits to model a hard-wall-like boundary assuming that the whole wave reflects
completely when this impacts over the set of nodes in the computational domain that defines
this BC. In Fig.2-6 there is a portion of the mesh of a domain composed of air with a
reflective BC on the left. The model of this BC inside an FDTD domain is accomplished by
setting the particle velocities that matches this boundary perpendicularly (red arrows) to
18 phenomena
zero. The same applies for the structure-borne sound case in which a reflective BC wants to
be modeled. This BC are the same as a Dirichlet BC.
Reflective BC
Figure 2-6: Partial mesh of a domain composed of air with a reflective boundary condition
2.6.2. Absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs)

There are cases in which the reflections over surfaces of the simulation domain are not of
interest and are wanted to be diminished or absorbed. In the next sections will be seen the
most common BCs used for reproducing absorbing media in the FDTD domain: Mur’s BC
and Liao’s BC; and the ones that permits to insert lossy media in the domain: Perfectly
Matched Layers.
2.6.2.1. Mur’s BC
The purpose of most of the ABCs is to simulate an open-like field that permits to travel the
incident wave on a boundary out of the domain of analysis. A well known ABC used in FDTD
is the Mur’s BC [18] that assumes that only progressive waves travel out of the simulation
domain. Next, the first-order Mur’s ABC will be explained for the case of a one-dimensional
wave propagation.
Let’s take the one-dimensional acoustic wave equation in terms of the particle velocity in
x-direction
∂ 2u 1 ∂ 2u
− =0 (2-44)
∂x2 c2 ∂t2
Absorptive
boundary
x
i=1 i=1.5 i+2
Figure 2-7: Plane wave incident to an absorbing boundary in x-direction
Eq.2-44 can be expressed as a progressive (Eq.2-45) and a regressive wave (Eq.2-46)
∂u 1 ∂u
− =0 (2-45)
∂x c ∂t
∂u 1 ∂u
+ =0 (2-46)
∂x c ∂t
In Fig.2-7 an absorptive boundary is placed at i = 1,5 in which a progressive wave is
traveling through it. In order to calculate the particle velocity on the absorptive boundary,
Eq.2-45 that represents a progressive wave in negative x-direction is approximated by a
central difference approach on i = 1,5. Since there is no particle velocity node on i = 1,5, it
is possible to express the time derivative on Eq.2-45 as an average.
un+0,5 |2,j − un+0,5 |1,j

11 ∂u ∂u
= + (2-47)
∆x c2 ∂t 1,j ∂t 2,j

Approximating the right part inside the parenthesis of Eq.2-47 by a central difference ap-
proach and solving for the particle velocity on the left boundary of the computational domain
in Fig.2-7
c∆t − ∆x n+1,5
un+1,5 |1,j = un+0,5 |2,j + |2,j − un+0,5 |1,j

u (2-48)
c∆t + ∆x
The same procedure applies for the another boundaries inside an FDTD domain including
the extension to three dimensions. The second-order Mur’s ABC permits to obtain a better
approximation of the incident wave. The procedure for deriving the expression for the second
order approach can be reviewed in detail in [18].
20 phenomena
Since Mur’s ABC assumes that the plane waves that travels through the absorbing boundary
are normal, when oblique incident waves pass through the boundary the accuracy of the
boundary model drops.
2.6.2.2. Liao’s BC
Liao’s ABC formulation is based on finding the particle velocity field values on the compu-
tational domain boundary located at xmax (limits of the domain) by extrapolating velocity
values previously known inside the domain. The extrapolation is performed applying a New-
ton backward-difference polynomial [7].
The expressions for the second-order (Eq.2-49) and third-order (Eq.2-50) Liao’s ABC for
the particle velocities in x-direction can be written as
u(xmax , t + 1) = 2u(xmax − 1, t) − u(xmax − 2, t − 1) (2-49)
u(xmax , t + 1) = 3u(xmax − 1, t) − 3u(xmax − 2, t − 1) + u(xmax − 3, t − 2) (2-50)
2.6.2.3. Perfeclty Matched Layer
Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) are a type of boundary condition categorized as material
absorbing boundary condition, because they permit to include absorptive media inside the
computational domain and not only on the boundaries. They were first developed for mo-
deling absorptive media in electromagnetic simulations [19]. For acoustics, PML has been
also implemented for including absorptive media for reducing the reflections caused by the
incident waves on the domain boundaries [20–22], and in the field of geomechanics have
been used for modeling non-reflective BCs in elastic wave propagation problems [23]. The
advantage of PML over other ABCs is that it permits to match the plane waves that travels
in the PML region regardless of the angle of incidence nor the frequency.
The formulation of PML is based on the next steps:
Analytic continuation of Eq.2-1 and Eq.2-2 into complex coordinates

These equations can be written in a sort form of a wave function w
−ρ0 c2 ∇·

∂w 0 vi
= (2-51)
∂t 0 −1/ρ0 ∇ p
Im[x]
0
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
Re[eikx]
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Re[x]
Figure 2-8: Exponential attenuation of a plane wave when the imaginary part is increased
from some point in x-direction
The wave function w can be transformed into complex coordinates. The objective of
this is to change an oscillating wave into exponentially decaying wave inside the region
of interest.
Let’s consider a plane wave propagating in the positive x-direction
w(x, t) = wei(kx−ωt) (2-52)
and let’s analyze the spatial part of the exponential function of Eq.2-52, but instead
of evaluate it in the real axis the function is evaluated in the complex plane as follows
eik(Re[x]+iIm[x]) = eikRe[x] e−Im[x] (2-53)
It can be seen from Eq.2-53 and in Fig.2-8 that for values of k > 0 when the value
of the imaginary part of x is increased gradually, the real part of eikx is attenuated
exponentially. As it is shown in Fig.2-8, for values of x > 20 the imaginary part of x
is augmenting linearly from zero to one. As it happens the amplitude of the real part
of eikx is decreasing and this behavior is like that of a PML.
Transformation of the model equations back to real coordinates

Solving a differential equation in complex variables is not so practical. For this reason
it is straightforward to reformulate our model equations to the real domain.
22 phenomena
Let’s define the complex space used in the last step as
x̂ = x + if (x) (2-54)
In Eq.2-54 f (x) is a function used for attenuate the propagating wave. In the case
showed in Fig.2-8, f (x) is a ramp function. A change of variables is necessary for
rewriting the original model equations in terms of the complex space variables used for
defined de PML region. This change of variables is performed by means of expressing
the partial derivative with respect to x and this is known as the expression of the model
equations in stretched coordinates [20].
∂ 1 ∂
= γ (x)
(2-55)
∂x 1 + i ω ∂x
x
In 2-55 γx (x) is a function that helps to model the absorption inside the PML region.
For instance, in the areas where γx (x) = 0, e.g. the areas surrounded by air, the
wave propagation is free and does not decay caused by the attenuation. The opposite
happens where γx (x) > 0 and the wave amplitude decays exponentially.
Truncation of the domain

Finally, it is necessary to truncate the computational domain because the PML region
are located not only on the boundaries of it, but it is part of the inner region of the
domain. The truncation can be simply achieved by setting the boundaries as pure
reflective boundaries (Dirichlet BC).
For the definition of the PML inside an acoustic medium, the equations that models a sound
propagation problem can be written for a three dimensional case as follows [24]
∂px γx ∂u
+ px = −ρ0 c2 (2-56)
∂t ρ0 ∂x
∂py γy ∂v
+ py = −ρ0 c2 (2-57)
∂t ρ0 ∂y
∂pz γz ∂w
+ pz = −ρ0 c2 (2-58)
∂t ρ0 ∂z
∂u 1 ∂p
+ γx u = − (2-59)
∂t ρ0 ∂x
∂v 1 ∂p
+ γy v = − (2-60)
∂t ρ0 ∂y
∂w 1 ∂p
+ γz w = − (2-61)
∂t ρ0 ∂z
p = px + py + pz (2-62)
It can be seen that whenever the values of γx , γy and γz are zero (2-9) the latter equations
reduce to the continuity and conservation of linear momentum equations, which means that
these two equations are a particular case of Eq.2-56 - Eq.2-61.
γx=γy=γ
PML region γx=0, γy=γ γx=γy=γ
PML region γx=γ, γy=0

PML region γx=γ, γy=0
Air region
γx=γy=0
y
γx=γy=γ PML region γx=0, γy=γ γx=γy=γ NPML
x
NPML
Figure 2-9: 2D representation of an acoustic medium with PML regions in each one of its
outermost
It is easy to discretize the above equations by means of the FDTD approach and the value
of γ in each direction is calculated as a function of the position inside the PML region as
α
k∆h
γ(k∆h) = γmax (2-63)
NP M L
24 phenomena
In Eq.2-63 k is the position index inside the PML region, ∆h is ∆x, ∆y or ∆z, NP M L is the
number of grids inside the PML and α is the degree of the function to which the absorption
coefficient grows inside the PML. Through Eq.2-63 and Fig.2-9 can be seen that when k is
very small the attenuation of the incident wave is lower. As the wave penetrates more inside
the PML region, i.e. k is getting bigger, the wave attenuation grows until it maximizes at
NP M L . It is common to set the value of γmax equal to the impedance of the medium, in this
case the impedance of air ρ0 c and the thickness of the PML region equal to a wavelength.
A simple two dimensional simulation was performed for comparing the capability of the
ABCs explained above for absorbing waves coming out of the domain. A 10 m× 10 m plane
was discretized with a grid of 0.05 m in both directions. The source was a Gaussian pulse
(Eq.2-64) with t0 = 0,005 s and τ = 0,001 s located in the center of the plane as a sound
pressure node. The total simulation time was 0.05 s and the sound pressure sensing point
for the three ABCs simulations was set apart 1.5 m right from the source in x-direction.
t−t0 2
ps (t) = e−( τ
)
(2-64)
0.15
PML
Liao second order
Mur first order
Sound pressure [Pa]
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Time [s]
Figure 2-10: Comparison of Liao, Mur and PML BCs for the same sound pressure sensing
point inside an acoustic space
The PMLs were defined to have a thickness of 4 m in each direction, the absorption was set
to 8 times the impedance of the medium (8ρ0 c) and the degree of the absorption function
was α = 2.
Fig.2-10 shows the evolution of sound pressure in time at the sensing point. Although
Liao’s BC shows less sound pressure value at the end of the simulation time, PML exhibits
less reflections in comparison with the other two BCs that permits to prove that a good
trade-off between the PML thickness and the value of the absorption coefficient allows to
achieve a non-reflective condition when reflections of the sound radiation is not of interest
in the analysis, although it requires larger computational time due to the increasing of the
dimensions of the simulation domain. In Fig.2-11 it is possible to compare the evolution of
sound pressure in the x-y plane for the three ABC’s at different time steps.
Sound
Liao Mur PML pressure [Pa]
10 10 10 0.1400
0.1225
8 8 8
0.1050
6 6 6 0.08750
y [m]
y [m]
y [m]
t = 0.25tmax 4 4 4
0.07000
0.05250
0.03500
2 2 2
0.01750
0 0 0 0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m] x [m] x [m]

10 10 10 0.09600
0.08400
8 8 8
0.07200
6 6 6 0.06000
y [m]
y [m]
y [m]
t = 0.375tmax 4 4 4
0.04800
0.03600
0.02400
2 2 2
0.01200
0 0 0 0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m] x [m] x [m]

10 10 10 0.09400
0.08225
8 8 8
0.07050
6 6 6 0.05875
y [m]
y [m]
y [m]
t = 0.5tmax 4 4 4
0.04700
0.03525
0.02350
2 2 2
0.01175
0 0 0 0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m] x [m] x [m]
Figure 2-11: Sound pressure inside the acoustic plane for different time steps comparing
Liao, Mur and PML BCs
3 Transfer Path Analysis
Transfer Path Analysis (TPA), Source Path Contribution or Source Contribution Analysis
is a well known technique in the automotive industry for solving problems related to Noise,
Vibration and Harshness (NVH) during design stages [25], although is not limited to this
field of application. Another fields like agricultural devices [26] or home appliances have been
cases of study of TPA [27]. The main purpose of this methods is to estimate the individual
contribution of each transmission path of energy in a structure, e.g. a car or a refrigerator:
airborne or structure-borne sound and vibrations mainly, to a specific receiver point where is
of interest to estimate the levels of these physical quantities. It is a useful tool for engineers
or product designers, because in this way they can focus on the main transfer paths that
contribute to the major amount of energy when reducing the noise or vibration levels are a
design target.
Different approaches have been developed in order to apply the TPA method [28]. In the
next sections classical TPA and transmissibility-based TPA will be introduced.
3.1. The classical TPA

In a machine with a vibration/noise source or multiple sources (active side) and a receiving
point (passive side) where the comfort will be quantified, a transfer path (TP) is any degree
of freedom (DoF) that contributes at the interface point(s) between the source(s) and the
receiver(s) side, e.g. translations or rotations caused by forces, accelerations, etc.
The TPA method is suitable for the analysis of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
systems and it assumes that the system is linear and time invariant (LTI) and in that way it
can be based on the superposition principle. Each contribution of each individual path can
be obtained as is stated by Eq.3-1
y(jω) = H(jω)x(jω) (3-1)
where:
y(jω) is the output response at the passive side.
x(jω) is the input at the active side.
H(jω) is the Frequency Response Function (FRF) that relates the output y(jω) with the
input x(jω).
3.1 The classical TPA 27
The response at the passive side can be any physical quantity of interest like acceleration, ve-
locity or displacement. In that case the input x(jω) is a force F(jω). In the case where acous-
tic quantities like sound pressure are wanted the input is a volume velocity source (Q(jω))
and the FRF is referred as a Noise Transfer Function (NTF). Depending on the variables
related, the FRF receives its name (Table 3-1). The FRF is obtained in frequency-domain,
that is the dependency of jω showed in Eq.3-1, so that it contains the whole information of
the system for each frequency of analysis (the spectrum).
Table 3-1: FRF names depending on the related variables

Variables Displacement/Force Velocity/Force Acceleration/Force
FRF name Admittance Mobility Accelerance
Once every TP has been defined, in the case of a refrigerator: the compressor, the jun-
ction point between the compressor and the plate that supports it, the junction between the
compressor plate and the cabinet, etc., the FRF for each TP must be obtained. The latter
is performed by means of disassembling the structure in the different subsystems of interest,
applying forces on the points in which active sides are connected to passive sides with impact
hammers or shakers and measuring the response on the receiving points [29],[30].
F1 a1
Sv1
F2 a2
Sv2
Sv: Vibration source
...
Sn: Noise source

Fm am
S vm HTm F: Force
Q: Volume velocity source
a: Acceleration
Q1 p1 p
T
Sn1 p: Sound pressure
H: Frequency Response Function
Q2 p2 NTF: Noise Transfer Function
Sn2 NTFT2
...
Qn pn
Snn NTFTn
Active side Passive side
Figure 3-1: Scheme of the classical TPA for an active side with vibration and acoustic noise
sources and a passive side in which is determined a total sound pressure due to
each path contribution
When all FRFs are obtained, the total response at the receiver side can be obtained as a
summation of each path contribution as stated by Eq.3-2. A simplified scheme of a TPA
between an active and a passive side is shown in Fig.3-1.
28 3 Transfer Path Analysis
N
X
ym (jω) = Hmn (jω)xn (jω) (3-2)
n=1
where:
ym (jω) is the output response at the receiver m.
xn (jω) is the input on path n.
Hmn (jω) is the Frequency Response Function (FRF) that relates the output m to the input
excitation on path n and N is the number of total TP.
One of the problems that TPA deals with is to estimate the operating forces for each DoF.
The easiest way would be to put a sensor to measure the interface force between the diffe-
rent subsystems, but most of the time it is not possible in practice. There are three main
approaches to obtain these forces indirectly [25]. The first approach is useful when there are
resilient mounts between the active and the passive side. If one knows the displacements
between the connected sides, the force can be obtained as follows (Eq.3-3).
Fn (jω) = kn (jω)[xna (jω) − xnp (jω)] (3-3)
where:
Fn (jω) is the operational force acting on n number of paths.
kn (jω) is the complex stiffness of the mount on n number of paths.
xna (jω) and xnp (jω) are the displacements on the active and the passive side respectively
for each n number of paths.
The second method for calculating the forces is the so-called FRF matrix inversion. This is
suitable when there are rigid connections or the mounts are very stiff between the active and
the passive side. The forces can be obtained as:
   −1  
F1 H11 H12 . . . H1n ẍ1
 F2   H21 H22 . . . H2n   ẍ2 
 =  .. (3-4)
     
 .. .. .. ..   .. 
 .   . . . .   . 
Fn Hm1 Hm2 . . . Hmn ẍm
In Eq.3-4 the output variables are accelerations, but they can be displacements, velocities,
etc. In order to the FRF matrix is invertible, the number of m responses must be greater
than the number of input forces n, so that the system is overdetermined.
3.2 Operational Transfer Path Analysis 29
The third method obtains the individual forces for each DoF at pont i, multiplying the FRF
measured between an input point i and a receiving point j by the operating response on the
passive side on a point j (Eq.3-5).
Fi = Hij ẍj (3-5)
This last method is prone to errors that become larger, especially at lower frequencies where
the contribution of the forces acting on every DoF are present when one wants to estimate
an individual force (Cross-talk Contribution) [25].
The main limitation of the classical TPA method is the necessity for disassembling the
structure in different subsystems defined for the analysis of each TP. This process demands
time and it does not represent the actual operational working condition of the system under
study [28–31]. A later version of TPA called Operational Transfer Path Analysis (OTPA)
was developed and it overcomes the limitations that classical TPA exhibits.
3.2. Operational Transfer Path Analysis

This version of TPA method, instead of finding a FRF matrix, tries to get a Transfer Function
(TF) matrix between a set of input and output operational measurements on the system of
interest, that is why it is part of the transmissibility-based TPA [28],[31]. The FRF is a
relationship between the responses and the inputs of a system, while a TF can be seen as a
relation response-response in a system. This TF is known as a Transmissibility Matrix (TM)
and it is basically the ratio between the responses measured on different points of a MIMO
system [32–34].
The aim of OTPA is to separate each contribution of the different sources or paths (inputs)
on a system to one or multiple responses (e.g. sound pressure or vibration levels measured
on determined points of interest) assuming the contributions are uncorrelated. To obtain the
TM the system can be solved by means of least-squares method, but due to noise correlation
between the signals chosen as inputs, the common approach is to apply an OTPA based on
Singular Value Decomposition. OTPA has been applied to automotive applications as well
as classical TPA, as in the study of tire noise affecting the passengers cabin [35] and its main
advantage is that it permits to obtain the multiple TP of a system directly from operational
measurements without the necessity of disassembling the system.
3.2.1. OTPA based on least-squares solution

It is possible to see the solution for the OTPA, namely the decomposed contributions of a
determined output, as a linear combination of the multiple DoFs (input and outputs) acting
on a system.
y(jω) = H(jω)x(jω) (3-6)
In this case H(jω) is called the Transmissibility Matrix.

One of the advantages of OTPA is that a combination of signals of multiple nature can
be put together as inputs or outputs, as long as they are scaled or normalized [28]. When
different signals are desired to be used as inputs, the normalization wants to scale the signals
to [0,1], i.e. to a mean equals to 0 and a standard deviation equals to 1; in statistics it is
known as statistical or z-score normalization [36]. Let’s consider a vector x with n number
of data. The z-score normalization of the vector x is calculated as
xi − x
z= (3-7)
s
where:
z is the normalized vector.
xi is the ith component of the vector x.
x is the arithmetic mean of the vector x.
s is its standard deviation of the vector x.
For example, in a vibroacoustic analysis of a system the most common measured varia-
bles are forces, accelerations and sound pressures. Considering these variables as input and
output, they can be written in vector form (3-8). From here on the dependency on frequency
(jω) will be omitted for the sake of simplicity.
   
fx fy
x =  ax  y =  ay  (3-8)
px py
where:
T h iT h iT
fx = f(1) f(2) . . . f(k) ax = a(1) (2) (l)
px = p(1) (2) (m)

x x x ; x ax . . . ax ; x p x . . . p x
T h iT h iT
fy = f(1) f(2) . . . f(n) ay = a(1) (2) (o)
py = p(1) (2) (p)

y y y ; y ay . . . ay ; y p y . . . p y
The superscripts k, l, m correspond to the number of input channels for each different va-
riable and n, o, p correspond to the number of output channels for each different variable.
There is no any restriction to choose forces or sound pressures as inputs and displacements
or accelerations as outputs. It is usual in practice that the number of input channels are
larger than the number of output channels [35].
Each element of the transmissibility matrix can be obtained in the next way

yi
Hij = ; k 6= j (3-9)
xj xk =0
It is common to apply Eq.3-9 in experimental modal analysis and when the inputs yi are
forces obtained via shaker or impulse hammer and the outputs xj are accelerations or displa-
cements, this equation is reduced to a FRF that is time consuming and does not represent
real operating conditions of the system. The aim of OTPA is to obtain all the elements of
H(jω) from one measurement where there can be a mix of different physical variables that
permits to characterize the system of analysis.
Considering that m are the number of input channels during one measurement set and n are
the number of output channels, transposing Eq.3-6:
 
H11 H12 . . . H1n
(1) (2)  H21
 H22 . . . H2n 
y y . . . y (n) = x(1) x(2) . . . x(m)  .. (3-10)

.. .. .. 
 . . . . 
Hm1 Hm2 . . . Hmn
In order to model the system with the major quantity of the frequency spectra information,
the measurements are made in r different blocks or sets during different operational condi-
tions. Considering the different sets of measurement of different content, the system can still
be written as linear between the inputs and the outputs. In that way Eq.3-10 yields to:
   
(1) (2) (n) (1) (2) (m)  
y1 y1 ... y1 x1 x1 ... x1 H11 H12 . . . H1n
 (1) (2) (n)   (1) (2) (m)  
y2 y2 ... y2  x2 x2 ... x2   H21 H22 . . . H2n 
..  =  (3-11)

 . .. ..

 . .. .. ..  
 . .. ... .. 
.   ..
 .
 . . . .   .. . . . . 
(1) (2) (n) (1) (2) (m)
yr yr ... yr xr xr . . . xr Hm1 Hm2 . . . Hmn
For solving 3-11 by means of the least-squares method, it is necessary that the matrix H
is square. If this condition is not possible as the majority of the cases, an overdetermined
system is desired, so it is assumed that the number of measurement sets or blocks are larger
than the number of input DoFs, so that r > m.
Eq.3-11 can be written in simplified matrix notation as follows:
Y = XH (3-12)
Sensor 1 Sensor 2 Sensor n

...
...
Source 1 Source 2 Source m
Figure 3-2: Cross-Talk coherence between different input signals
For calculating the TF matrix by means of measured data, 3-12 is pre-multiplied by XT on

both sides to solve for H
H = (XT X)−1 XT Y (3-13)
In Eq.3-13 (XT X)−1 XT = X+ and it is known as the pseudo-inverse matrix or the Moore-
Penrose inverse [37]. Solve H through this method is error-prone due to the possible high
coherence between the input signals chosen to model the system. The errors may occur
mainly at low frequencies where the modal behavior of the system is strong and the term
(XT X), known as the Auto Power Spectrum of X becomes rank deficient at this frequency
range [38]. The high coherence is known as Cross-Talk coherence or cross-coupling and it
happens when influence from a measured point by a determined sensor or probe is affecting
another sensor not defined for that specific point (Fig.3-2).
To overcome the problems related to coherence between the input signals, Cross-Talk Can-
cellation (CTC) based on Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is the main method when
one wants to analyze a system with OTPA.
3.2.2. OTPA improvement with Singular Value Decomposition

For dealing with the noise present in the signals used for modeling the sources and the paths
in a system, the use of Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) permits to reduce the noise
present in the input signals, due to the coherence between them, with the application of
Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Matrix X is decomposed by SVD as
X = UΣVT (3-14)
In Eq.3-14
U is an orthogonal square matrix (r × r) which each of its columns are eigenvectors of

XXT . The orthogonality of U implies that UT U = I, UUT = I and UT = U−1 .
Σ is an r × m diagonal matrix that has on its diagonal the Singular Values (SV) that
are the squares roots of the nonzero eigenvalues of XT X and XXT . The SV are set
on the diagonal of Σ so that σ12 > σ22 > . . . > σr2 and the amount of this values is
subjected to the dimension r, the rest of the diagonal is filled with zeros.
V is another orthogonal square matrix (m × m) which each of its columns are eigen-
vectors of XT X.
The objective of decomposing X is to find an estimation of the TF matrix H by finding first

the pseudo-inverse of X. Lets consider the following relations:
XT X = (VΣT UT )(UΣVT ) = V(ΣT Σ)VT (3-15)

XXT = (UΣVT )(VΣT UT ) = U(ΣT Σ)UT (3-16)
Recalling the expression for the pseudo-inverse of X and considering the later relations
X+ = (XT X)−1 XT (3-17)
X+ = (V(ΣT Σ)VT )−1 (UΣVT )T
X+ = VΣ−1 UT (3-18)
Replacing 3-18 in 3-13 it is possible to obtain an estimation of the TF matrix by means of

a least squares approximation as
H̃ = VΣ−1 UT Y (3-19)
So far it has been explained the method for obtaining the estimation of the TF matrix, but
it needs to be explained the manner in which what is considered as noise is eliminated via
PCA.
PCA wants to reduce the dimensions of a set of data projecting it in a new coordinate
system in which possibly correlated data turns into linearly uncorrelated data. The matrix
of Principal Components (PC) is obtained multiplying 3-14 by V on both sides [39].
XV = UΣVT V (3-20)
And defining the product of XV as the PC matrix Z, one obtains
Z = UΣ (3-21)
A criterion to determine what PC will be considered for the estimation of de TF matrix, is

based on the definition of a threshold that limits the percentage of “influence“ or the amount
of relevant information of the signals that models the dynamics of the system, i.e. the data
without noise. This threshold permits to obtain a reduced matrix Σr choosing what Singular
Values are left and what are discarded setting them to zero. This reduced SV matrix, in
turn, permits to obtain a reduced PC matrix Zr .
Lets define the threshold as Tr. One can obtain the inverse of the reduced SV matrix as
follows

σn2

1/σ 2

if Tr < Pn × 100
n
Σ−1
r = i=1 σn2 (3-22)
0

otherwise
Once the reduced SV matrix is obtained the reduced TF matrix can be estimated (Eq.3-23)
H̃r = VΣ−1 T
r U Y (3-23)
Finally, it is possible to obtain the contribution of each source or path to the receiver signal(s)
as the product of the block of H̃r corresponding to the m source/path by the receiver n.
ym = Hmn xn (3-24)
Then the total receiver signal is obtained by the summation of each contribution and the
validation of the method is to compare the receiver(s) signal(s) with the summation of the
contributions, i.e. the synthesized receiver(s) signal(s).
3.2.3. OTPA in time domain

The identification of source contribution is not limited to the analysis in frequency domain. It
is suitable in time-domain for analyzing transient or non-stationary phenomena like vehicle
pass-by noise [40] or vehicle run-up [41].
It is possible to write 3-1 in time domain as
y(t) = h(t) ~ x(t) (3-25)
where h(t) is the Impulse Response Function (IRF) matrix and ~ denotes the convolution
operation. The IRF is obtained applying the inverse Fourier transform to the FRF matrix
H(jω) (Eq.3-26).
h(t) = F −1 {H(jω)} (3-26)
In the time domain case the same procedure applies as in the frequency domain analysis
when one wants to estimate the contribution of each source/path, but instead of obtaining
a frequency spectrum a signal in time domain is obtained.
Load data: Input SVD of X
and output signals Eq.3-14
Normalize input signals Apply PCA

(ax , fx , px , ...) Eq.3-22
Eq.3-7
Calculate the
Determine H̃r
IFR matrix
Setup x(t) and y(t) Eq.3-23
Eq.3-26
vectors for each
measurement block
Eq.3-8
Calculate contributions
in frequency domain
Eq.3-1
Transform x(t) and y(t)
into frequency domain
X(jω) = F {x(t)}
Y(jω) = F {y(t)} Calculate contributions Calculate contribu-
in time domain from the tions in time domain
ones in frequency domain with the IFR matrix
y(t) = F −1 {Y (jω)} Eq.3-25
Assemble X and Y
matrices with mea-
surement blocks
(See Eq.3-11)
Figure 3-3: Flowchart for determining path contributions in time domain applying OTPA
Fig.3-3 shows a flowchart for applying OTPA and determine the contribution of each transfer
path to the final sound contribution. The procedure to determine each contribution in time
domain can be performed following a common flow that implies the transformation of the
data into frequency domain, but at the end of the process there are two possible ways to
accomplished the task: the first one it to calculate the contributions in frequency domain
and finally transform them back into time domain. The second way is to determine the IRF
matrix from the transmissibility matrix and then convolving it with the output data. Both
are possible procedures that differ in the operations being used; in frequency domain it is a
product of matrices and in time domain is a convolution of signals arranged in a couple of
matrices.
3.2.4. Limitations and sources of error in OTPA

The following are the identified principal type of errors when OTPA is performed: Cross-
coupling between the input signals and missing paths [38],[42].
For highly coherent or cross-coupled input signals may be difficult to cancel their
cross-correlation by means of PCA based on SVD. In those cases the estimation of
contributions can be erroneous and the presence of noise will remain present. This can
occur when a path is modeled with the help of, for example, an accelerometer on a
determined point of a structure. Because of the high levels of vibration of the structure
as a cause of a strong modal dynamics related to a specific excitation frequency, that
acceleration level are not only a result of the vibration of the measured point, but of
other points that are contributing to that level. PCA based on SVD is a strong method
for canceling the cross-talk between the signals. The possible case for that cannot be
achieved is that the input signals are so highly coherent, so that they can be considered
the same. If different input channels have been chosen for modeling different sources
or paths, the performance of the CTC will be successful.
The missing of any path means that there is a load acting on the structure, but this
is not modeled/measured. For classical TPA the results of missing any path is clearly
observable when the receiver(s) signal(s) are compared with the sum of contributions
and they are fairly different. For OTPA this is not that obvious. When the input signals
are highly correlated and there are missing paths, the energy of the missing paths is
distributed all over the other input signals and finally, there will not be difference bet-
ween the output signal and the reconstructed signal through the partial contributions.
The other possible case is when the input signals are not correlated. In that situation
the reconstructed signal will differ from the receiver signal, but this case is difficult to
occur in reality, since the measurements are taken at the same time during operational
conditions, they will have a certain degree of correlation.
In conclusion, the criteria for determining which are the sources or paths taken into
account for modeling the system is up to the engineer and it must be based on the
experience and the knowledge of the system under analysis.
4 Sound radiation of a point excited
simply supported elastic plate
The study of the sound radiation in plates is of interest because it is a simple structure that
permits to extend the analysis to more complex structures. In the case of thin plates, bending
waves are the ones that have more influence in the dynamics of this type of structures when
they are excited, so that this type of waves are the most important in sound radiation because
of the large deflections transverse to the direction of wave propagation. It means that the
present off-plane displacements are greater than the in-plane ones; that is why they have the
highest sound radiation efficiency [43].
This chapter is intended for demonstrating the capability of the FDTD method to model and
simulate the sound radiation of a point excited simply supported (SS) plate as a case study
of a vibroacoustical simulation by means of this method, explaining the different approaches
when a thin plate is modeled, the assumptions taken in order to simplify the model and the
manner in which are coupled the solid and fluid structures inside the computational domain.
4.1. FDTD simulation of the sound radiation of a point

excited simply supported elastic plate
Different approaches have been used for modeling the sound radiation of plates by means
of the FDTD method. The majority are based on classical plate theories [13, 44] and others
have simply used the general model of a 3D isotropic elastic solid [14]. The use of classical
plate theories permit to have a model in two dimensions, but it implies to discretize second
order equations that are solved by an implicit scheme, that does not depend on any stability
conditions due to time discretization, but requires a matrix inversion that can be compu-
tationally expensive in comparison to an explicit scheme.
The approach proposed in [14] will be validated in order to prove if their method is ca-
pable of reproducing the transient response of the sound radiated by an elastic plate. The
advantage of this method is that the equations are of first order nature (Eq.2-22 - Eq.2-30)
and the solution in time is performed by an explicit scheme that is easy to implement in a
computational environment.
The following are the considerations and most important elements used for the plate simu-
lation:
38 4 Sound radiation of a point excited simply supported elastic plate
4.1.1. Plate model

A steel plate of 46.5 cm × 22 cm and 0.8 mm thick was modeled by means of Eq.2-22 - Eq.2-
30. The material properties used for the simulation were ρ = 7700 kg/m3 , E = 200 GP a and
ν = 0,3. The Lamé parameters were calculated by the next relations
Eν
λ= (4-1)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
E
µ= (4-2)
2(1 + ν)
The determination of the damping coefficient was performed by the next model that relates
the loss factor η, that represents the energy dissipated in a vibrating system in relation to
the total energy present with a couple of coefficients γ and β [13], [14]
β
η = 2πf γ + (4-3)
2πf
In the last equation f is the center frequency of each 1/3-octave band. The value of the
loss factor for steel was taken from [45] for a 1020 steel. For each 1/3-octave band center
frequency between 50 and 500 Hz a constant value of η = 5 × 10−4 was reported by the
authors. With this value and Eq.4-3 a least-squares fitting was performed for obtaining the
values of γ and β that approximate the loss factor obtained via the equation to the real one.
The values of the damping coefficients calculated by the least-squares fitting were γ = 0 and
β = 0,1856. The fitted curve to the constant real value can be seen in Fig.4-1.
4.1.2. Sound propagation model

The sound propagation in air was modeled with equations 2-3 to 2-6 with ρ0 = 1,2 kg/m3
and c = 343 m/s.
4.1.3. Source
The source was placed on a particle velocity node perpendicular to the lower surface of the
plate model and has the form of a sinusoidal function (Fig.4-2) with frequency of 250 Hz
and amplitude of 0.03 m/s.
4.1 FDTD simulation of the sound radiation of a point excited simply
supported elastic plate 39
Loss factor (real)

Loss factor (fitted)
0.00065
0.00060
Loss factor (h)
0.00055
0.00050
0.00045
0.00040
100 200 300 400 500

1/3 octave band center frequency [Hz]
Figure 4-1: Steel loss factor curve fitted to the constant value equal to 5×10−4 for each
1/3-octave band center frequency between 50 and 500 Hz
0.03
0.02
0.01
vz [m/s]
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Time [s]
Figure 4-2: Excitation source function applied to the FDTD plate model
Figure 4-3: Scheme of a bending wave in a discretized plate. Red normal stress nodes:
Under compression, blue normal stress nodes: Under tension
4.1.4. Meshing
The grid size for the solid medium was performed using the method proposed in [14] in which
the purpose is to reproduce bending wave motion by the FDTD plate model. They found
that modeling a thin plate with a certain amount of normal stress nodes was sufficient for
approximating the way in which the plate modeled vibrates in relation to its eigenfrequencies
for a SS boundary condition.
As seen in chapter 2, the grid size determines the time step; the finer the grid size the larger
the total simulation time. The most critical dimension to discretize the plate model is the
thickness, therefore the maximum number of normal stress nodes in the thickness direction
was two, because they are enough for simulating bending wave motion. In Fig.4-3 a repre-
sentation of a bending wave in a discretized portion of plate shows two normal stress nodes
in the direction of the thickness. For instance, while a node is under compression, on the
opposite side there is a node under tension.
Considering that in [14] was found that a number of 120 normal stress nodes is enough for
modeling the plate and keeping constant two nodes (nz = 2) along the thickness direction,
nx = 10 nodes were used for discretizing the longest dimension of the plate (lx = 0,465 m)
and ny = 6 nodes for the another one (ly = 0,22 m). With respect to the aforementioned, the
grid size in each direction for the plate is: ∆x = lx/nx = 0,0465 m, ∆y = ly/ny = 0,0367 m
and ∆z = lz/nz = 0,4 × 10−3 m. With this grid sizes and a CF L factor equal to 0.85 it was
found a time step equal to ∆t = 6,36 × 10−8 s for a stable simulation.
With the aim of reducing the simulation time, a nonuniform grid was used in the whole
domain, because meshing the air in z-direction, i.e. the thickness direction, becomes in a finer
mesh that amplify considerably the simulation time. For the discretization of the air domain
it was taken into account the criteria of the minimum number of grids per wavelength in each
of the three dimensions. For the x- and y-direction 15 grids per wavelength were considered
and for the z-direction 20 grids, because is in this direction in which the larger plate area is
perpendicular to, so that the sound radiation has predominance along this axis. The plate
was placed centered inside an air volume of Lx = Ly = 2 m and Lz = 5 m (Fig.4-4).
4.1 FDTD simulation of the sound radiation of a point excited simply
supported elastic plate 41
Lz
lz
ly
lx
Ly
z Lx
y
x
Figure 4-4: Position of the plate inside the air volume for the FDTD simulation
4.1.5. Boundary conditions
The SS boundary condition proposed in [14] and used in this study is achieved by setting
the middle particle velocity nodes in z-direction present on the plate edges to zero (green
arrow in Fig.4-5). Also by assuming the air as an inviscid fluid, i.e. its viscosity is negligible,
the shear stress nodes on the interface of the solid and air are set to zero as well. Finally, for
the interaction between the solid and the fluid media the approach explained in 2.3 was used.
In the present study is not of interest to study the interaction of the acoustic waves with the
surrounding environment. For that reason, in order to avoid reflections, PML BCs were used
in every surface of the air volume. The thickness of the PML in x- and y-direction was set
to be equal to a half wavelength in air and in z-direction equal to a wavelength. The absor-
ption coefficient was set to γ = ρ0 c and the the degree of the space distribution of γ to α = 2.
Four sensing points were located inside the FDTD grid as shown in Fig.4-6 for recording
the sound pressure radiated by the plate at different distances from the upper surface of the
plate.
z
y
Figure 4-5: Boundary conditions on the edges of the plate. Green arrow: Particle velocity
node set to zero for modeling the SSBC. Red arrows: Particle velocity nodes
that model the transmission of energy from the solid to the air. Red contour
shear stress nodes: They are set to zero for modeling the air as an inviscid
fluid.
Lx/2
0.15 m 0.06 m
Ly/2
Top view Ly
Sens.4
Sens.3
0.8 m
0.45 m
Sens.1 Sens.2
0.25 m
Front view
Lx
Figure 4-6: Sound pressure sensing points location inside the FDTD simulation
4.2 Experimental sound radiation of a point excited simply supported
elastic plate 43
4.2. Experimental sound radiation of a point excited

simply supported elastic plate
An experimental setup was made for the validation of the FDTD simulation results. A carbon
steel plate with the same dimensions defined for the simulation was excited with vibrational
motion and the sound radiated by it was measured inside an acoustic engineering chamber
with absorptive material treatment so that it has semi-anechoic characteristics. For the SS
boundary condition of the plate, a similar setup to the one used in [46] was implemented. As
can be seen in Fig.4-7 the plate was supported to a 50 cm high wooden frame by means of
bolts separated 50 mm each other. The way in which the plate was supported only permits
the contact between the plate edges and the tips of the bolts. The use of a wooden frame
was intended for avoiding possible resonances as can occur with a metal frame that finally
affects the sound pressure radiated by the plate.
Mic.4
Mic.3
Mic.1 Mic.2
Figure 4-7: Experimental setup for measuring the sound radiated by the steel plate inside
the semi-anechoic chamber
Top view
Mic.4
Mic.3
Mic.1 Mic.2
DAQ
Front view
Accelerometer
Steel rod
Vibration
exciter
Signal Audio
generator amplifier
Figure 4-8: Experimental setup scheme for measuring the sound radiated by the steel plate
The excitation source of the plate was made with a shaker-like vibration exciter made with
a bass speaker coupled to the lower plate surface with a steel rod. The source was excited
with a signal generator connected to an audio amplifier and then the output of the amplifier
to the vibration exciter. The signal was a 250 Hz sine function and a PCB 352C33 acce-
lerometer was placed between the lower plate surface and the exciter rod to characterize
the excitation source for the FDTD simulation. With the signal obtained with the acce-
lerometer, the excitation source function in 4.1 was defined as wsource = apeak /2πf , where
apeak is the peak amplitude of the acceleration signal and f is the excitation signal frequency.
Four G.R.A.S. 40PH microphones were placed above the upper surface of the plate for
recording the sound pressure radiated in the same location of the sensing points defined
in the simulation (Fig.4-6). The data acquisition (DAQ) system was composed of two NI
9234 module and the signals were recorded with a sample rate of 12.8 kHz. According to
the Nyquist sample theorem this sample rate was more than enough in comparison with the
excitation signal of the system. A full scheme of the experimental setup is shown in Fig.4-8.
Since two independent modules were used for the DAQ system, it was difficult to ensure
4.2 Experimental sound radiation of a point excited simply supported
elastic plate 45
the synchronization of them in the moment of recording the sound pressure data. Therefore
the difference of the time of arrival of the sound wave to each microphone due to their
spatial separation was not easy to get and errors in the analysis of the transient behavior
was expected. In order to overcome this, a signal processing method based on the time of
arrival (toA) was used [47]. This method is based on a linear approximation of the toA of
the sound pressure wavefront when it reaches each microphone. A straight line is obtained
from the points determined by the 10 % (p0,10 ) and 90 % (p0,90 ) of the first maximum sound
pressure peak (p0,max ) as shown in Fig.4-9.
p
p
p0,max
p0,90
p0,10
toA t0,10 t0,90 t
Figure 4-9: Scheme for estimating the time of arrival of the sound pressure wavefront based
on the linear approximation
The toA is then estimated from a straight line equation when the line intersects the time
axis, i.e. when p = 0 (Eq.4-4).

t0,90 − t0,10
toA = t0,90 − p0,90 (4-4)
p0,90 − p0,10
The toA estimation was made for each of the four recorded signals and the time difference
between each of them was obtained from the theoretical time-lag considering the spatial
separation between the microphones in the experimental setup (Fig.4-6) and the sound
speed in air at the temperature range during the tests (346 m/s). For instance, to the arrival
0,25 m
time obtained for the signals recorded by microphones 1 and 2 was added 346 m/s
, for the one
0,45 m
recorded by microphone 3 was added 346 m/s and the same procedure for the signal recorded
by microphone 4.
4.3. Results
Fig.4-10 shows the sound pressure signals obtained with the FDTD model of the steel plate
and the ones obtained with the experimental measurements. At first sight, good agreement
exists between the two signals especially for the first microphone/sensing point. Perceptible
difference, particularly in amplitude, can be seen between the theoretical and the experimen-
tal signals for the second and fourth microphones/sensing points. The one that exhibits the
biggest difference in amplitude are the signals recorded by microphone/sensing point 3. In
order to quantify the difference among the experimental and theoretical signals, they were
calculated the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (Eq.4-5) and the phase difference (Eq.4-6)
for the signals obtained by each method.
In Eq.4-5, N is the number of samples of each signal, pF DT D is the sound pressure signal
obtained from the FDTD simulations and pexp from the experimental measurements.
v
u
u1 X N
RM SE = t (pF DT D − pexp )2 (4-5)
N i=1
Eq.4-6 is the division of the dot product of each vector signal obtained from the simulation
and the experimental test by the product of their norms.
~ D · p~exp
pF DT
∆φ = (4-6)
kpF DT
~ D k kp~exp k
The RMSE obtained were 12.84 %, 17.64 %, 13.98 % and 8.65 % between the signals of the
microphones/sensing points 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The phase differences were 36.91◦
between the signals of microphone 1, 69.73◦ for the second one, 64.39◦ for the third one and
42.40◦ for the microphone 4. Although apparently the most deviated experimental signal
from the theoretical is the one recorded at the sensing point 3, the biggest RMSE was the
corresponding to the sensing point number 2. It coincides with the biggest phase difference.
Possibles sources of error can be attributed to considerations not included in the FDTD
model, so that it is not able to reproduce the real behavior at which the plate vibrates and
therefore radiates sound. Another possible sources of error can be due to the experimental
setup or the DAQ system.
In conclusion it was shown that the FDTD sound propagation model of the point excited
elastic plate is able to reproduce the transient sound radiation of the point excited elastic
plate in good agreement at least in the nearfield. The evidence of that is that the magnitude
of the sound pressure and the phase difference of the signals obtained during the tests and
the simulations do not differ greatly, mainly for sensing points 1 and 4.
4.3 Results 47
FDTD FDTD
Microphone 1 Microphone 2
Measured Measured
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
Sound pressure [Pa]
Sound pressure [Pa]

0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time [s] Time [s]
FDTD FDTD
Measured Measured
Microphone 3 Microphone 4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
Sound pressure [Pa]
Sound pressure [Pa]
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
-0.1 -0.1
-0.2 -0.2
-0.3 -0.3
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 4-10: Sound pressure signals obtained through the FDTD simulations and the ex-
perimental measurements on the simply supported elastic plate
5 Acoustic noise source identification on
a household refrigerator during the
As mentioned earlier, the main acoustic noise sources in a household refrigerator are the
compressor, the motor fan and the refrigerant expansion at the inlet of the evaporator,
but during the beginning of an operating cycle the transient noise may be principally due
to the starting of the compressor. As it occurs in the refrigerator under study because of
the control programming, the motor fan starts working after the compressor does and the
expansion takes time to start noising before the high pressure line of the refrigeration circuit
gets pressurized. The present study is focused on the analysis of the identification of the main
noise source or paths contributions during the starting of the compressor in a refrigerator:
airborne or structure-borne contribution. The first stage was made experimentally on a
household refrigerator and the second one was to validate the experimental results with
theoretical results obtained from numerical simulations. Various simplifications had been
taken in order to consider only the noise caused by the compressor.
5.1. Experimental noise source identification
The experimental noise source identification was made on a 400 L household refrigerator that
works with a 745.7 W cooling capacity reciprocating compressor. The compressor works with
a single phase synchronous motor of 3600 RPM. The actual study focuses on the interaction
between the reciprocating compressor, because it has been found to be the main source of
oscillatory motion in a refrigerator [3], and the refrigerator cabinet. Additional pieces to the
cabinet like doors, hinges and shelves were removed (Fig.5-1) for avoiding noise contributions
from them and assuming the sound radiation through the cabinet propagates symmetrically,
only one lateral surface of the refrigerator was considered as the target for measuring the
sound radiation. The rear side of the refrigerator was not considered as a target, even though
there could be contribution from it to the target point.
5.1 Experimental noise source identification 49
Figure 5-1: Simplification of the refrigerator used for the noise source identification analysis
Fan energy
supply
Butyl tape
Figure 5-2: Isolation of the motor fan and the evaporator expansion
5 Acoustic noise source identification on a household refrigerator during
50 the starting of a reciprocating compressor
The other noise sources in the refrigerator were isolated was well. The motor fan was simply
disconnected from their energy supply and the expansion of the evaporator were covered with
butyl tape (Fig.5-2) for reducing any influence that it could have during the sound measu-
rements, although this strategy only could isolate the airborne contribution; the structure-
borne part is still present because of the embedded tubes inside the cabinet.
Only the lower part of the refrigerator cabinet, corresponding to the fresh food compart-
ment, was considered for the analysis. An experimental procedure for measuring the vibra-
tion levels and determining the vibration modes of a household refrigerator cabinet (Fig.5-3),
shows that the highest vibrations are concentrated in the lower part of the cabinet. This pro-
cedure was done only with the compressor working and the vibration was measured with
accelerometers on defined points on a grid used for discretizing the cabinet surface.
Figure 5-3: Vibration level measurement on a lateral of a refrigerator cabinet. Left: Lateral
En esta sección
surface gridse
forpresenta
measuringademás de la
vibrations. distribución
Right: Vibrationenergética
“hologram“deobtained
las vibraciones, una
superposición
from thesobre
RMSlaoffotografía de lasignals
the vibration superficie bajo estudio.
obtained on each point of the surface
grid (Shared by Applied Technologies Research Group - GITA)
3.10.4 Distribución Espacial y Espectral de Velocidades de Superficie

55
85
50
80
75 45
70
40
65
35
60
30
SVL [dB] 63Hz SVL [dB] 100Hz

44
58
42
56
40
54
38
52
36
50
34
48
32
46
44 30
SVL [dB] 125Hz SVL [dB] 250Hz
Figure 5-4: Vibration

A partir de loslevels forespectrales
resultados each center frequency
y su correspondencia fores1/3
espacial octave
posible identificarbands
los between 63 and
posibles modos de vibración y de velocidad de partícula. Es posible notar que para la banda de
250 Hz measured on one lateral of the refrigerator cabinet (Shared by Applied
93
Technologies Research Group - GITA)
Fig.5-4 shows the results of the vibrations levels measured on the lateral surface. It can be
seen that the highest levels in the center frequencies of the 1/3 octave bands between 63 and
250 Hz, are concentrated in the lower part of the cabinet, i.e. in the area that coincides with
the fresh food compartment. The highest levels of vibrations are the ones at 63 Hz, close to
60 Hz that is the frequency of operation of the compressor. It is for the foregoing that the
sound radiation measurement was taken on this area delimited by red lines in Fig.5-1.
An additional vibration path from the compressor to the cabinet is the condenser because
the discharge pipeline goes directly to this element of the refrigeration circuit. The condenser
is fixed to the rear side of the cabinet by means of clamps and screws on five different points.
The isolation was made by disassembling the screws and suspending the condenser with
nylon strings as shown in Fig.5-5. There are another internal pipes in the cabinet connected
to the compressor that actually are vibration transfer paths, but for the difficulty to isolate
them their contribution to the total radiated sound is present during the whole operation
stages of the refrigerator, although they were not considered as transfer paths during the
analysis.
The principal purpose of the actual study is to analyze how is the behavior between the
refrigerator cabinet and the compressor while it starts an operation cycle and what is the
main contributor to the total radiated sound: airborne or structure-borne transfer paths.
Considering the simplifications made in the whole structure of the refrigerator the analysis
can be reduced to the interaction between the compressor, its support plate and the cabinet.
Figure 5-5: Isolation of the condenser vibration paths to the refrigerator cabinet
5.1.1. Source and paths definition

The number of sensors needed during the experimental procedure was defined by the sources
and paths identified as relevant for the analysis. Once the number of sensors were accounted,
the next step was to define their location on the device under analysis. In this study the only
source is the compressor but there are transmission of acoustic energy directly from it to the
receiving point, i.e. airborne sound transmission. Therefore the first transfer path is through
the air and a microphone or sound pressure probe was needed. In an indirect manner there is
energy transmission caused by the vibrations generated by the compressor to the refrigerator
structure, so that the another transfer path is through the cabinet structure. Accelerometers
were used for the characterization of the structural transfer of energy from the compressor
to the structure of the refrigerator.
Mic.2
Accel.2
Mic.1 Accel.1
a) b)
Figure 5-6: Sensors location for the characterization of the source and the transfer paths.
a) Microphone 1 for characterizing the airborne sound radiation of the com-
pressor, b) Accelerometers 1 and 2 for characterizing the structure-borne paths
and the microphone 2 for the receiving point
It has been stated before that there are two mechanisms or paths for the sound to propagate
to a defined point of analysis: through the air and through the structure. In the case of
the actual study the only source of analysis is the reciprocating compressor. If the sound
radiated is desired to analyze in a point close to a lateral of the cabinet, one expects that
part of the total sound radiated comes directly from the compressor through the air and
another fraction in an indirect way from the structure. A microphone was set close to the
compressor. This microphone defines the airborne sound transfer path from the source to
the receiving point. Two accelerometers were set in the experimental array for defining the
structure-borne transfer paths of sound propagation. The first accelerometer was placed on
the point of connection of the compressor support plate and the refrigerator cabinet. This
sensor is wanted to determine how much of the vibrations transmitted from the compressor
to the structure is transferred to the cabinet where they coupled. The second accelerometer
was put on the lateral surface of analysis in front of the receiving point with the aim to
account if the energy transmitted from the compressor to the cabinet is representative in
comparison to the sound transmitted via the air. Finally, a second microphone was placed
on the receiving point to measure the total sound radiated from the compressor to this point
of analysis.
Left side view Front view
0.15 m
Accel.2
Mic.2
0.54 m
Compressor
support plate
Mic.1
Accel.1
0.28 m
0.10 m 0.56 m
Figure 5-7: Scheme of the sensors position for the experimental OTPA in the refrigerator
In Fig.5-6 the four sensors used for the measurements that characterize the source, the
transfer paths and the receiving point are shown. Microphone 1 was placed 10 cm from the
center of the compressor, this sensor permits to model the sound transmitted by the com-
pressor through the air to the receiving point. Accelerometer 1 was placed on the interface
between the compressor supporting plate and the cabinet for modeling the energy transfered
by the compressor to the refrigerator structure. Accelerometer 2 was located in the middle
of the lower surface of the refrigerator; it permits to model the amount of energy that gets
5.2 Theoretical noise source identification 55
to the receiving point through the structure. Finally the receiving point was modeled with
a microphone placed in front of the accelerometer 2 at 15 cm from the lateral surface. A
detailed scheme with the sensors position is shown in Fig.5-7.
Since the back wheels and support legs of the refrigerator were removed, it was elevated
from the floor with wood blocks and rubber pads that supported it on each corner with the
purpose to avoid possible noises as a result of the knocking of any part of the refrigerator
base against the floor. The measurements were taken inside the same acoustic engineering
chamber mentioned before and with the same data acquisition system employed in the steel
plate experiment. The sample rate was set to 12.8 kHz and the data acquisition time was 0.4
s that was identified as the period of time in which the transient cycle during the starting
of the compressor occurs.
5.2. Theoretical noise source identification

A theoretical model was implemented for reproducing the experimental setup in order to
determine the sound contribution for each path on the refrigerator. A simplified model was
made by means of an FDTD scheme, in which part of the structure of the refrigerator and the
reciprocating compressor were modeled in order to estimate the sound radiation obtained
at a specific sensing point inside the computational domain with the aim that OTPA is
performed with simulated data.
5.2.1. Refrigerator structure model

With the aim of reproducing a similar scenario to the one used in the experimental tests,
a simplified model of the refrigerator was made in which the left side sandwich panel of
the cabinet and the compressor housing (Fig.5-8) were integrated inside a FDTD scheme.
With this simplified model it is intended to simulate the sound propagation through the air
and through the structure with the objective of estimating the sound contributions of the
different transfer paths, but from a theoretical approach. The dimensions of the model are
based on the real ones of the refrigerator used during the experimental campaign considering
the same area under analysis of the refrigerator cabinet.
The sandwich panel of the refrigerator is composed of a steel plate in the outermost surface
of the cabinet, polyurethane foam used for thermal insulation and a plate of high-density
polystyrene that are part of the internal compartments of the refrigerator. The thicknesses
of each component of the panel were taken from the real refrigerator: hP S = 1,5 × 10−3 m,
hP U = 43 × 10−3 m and hst = 0,45 × 10−3 m, where hP S , hP U and hst are the thickness of
the polystyrene, the polyurethane foam and the steel plate respectively. This structure was
modeled as an isotropic elastic medium with the same equations used for the elastic plate
model.
Steel
Polyurethane foam
Polystyrene
1.08
Compressor Compressor
housing model
0.1
z z 0.26
0.13
x y
0.3 hPS hPU hst 0.2
0.6 0.55
Rear view Left side view
Figure 5-8: Scheme of the simplified structure of the refrigerator for the FDTD model
The mechanical properties of each material that composed the sandwich panel are shown in
table 5-1. The steel properties were the same used in the simply supported plate simulation
and the polyurethane (PUR) foam and the polystyrene (PS) were taken from a vibroacous-
tical study made to a refrigerator cabinet in which the main properties were determined
[48]. The calculation of the damping parameter β for the PUR and PS by means of the loss
factor was made with the least-squares fitting involving Eq.4-3 and the loss factor values
showed in table 5-1. The PUR loss factor is taken as constant for the frequency band from
10 to 2000 Hz and the PS loss factor between 10 and 400 Hz. The values obtained from the
least-squares fitting were βP U = 38,75 and βP S = 19,67.
Table 5-1: Mechanical properties of the sandwich panel of

the structure of the refrigerator
Material ρ [kg/m3 ] E [GP a] ν [−] η [−]
Steel 7700 200 0.3 0.0005
Polyurethane foam 36 0.0086 0.45 0.081
Polystyrene 1014 0.001953 0.32 0.053
5.2.2. Reciprocating compressor model

As stated before, the compressor as the actual source of interest of the refrigerator, transfers
sound through the air and through the cabinet structure. The compressor model was split into
the airborne and structure-borne sound contributions inside the FDTD domain. Airborne
sound part was modeled as a sound pressure node located in the position that shows Fig.5-8
inside the compressor housing. The structure-borne part was modeled as particle velocity
nodes acting perpendicular to the surface where the compressor support plate couples with
the refrigerator cabinet.
Model of the airborne sound contribution by the compressor

The sound propagation from the compressor to the air occurs when the compressor
casing excites the air particles that surround it with the reciprocating movement ge-
nerated by the compression and expansion processes inside of it. A straightforward
manner of modeling the compressor casing is like a monopole or a volume velocity
source [49].
Let’s consider a spherical wave that travels radially and as it moves away from the
source the sound pressure decreases (Eq.5-1). In this equation p0 is the amplitude, r
is the radius of the spherical wave and k = ω/c = 2π/λ is the wavenumber (ω is the
angular frequency and λ is the wavelength).
p0 −jkr
p= e (5-1)
r
Supposing that the sound radiation occurs freely in all directions, the wave equa-
tion in spherical coordinates is only dependent on the radius (Eq.5-2) and it has been
proved that Eq.5-1 satisfies this equation.
∂ 2 p 2 ∂p 1 ∂ 2p
+ = (5-2)
∂r2 r ∂t c2 ∂t2
For determining an spherical sound pressure field, the amplitude A in Eq.5-1 must be
obtained. This can be achieved with Eq.2-2 in radial direction
∂v ∂p
ρ0 =− (5-3)
∂t ∂r
Replacing Eq.5-1 in Eq.5-3 and considering a source of radius equals to a as harmonic,

the particle velocity can be expressed as

p0 1 −jkr jωt
va = jk + e e (5-4)
jrωρ0 r
Obtaining the expression at r = a and considering that the source is small (λ >> a →
ka << 1) it is possible to determine an expression for the amplitude p0. This assum-
ption was not deviated indeed, as the biggest compressor dimension of the refrigerator
under analysis (18.8 cm) is lesser than the wavelength if we consider the fundamental
frequency at which the compressor radiates sound. The fundamental frequency is 60
Hz and therefore the wavelength is ≈ 5.7 m for a sound speed equal to 346 m/s.
p0 = jva ρ0 ωa2 (5-5)
Finally, replacing Eq.5-5 into Eq.5-4 one gets the expression for a monopole, also known
as a zero order acoustic radiator
jva ρ0 ωa2 −jkr jωt

p= e e (5-6)
r
There are some terms in Eq.5-6 that must be determined in order to obtained a com-
plete expression for introducing it into the FDTD model. This terms were obtained
from the geometry of the compressor, the location of the microphone at the receiving’s
point and the operational behavior of the compressor during its starting obtained with
the sensors used for the its characterization.
The frequency content of the monopole source was determined from the sound pressure
signal used for the characterization of the airborne transfer path of the compressor.
Considering the nonstationary nature of the sound radiated by the compressor when it
starts (Fig.5-9) a time-frequency analysis was performed by means of the Continuous
Wavelet Transform (CWT). In comparison with the Short-Time Fourier Transform
(STFT) or also known as the Gabor transform, the CWT provides better resolution
in both, time and frequency, because the resolution varies depending on the frequency
of interest [50].
B
0.20
0.15
0.10
Sound pressure [Pa]
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time [s]
Figure 5-9: Sound pressure recorded during the starting of the characterized reciprocating
compressor
The CWT is defined as
∞
t−b
Z
1 ∗
CW T (a, b) = p x(t)h dt (5-7)
|s| −∞ s
The computation of the CWT is an inner product between a signal x(t) with a shif-
ted and “compressed“ or “stretched“ wavelet function h(t), also called the “mother“
function, that results in a two dimensional function of time and frequency. In the case
of a Fourier transform, it can be seen as a measurement of the similarity between a
given signal and a function; in this case the function is a complex exponential ejωt . For
a time-frequency analysis, the functions used for the STFT are windowed exponential
functions w(t)ejωt that results in a two variable function representing the similarity of
the signal with a sinusoid of frequency ω and at a time interval. In Eq.5-7, h∗ (t) refers
to the complex conjugate of the wavelet function, because if h(t) is complex, the CWT
is a complex function scaled by s and changed in position by b.
The scale, a positive factor s > 0, is a key term in wavelet analysis associated to
the “compression“ or “stretching“ of the mother function and also to frequency. The
greater the scale factor, the more stretched is the wavelet function and therefore coarser
are the details represented by the CWT that turns into a good representation at low
frequencies. The opposite analysis applies when the scale factor is small, that makes
the CWT suitable for the analysis at higher frequencies where finer representation is
necessary.
An exact relation between scale and frequency does not exist. There is no any definition
that relates a wavelet function sampled at a specific period, scaled with a defined factor
s with a frequency in Hz. In this case it is better to talk about a “pseudo-frequency“
Fs that is function of a scale s, defined by Eq.5-8 where Fc is the center frequency of
the wavelet function at which the magnitude of its Fourier transform is maximum.
Fc
Fs = (5-8)
s
The last equation represents the stated before related to the correspondence between
the detailing at higher or lower frequencies by the CWT.
Figure 5-10: Scalogram of the sound pressure signal recorded during the starting of the
compressor
The CWT can also be seen as a windowing process. Making a parallel between STFT
and CWT, the STFT can be seen as a windowing process of a signal to perform
a local frequency analysis defined by the length of the window that in this case is
constant. That is why a trade off between the resolution in time and frequency in the
STFT determined by the window size where the uncertainty principle is applied. It is
not possible to have high resolution in time and frequency when STFT is performed
to a signal. If high resolution in time is desired, one has to expect to lose detail in
frequency, while a high resolution in frequency makes a coarser view in time. In a
contrary manner, wavelet analysis permits to perform a process that varies the size
of the window depending on the region of time and frequency. At low frequencies the
window size is larger, i.e. a larger scale a, what is needed in order to comprise more
information of the signal when transitions occur at this frequencies. At high frequencies
the window size is smaller, that means a smaller scale factor s, so it turns into finer
resolution when abrupt transitions occur along the signal.
Fig.5-10 shows the scalogram (the analogous in respect to the spectrogram obtained
by the STFT) obtained by applying the CWT to the recorded sound pressure signal
for the characterization of the airborne sound transfer path of the compressor. The
mother function was a Morse wavelet. The scale was defined by the number of “voices
per octave“ ν. In this case ν = 10 and it means that between the increasing of the scale
by an octave as a function of frequency, there are v number of intermediate scales.
0.20
0.15
0.10
Sound pressure [Pa]
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time [s]
Figure 5-11: Real part of the monopole function modulated by the Gaussian pulse as the
model of the the airborne contribution of the compressor
It can be seen at the beginning of the compressor starting that frequencies between 10
and 15 Hz and between 60 and 70 Hz dominate the behavior dynamics of the system.
Between 0.3 and 0.4 higher magnitudes show up around 15 and 35 Hz. Finally, between
0.4 and 0.5, 60 Hz frequency dominates the higher magnitude that one expects to be the
fundamental frequency when the compressor behavior approaches to the steady state.
Since the dominant frequencies along the starting of the compressor were 15 and 60 Hz,
they were chosen for modeling the monopole function to be included inside the FDTD
simulation. The angular frequencies can be obtained as ω = 2πf to be replaced in Eq.5-
6. The source radius a was determined by the geometry of the compressor taken half the
value of the longest dimension of the compressor casing that is 0.188 m. Fig.5-11 shows
the real part of the monopole function modeled with the determined frequencies and
the radius mentioned above modulated with a Gaussian pulse. It can be compared that
the amplitude of the function tried to simulate the maximum amplitude obtained from
the experimental measurements. The modulation with the Gaussian pulse is intended
not for reproducing the same recorded signal, but for simulate a transient dynamics as
it occurs during the startup of the compressor.
0.15 m
0.54 m
0.13 m
z z
x y
0.64495 m
0.168 m
Rear view Left side view
Figure 5-12: Scheme of the model of the airborne and structure-borne sound contributions
of the compressor
Fig.5-12 shows the location of the sound pressure node to which the monopole fun-
ction was assigned inside the FDTD scheme.
Model of the structure-borne sound contribution by the compressor

A simplified approach for modeling the structure transmission of energy from the com-
pressor to the refrigerator cabinet side panel, was simply made by omitting the model
of the compressor support plate and instead modeling the interaction of this plate with
the side panel. This was performed exciting the lower surface of the panel structure
with particle velocity nodes perpendicular to it. As can be seen in Fig.5-12 this parti-
cle velocity nodes, showed as red arrows, were placed acting on every interface of the
three different materials that composed the sandwich panel. Two nodes were set along
the y-direction where is supposed to be assembled the compressor support plate with
the cabinet. The depth of the support plate 0.168 m and the nodes were distributed
symmetrically along this length. There were placed six velocity nodes for simulating
the transmission of vibrations from the plate to the cabinet.
Figure 5-13: Scalogram of the acceleration signal recorded during the starting of the com-
pressor for the characterization of the velocity nodes at the interface between
the compressor support plate and the refrigerator cabinet side panel
The velocity source nodes were defined by a sine function modulated with a Gaussian
pulse with the same parameters of the airborne model of the compressor for the same
purpose of simulating transient conditions. The frequency of the function was deter-
mined through the acceleration signal acquired by the accelerometer placed at the
interface between the compressor support plate and the cabinet during the experimen-
tal tests (see Accel.1 in Fig.5-6). Fig.5-13 shows the CWT of this signal obtained with
the same parameters applied to obtain the CWT of the sound pressure signal. This
scalogram shows that the dominating frequencies measured with the accelerometer du-
ring the starting of the compressor are around 15 and 60 Hz as well. The amplitude of
the function was tuned with the sound pressure sensing point in the FDTD simulation.
The objective was to reach a close value to the maximum sound pressure obtained
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
Velocity [m/s]
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time [s]
Figure 5-14: Particle velocity function of the structure-borne contribution of the compres-
sor
during the experimental measurements.The maximum sound pressure amplitude mea-

sured at the receiving point during the startup of the compressor was about 0.40 Pa.
The amplitude of the particle velocity nodes on the solid structure was found to be
0.0342 m/s for meeting the amplitude stated above and it was divided by six that
are the total number of nodes used for modeling the vibrations transmitted from the
support plate to the cabinet, so each node was excited by one sixth of the amplitude
of the total function. (Fig.5-14).
5.2.3. Meshing
The number of nodes in y- and z-direction (Fig.5-8) were defined to be the same as in the
simulation performed in chapter 4, six in y-direction and ten in z-direction. The approach for
determining the number of nodes in x-direction, i.e. the sandwich panel thickness direction,
was to treat the PS and steel layers of the panel as thin plates and discretized them in
the same fashion as the simple-supported plate: with two normal stress nodes along the x-
direction. The PUR layer was treated as a thick plate and was discretized considering it as
a superposition of of multiple plates of a thinner medium. It was seen that ensuring at least
two normal stress nodes along the thickness direction it is possible to simulate bending wave
motion. The PUR layer thickness was divided by the PS thickness layer resulting that the
PUR layer is approximately 30 times the PS layer, so a number of 30 normal stress nodes
was used for the discretization of the PUR layer.

Considering that the frequencies of the functions used for modeling the compressor are low,
the wavelengths in air are large. For that reason a space of 25 m × 25 m × 10 m in x-, y- and
z-direction respectively, was modeled in order to minimize early possible reflections during
the FDTD simulation. The refrigerator structure model (Fig.5-8) was placed in the middle
of the x-y plane and 0.1 m from the lower surface simulating the wooden blocks used during
the experimental tests.
5.2.4. Boundary conditions

The sandwich panel of the refrigerator was restricted as a simply supported structure setting
to zero the x-direction velocity nodes located on the middle of the panel structure in the
same way as the simply supported plate. This panel is a non homogeneous medium because
it is composed of different materials. In this case it is not possible to apply the approach
explained in chapter 2 for the coupling between the solid and air media, because at the
interface between the solid medium layers exist shear stresses and not only normal stresses
that transfer energy to air in form of sound pressure. The average of the material parameters
at each different material interface is necessary in order to guarantee computational stability
[10, 13, 16]. The average of those materials, specially the density and the shear modulus,
was calculated considering the spatial distribution in Fig.5-15. The density on the interface
between the PUR foam and the steel plate is calculated as an arithmetic average (Eq.5-7)
and the shear modulus as a harmonic average (Eq.5-8) considering that the mesh of the
solid domain is nonuniform [51]. The same applies for the interface parameters calculation
between the PS and the PUR foam.
ρP U R ∆xP U R + ρst ∆xst

ρaP U R−st = (5-9)
∆xP U R + ∆xst
∆xP U R + ∆xst
µaP U R−st = ∆xP U R
(5-10)
µP U R
+ ∆x
µst
st
The BC at the interface between the solid medium and the air was set using the same
approach applied in the simply supported plate and proposed in [14]. The compressor enclo-
sure walls were modeled to be rigid and for the air domain PML BC’s were applied, except
for the lower surface model which was modeled as a rigid wall in order to simulate the floor
of the acoustic chamber. For the PML boundaries the absorption coefficient was set to be
equal to the impedance of air, the layer length in x- and z-direction was defined equal to
a half wavelength calculated with the lower source frequency, i.e. 15 Hz. In y-direction, in
μPUR μst
PUR
Steel
Δz/2 Δz/2
ρPUR ρa PUR-st ρst μa PUR-st
Δz/2 Δz/2
x
μPUR μst
ΔxPUR Δxst ΔxPUR Δxst
a) b)
Figure 5-15: Variables distribution in the x-z plane at the interface between PUR and steel
for: a) The average of the density. b) The average of the shear modulus
which occurs the propagation perpendicular to the largest surface of the sandwich panel, the
PML layer was set equal to a wavelength calculated with the lower source frequency.
The air parameters used in this simulation were ρ0 = 1,2 kg/m3 and c = 346 m/s, the time
step was calculated with the smallest space grid sizes, in the actual case the ones related
to the solid media, and a CF L = 0,85 was found to ensure numerical stability during the
simulation. The total simulation time was 0.4 s.
5.3. Results
In this section the obtained results from the experimental and theoretical procedures for es-
timating the contribution of each transfer path defined for the analysis during the startup of
the reciprocating compressor on the refrigerator cabinet are shown. The results of both, the
experimental and theoretical analysis, are shown together in order to compare the obtained
results from each way.
Fig.5-16 shows the sound pressure signals recorded at the receiving point during the ex-
perimental tests and the simulations by means of the FDTD algorithm. These signals were
the ones to which the OTPA process was applied, along the signals recorded for the characte-
rization of each transfer path, for the estimation of the contribution of each path. Restating
Eq.3-11 in order to apply OTPA method there must be r number measurements blocks for
5.3 Results 67
writing the system in terms of the input and output signals with variety of information of
the system during the event under analysis. For the actual case r = 10. That means that 10
blocks of input and output signals were recorded during the startup of the compressor while
the experimental measurements were performed. For the theoretical approach, the 10 blocks
were obtained by adding random noise to the recorded signals from the FDTD simulation.
Experimental sound pressure signal at the receiver point

Sound pressure [Pa]
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time [s]
Theoretical sound pressure signal at the receiver point

Sound pressure [Pa]
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time [s]
Figure 5-16: Sound pressure signals at the receiving point from the experimental measure-
ments and the theoretical simulations via FDTD
Before to show the results obtained from the experimental and simulation procedures for
estimating the sound contributions, it is important to highlight the previous procedure per-
formed before OTPA that is the essential step when PCA is applied; that is the thresholding
of the Principal Components (PCs) that determines the amount of these values in the mo-
ment of reconstructing or synthesizing the receiving signal from the contributions obtained
for each path. Fig.5-17 shows the PCs and their values for the experimental and the theo-
retical cases. For the experimental approach, the large part of the information or the energy
of the model is content between the first 4 or 6 PCs. The small ones can be considered as
the noise recorded during the measurements or the paths not considered during the analysis
that finally contribute to the receiving signal. In the plots associates to the theoretical PCs
and considering that the number of the blocks for this case were obtained adding noise to the
recorded signals for the modeling of each path, it is clear that the large quantity of relevant
information is content in the first PC.
P r in c ip a l c o m p o n e n ts - E x p e r im e n ta l P r in c ip a l c o m p o n e n ts - T h e o r e tic a l
P C 1 0 P C 1 0
P C 9 P C 9
P C 8 P C 8
P C 7 P C 7
P C 6 P C 6
P C
P C
P C 5 P C 5
P C 4 P C 4
P C 3 P C 3
P C 2 P C 2
P C 1 P C 1
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 4 0 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0
[-] [-]
Figure 5-17: Principal components of the experimental and the theoretical signals obtained
from the PCA process previous to apply the OTPA
The processing of the contributions and the synthesized signals was made using different
thresholds for both, the experimental and the simulated case. In order to quantify the ef-
fectiveness of the method to reconstruct the receiving signal through the contributions, the
RMSE was calculated between the recorded signal at the receiving location and the synthesi-
zed signal with different thresholds. Fig.5-18.a shows the RMSE for the different thresholds
for the experimental case and Fig.5-18.c shows the RMSE for the theoretical case. Also
Fig.5-18.b and Fig.5-18.d show the number of PCs that remain after the filtering of com-
ponents by each threshold that reconstructs the receiving signals for the experimental and
the simulated case respectively.
A small RMSE does not imply a good agreement in the case of OTPA because it is as-
sumed that there is noise in the recorded signals. For the experimental case it can be seen
that a threshold of 12 % exhibits a small RMSE in comparison with the RMSE got with a
threshold equal to 15 %. Although it is greater compared to the errors obtained with smaller
thresholds it is not that deviated as the 15 % one. The above permits to conclude that a
good synthesized receiving signal is obtained with a threshold equal to 12 % that left 4 PCs
out of 10. The reconstructed signal can be seen in Fig.5-19.a and the deviation between this
synthesized signal and the recorded signal at the receiving point is the noise present during
the measurements or the contribution associated to the paths not considered in the actual
model as the one corresponding to the pipes embedded in the refrigerator cabinet.
5.3 Results 69
a ) b )
1 5
1 5
1 2
1 2
T h r e s h o ld [% ]
8 8
6 6
5 5
0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0 3 0 .0 0 4 0 .0 0 5 0 .0 0 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
R M S E N u m b e r o f P C s r e m a in in g
c ) d )
1 5 1 5
1 0 1 0
8 8
5 5
4 4
2 2
0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 1 5 0 .0 0 0 0 3 0 0 .0 0 0 0 4 5 0 .0 0 0 0 6 0 0 .0 0 0 0 7 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
R M S E N u m b e r o f P C s r e m a in in g
Figure 5-18: Root Mean Square Error between the receiving signal and the synthesized
signal and remaining number of Principal Components obtained with different
thresholds. a) RMSE for the experimental case. b) Number of PCs remaining
for the experimental case. c) RMSE for the theoretical case. d) Number of
PCs remaining for the theoretical case.
For the case of the theoretical case simulated by means of the FDTD method, a threshold
that allows to reconstruct the receiving signal with small RMSE is 8 % that left 3 PCs for
the performing of the PCA. Fig.5-19.b shows the receiving signal and the synthesized ones
with the different thresholds used. In this case the deviation is not so noticeable in terms of
the magnitude of the signal along time, but more in terms of how “ragged“ is the synthesized
signal in comparison to the recorded signal at the receiving point. This is due to the induced
noise to the obtained signals from the simulation process. It can be observed that as the
threshold increases the synthesized signal appear to be softer, i.e. with less noise. According
to the results shown in Fig.5-18.c, a threshold equal to 8 % was used for the synthesizing of
the theoretical signal.
R e c e iv e r s ig n a l
S y n th e s iz e d s ig n a l (5 % th r e s h o ld )
a ) S y n th e s iz e d s ig n a l (6 % th r e s h o ld )
S y n th e s iz e d s ig n a l (1 2 % th re s h o ld )
0 .0 4
S o u n d p re s s u re [P a ]
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
-0 .0 2
-0 .0 4
0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
T im e [s ]
R e c e iv e r s ig n a l
b ) S y n th e s iz e d s ig n a l (2 % th r e s h o ld )
0 .0 6 S y n th e s iz e d s ig n a l (5 % th r e s h o ld )
0 .0 4
S o u n d p re s s u re [P a ]
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
-0 .0 2
-0 .0 4
0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4
T im e [s ]
Figure 5-19: Synthesized signals for different thresholds in comparison to the receiving
signal. a) Experimental results. b) Theoretical results
With the defined thresholds was performed the OTPA procedure for the experimental and
the theoretical approaches in order to compare their results. Fig.5-20 depicts the sound
pressure levels and the contribution of the three transfer paths expressed as fractions in
comparison with the total sound pressure recorded at the receiving point for the experi-
mental and theoretical approaches. The aforementioned fractions for expressing what is the
approximated quantity that each transfer path contributed to the total sound pressure at
5.3 Results 71
the point defined as the receiver was calculated as follows
N
P yij
yT j
j=1
SCR = (5-11)
N
In Eq.5-11, yij is the contribution signal associated to the ith transfer path and has j =
1, 2, . . . , N number of samples and yT j is the signal of the total sound pressure at the receiving
point that has j = 1, 2, . . . , N number of samples.
a ) b )
8 0 1 .0
0 .9
6 0
0 .8
S P L [d B ] (re f. 2 e -5 P a )
0 .7
4 0
0 .6
2 0
S C R
0 .5
0 .4 2 8 7 5
0 .4
0 0 .3 2 9 5 6
0 .3
0 .2 4 1 6 9
-2 0 S u m o f c o n t r ib u t io n s 0 .2
A B S p a th
S B S p a th 1 0 .1
S B S p a th 2
-4 0
0 .0
0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 A B S p a th S B S p a th 1 S B S p a th 2
T im e [ s ]
c ) d )
8 0 1 .0
0 .9
6 0
0 .8
S P L [d B ] (re f. 2 e -5 P a )
4 0 0 .7
0 .6
2 0 0 .5 2 2 8 8
S C R
0 .5
0 .4 3 1 3 8
0 0 .4
0 .3
-2 0 S u m o f c o n t r ib u t io n s
A B S p a th 0 .2
S B S p a th 1
0 .1
-4 0 S B S p a th 2 0 .0 4 5 7 4
0 .0
0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 A B S p a th S B S p a th 1 S B S p a th 2
T im e [ s ]
Figure 5-20: Contribution of each transfer path to the sound pressure signal at the receiving
point. a) Sound pressure levels of transfer paths and the sum of contributions
obtained experimentally. b) Sound pressure levels of transfer paths and the
sum of contributions obtained theoretically. c) Sound contribution ratio of
each transfer path obtained experimentally. d) Sound contribution ratio of
each transfer path obtained theoretically.
According to Fig.5-20.b, the principal contribution to the total sound pressure at the recei-
ving point obtained from the experimental tests, is due to the airborne sound (ABS) path.
This is also evidenced in Fig.5-20.a in which can be seen that during the startup of the
compressor the highest levels of sound pressure were due to the ABS path. It means that
the larger transmission of sound to the point of interest occurs through air. The second large
contribution ratio is associated to the structure-borne sound (SBS) path number 2, that is
the one located in the cabinet surface in front of the receiving point. It would be expected
that the ratios of the two SBS paths to be equal or almost the same in magnitude, since the
energy transferred through the compressor plate to the cabinet (SBS path 1) is the same that
arrives to the point where is located the SBS path 2, but this deviation can be associated to
the fact that the energy transferred along the embedded pipes in the cabinet were not taken
into account in the actual model, but they constitute a path of energy transmission present
in the system.
For the theoretical case, Fig.5-20.d shows each contribution of the three modeled paths.
The largest ratio in this case was obtained for the second SBS path, i.e. the path located in
front of the receiving point. The possible source of error in comparison with the real case
can be associated to the model of the structure-borne sound contribution of the compressor
in which the geometry of the compressor support plate was neglected. In the real case, this
plate is excited at sort modes that the current FDTD model did not consider and this is
represented in the low contribution obtained for the SBS path 1 in the simulation compared
to the experimental contributions. For the case of the ABS contribution, good agreement
was found between the real and the simulated case. The ratios obtained from both ways
permit to conclude that 40 % of the total sound radiated from the compressor and measured
at the point of interest is a contribution of the transmission of sound through the air and
60 % via the structure of the refrigerator. Because the larger surfaces are the ones with high
sound radiation efficiency due to the large deflections they are capable to withstand [48], as
in the case of the lateral surface of the refrigerator cabinet, the structure-borne sound paths
exhibit more contribution in comparison with the airborne contribution, although it is not
negligible.
6 Conclusions and future work
6.1. Conclusions
The development of this thesis was intended for estimating the contribution of each transfer
path to the sound radiation measured on a point close to one side of a household refrigerator
during the starting stage of a reciprocating compressor; it means if the principal contribution
is through the air or through the structure of the refrigerator. The whole analysis was based
on phenomenology, experimentation and the comparison of the results obtained by these two
approaches.
The phenomenology of the sound radiation, coupling fluid and solid media was suppor-
ted by means of the FDTD method. It was evidenced that the modeling of solid media of
different nature is possible to perform as well as their interaction with a fluid like air when
propagation of air-borne sound is desired to simulate. A validation of the method was made
comparing the experimental results obtained from a point excited simply-supported steel
plate and the ones obtained from a 3D FDTD simulation. The capability of the method to
reproduce the vibration modes of a solid structure and subsequently the sound radiated by
it was proved.
The estimation of the sound contributions by the different paths defined in the refrigerator
was accomplished by applying the OTPA method. This particular method permits to deter-
mine what are the principal paths of contribution of the sound radiation of the structure of
analysis under real operational conditions. An experimental setup on a real refrigerator was
used for the estimation of the main contributions of the sound radiation during the starting
of the compressor. Simplifications to the structure of the refrigerator were taken like for ins-
tance: to disassemble the doors, remove the shelves and trays and isolate the motor fan, cover
the evaporator expansion and disconnect the main coupling points between the condenser
and the refrigerator cabinet. The sound contributions obtained applying the OTPA method
to the signals measured determined that the principal contributor to the acoustic noise on a
side of the refrigerator is due to the structure-borne sound transmitted from the compressor
to the cabinet. Around 60 % of the total sound radiation on the point of interest was found to
be due to the vibrations transmitted through the cabinet and then from the cabinet to the air.
The model of the refrigerator was made by means of the FDTD method. The structure,
74 6 Conclusions and future work
i.e. the refrigerator cabinet, was simplified taking into account a model of a sandwiched
panel composed of the three main material used to manufacture them (steel, polyurethane
foam and polystyrene) representing one side of the cabinet. The compressor model was split
into the airborne and the structure-borne contributions to the global sound radiated by the
refrigerator. The model of the airborne contribution was done by considering the compressor
as a volume velocity source defined as a sound pressure node inside the FDTD environment.
The structure-borne sound part, and even the coupling of the supporting compressor plate
and the structure of the refrigerator, was accomplished by exciting the surface of the cabinet
where it is in contact with the supporting plate with particle velocity nodes perpendicular
to that surface.
The estimation of the sound contribution of each transfer path was achieved applying the
OTPA method to the signals obtained from the model described above used in the FDTD
simulation in the same manner as the signals obtained from the experimental setup. The
results established that the main contributor to the radiated sound is the structure-borne
transfer paths globally in comparison with the airborne path. This permits to conclude that
the principal contribution of the sound radiated by the cabinet of the household refrigerator
under study on its sides during the starting of the compressor, is due to the sound transmit-
ted from the structure to the air. It permits to state that focus should be put on the design of
the coupling between the supporting devices of the compressor and the refrigerator structure
in order to isolate the paths that couple them. For the airborne contribution, sound barriers
like steel plates used in some commercial refrigerators should be used by the manufacturers
that do not use them in order to diminish its contribution. That strategy can bring with it
another phenomenon like overheating on the compressor casing that can produce damage
on the refrigeration system, so that the isolation of the compressor by covering it must be
performed with care.
6.2. Future work

The next recommendations are given for possible future work with the purpose of improving
the models used in this thesis for approaching more realistic conditions.
Besides the compressor model, the motor fan and the expansion source models can be in-
tegrated into the actual one for analyzing a full operational condition during the startup
of the whole system of the refrigerator or another transient scenario of interest. The com-
pressor support plate model can be included as well with the aim of reproduce dynamics
not acquired by the decoupled model implemented in this study. The isolated parts of the
refrigerator can be included in the model as well as additional transfer paths: the energy
transferred from the compressor to the cabinet through the condenser pipes, the interaction
of the cabinet with the door hinges and the transmission of vibrations from the compressor
to the cabinet through the embedded tubes can be suitable for improving the model.
6.2 Future work 75
An additional element that could permit to approximate the actual model to more realistic
conditions would be the fact of modeling a real environment of a household refrigerator. The
model of the walls that surround the device to simulate the reflections caused by them and
how they affect the sound radiation at the receiver point of analysis and the contributions
of the different transfer paths.
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Acoustic noise source identification:

A study on a household refrigerator during the

Santiago Montoya Ospina

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Santiago Montoya Ospina

Thesis presented as a partial requirement to obtain the degree of:

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Nothing will ever please me, no matter how

List of figures XII

2 Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling vibroacoustical phenomena 6

3 Transfer Path Analysis 26

4 Sound radiation of a point excited simply supported elastic plate 37

5 Acoustic noise source identification on a household refrigerator during the

6 Conclusions and future work 73

2-1 Staggered grid with the sound propagation variables in space . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1. Background and justification

Figure 1-1: Scheme of a no frost household refrigerator taken from [1]

0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Figure 1-2: Operating cycles of a 173 W thermal capacity reciprocating compressor of a

1.2. Scope of the thesis

1.3. Structure of the thesis

Chapter 2 describes the Finite-Difference Time-Domain method applied to model vibroa-

In chapter 4 the capability of Finite-Difference Time-Domain method for modeling vibroa-

2.1. Airborne sound modeling with the FDTD method

(i,j,k+1) Sound pressure

FDTD is based on approximating the derivatives of first-order continuous functions to dis-

Approximating equation 2-3 by a central difference and the leapfrog scheme

pn |i,j,k − pn−1 |i,j,k  un−0,5 |

2.2. Structure-borne sound modeling with the FDTD

∂us ∂σxx ∂σxy

∂vs ∂σxy ∂σyy

dσxx ∂us ∂vs

dσyy ∂us ∂vs

∂us ∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz

∂vs ∂σxy ∂σyy ∂σyz

∂ws ∂σxz ∂σyz ∂σzz

dσxx ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

dσyy ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

dσzz ∂us ∂vs ∂ws

Δz Particle velocity x-direction

n+1 n vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k+1 − vsn+0,5 |i,j+0,5,k

2.3. Interface coupling between the air and solid medium

Solid medium grid edge

2.4. Stability criterion

In Eq.2-42 CF L is the Courant-Friedrichs-Levy number and for complying the inequality of

2.5. Meshing of the solution domain

2.5.1. Nonuniform grids

2.6. Boundary conditions

2.6.1. Reflective boundary condition

2.6.2. Absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs)

Figure 2-7: Plane wave incident to an absorbing boundary in x-direction

Eq.2-44 can be expressed as a progressive (Eq.2-45) and a regressive wave (Eq.2-46)

un+0,5 |2,j − un+0,5 |1,j

u(xmax , t + 1) = 2u(xmax − 1, t) − u(xmax − 2, t − 1) (2-49)

u(xmax , t + 1) = 3u(xmax − 1, t) − 3u(xmax − 2, t − 1) + u(xmax − 3, t − 2) (2-50)

2.6.2.3. Perfeclty Matched Layer

The formulation of PML is based on the next steps:

Analytic continuation of Eq.2-1 and Eq.2-2 into complex coordinates

w(x, t) = wei(kx−ωt) (2-52)

eik(Re[x]+iIm[x]) = eikRe[x] e−Im[x] (2-53)

Transformation of the model equations back to real coordinates

Let’s define the complex space used in the last step as

pn |i,j,k − pn−1 |i,j,k un−0,5 |