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Psychology: An Overview: Chapter Objectives
Psychology: An Overview: Chapter Objectives
Psychology : An Overview
Chapter Objectives
At the end of the chapter the students are expected to be able to:
1. Define the basic terms of the course.
2. Describe Psychology's key issues.
3. Describe the goals of Psychology.
4. Describe and evaluate the different schools and approaches of Psychology.
5. Distinguish the areas of specialization of Psychology.
6. Describe the scientific processes and methods used in Psychology.
Psychology
A. Definition of Terms
1. Psychology
1.1.1. coined from two Greek words, psyche (soul) and logos (study).
1
psychologists attend graduate schools in psychology and
obtain the Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy) or, in some
cases, the Psy.D. (doctor of psychology)
2. Science
1.1.5. It is a group of related facts and principles of a particular
subject.
3. Behavior
1.1.8. Generally, it refers to all types of human activities or everything
that human does.
2
C. Goals of Psychology
2. To make prediction about behavior. These predictions are often based on the
description psychologists have obtained.
3
3. Founder of Experimental Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-
1920).
1.2. Structuralism
4
combinations of elemental sensations i.e. sensory knowledge is
the building block of our intellect. Sensations combine to
become conscious experiences as basic elements are composed
to form complex substances in chemistry.
a) For example, an experience such as meeting and
recognizing an old friend in the street was thought to be
composed of many independent sensations, feelings
and images, which were drawn together and
synthesized by the mind.
ii. Functionalism
a) The American psychologist William James pioneered
functionalism.
5
repeated frequently they became habits. Habits provide
stability and predictability in society.
iii. Gestalt
a) The leading proponents of the Gestalt view were the German
psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka and Wolfgang
Kohler.
c) Their belief was that the whole is different from the sum of its
parts. In order to understand our environment we have to
perceive it in its totality not in its individuality.
iv. Psychoanalysis
a) The Viennese neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) pioneered the psychoanalytic perspective.
b) Freud said that conscious experiences are only the tip of the
Iceberg. Beneath the conscious experience is primitive
biological urges that seek expression but which are in conflict
with the norms and morality of the society.
6
According to Freud the methods of studying the unconscious
mind are:
0) Free association
0) In this method the psychoanalyst gives the
client a word and asks to reply with the first
word that comes to mind be it nonsense or
irrelevant. The psychoanalyst makes
associations and meanings between ideas,
words, and thought.
a) Dream analysis based on case studies
0) The contents of dreams are analyzed for
underlying or hidden motivations.
a) Dreams are viewed as indication of what a
person is truly feeling within the conscious
mind. Freud said dreams are ‘the royal road to
the understanding of the unconscious.’
v. Behaviorism
a) John Watson (1878-1958) revolutionized psychology by
changing the subject matter of psychology from the study of
conscious experience to the study of behavior.
7
g) The work of John Watson contributed much to the use of more
objective and systematic methods to the study of human
behavior.
Functionalism William James To study how the mind works in Naturalistic observation
allowing an organism to adapt to of animal and human
the environment behavior
8
behavior, the working of the brain and nervous system.
ii. The brain and the mind evolved to solve problems encountered by our
hunter-gatherer ancestors during the upper Pleistocene period over
10,000 years ago (McLeod, 2007).
iii. Behaviors that we see have developed because these are adaptive and
crucial to the organism's survival.
3. Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic
i. It focuses on the process that helps people to know, understand, and think
about the world.
9
occurred about the same time as the development of computer
technology. Cognitive psychologists argued that the mind was like a
computer. The mind, like a computer, receives input from the
environment. It then transforms, stores, and later retrieves this input
using a host of “programs,” which then generate specific response
outputs.
6. Humanism
ii. It emphasizes people’s inborn desire for personal growth and their ability
to consciously make choices (Franzoi, 2011).
10
ii. Counseling psychology- Diagnoses and treats people with personal
problems that do not involve psychological disorders, including
marriage counseling, social skills training, and career planning.
b) Formulate an explanation
Specify a theory. A theory is an organized system
of ideas that seeks to explain why two or more
events are related (Franzoi, 2011, 33)
Develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
prediction stated in such a way that it allows to
be tested.
11
2. Research Methods
12
thebehavior and mental descriptiveanalyses of new, representativepicture of
processesassociated with a complex, or rare phenomena
specific person or situation phenomena
Surveys Standard sets of questions Gather large amounts Sampling errors, poorly
askedof a large number of ofdescriptive data phrasedquestions, and
participants relatively quickly and response biases can distort
inexpensively results
13
CHAPTER 2
THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
B. Basic Functions
A. Sensation
B. Integration
C. Reaction
14
C. Motor output.
B. Motor neurons carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and
glands.
15
C. Interneurons carry messages between different neurons
B. Glia cells, derived from the Greek word for “glue,” outnumber
neurons in the brain by about five or ten to one and perform
three primary functions: housekeeping, insulation, and
protection of the brain.
Housekeeping: Glial cells clean up after neurons die and
absorb excess neurotransmitters
Insulation: Glial cells form a myelin sheath around the
axon of some types of neurons, greatly increasing the
conduction speed of the axon
Protection: Glial cells form a blood-brain barrier that
prevents toxins from reaching the brain
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of neural information across a synapse by neurotransmitters
(chemicals released by neurons that alter activity in other
neurons).
17
Decreased levels of norepinephrine have been
related to depression
Increased levels of dopamine have been related to
schizophrenia
e) Serotonin is involved in autonomic processes, arousal, and
depression
18
ii. Relies on PNS for information from sensory receptors
19
E. The Major Divisions of the Brain
i. The hindbrain:
ii. The Midbrain: collection of brain structures in the middle of the brain
that coordinates movement patterns, sleep, and arousal
20
iii.The Forebrain: controls thoughts and reason
21
Figure 7. Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
i. The left and right hemispheres of the brain each specialize in particular
operations.
ii. Information from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere, and
information from the left visual field goes to the right hemisphere
iii. Speech may be the most highly lateralized of all brain functions. For
most people, speech is a left hemisphere function.
22
Figure 8. Lateralization of Brain Function
The Endocrine System
D. The Pituitary Gland, the “master gland,” secretes about ten different types of
hormones, which influence the functioning of all other endocrine system glands,
and influences growth
23
leads to sperm production
Chapter 3
Sensation and Perception
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. Illustrate the process of sensation and perception
2. Identify and illustrate the structures of the different sensory systems
3. Explain the different rules in perception
__________________________________________________________________________
Sensation
A. What is Sensation
1. Key Terms
24
i. Sensationis the process that detects stimuli from your body and
environment.
ii. Accessory Structures– structures such as the lens of the eye that
modify a Stimulus
25
Vision Light Waves Light-Sensitive rods and
cones in the eye
Hearing Sound Waves Pressure-sensitive cells in
the cochlea of the inner ear
Taste Chemical Molecules Taste cells in the taste buds
dissolved in the fluid in the of the tongue
tongue
Smell Chemical Molecules Sensitive ends of the
dissolved in the fluid in the olfactory (smell) neurons
nose
Touch Pressure on the skin Sensitive ends of the touch
neurons of the skin
D. Absolute threshold and Sensory Adaptation ( Source : Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2006)
1. Absolute threshold
26
Figure 11: Absolute Threshold of the Senses
2. Sensory Adaptation
Sensory
Sensory
Adaptation
Adaptation
Demonstration
Demonstration
PlacePlace
a substance
a substance
withwith
a strong
a strong
odor—an
odor—anonion,onion,
perfume,
perfume,
or or
shaving
shaving
lotion,
lotion,
for example—near
for example—near youryour
nosenose
for afor
few
a few
minutes.
minutes.
Its odor
Its odor
willwill
seemseem
lessless
intense
intense
overover
time.
time.
Next, Next,
remove
remove
the the
substance
substance
for five
for five
minutes
minutes
and and
thenthen
smellsmell
it again.
it again.
NowNow it should
it should
smell
smell
as strong
as strong
as itasdid
it did
whenwhen
youyou
firstfirst
smelled
smelled
it it
1. The eyes
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0. Vision provides us with a great deal of information
about our environment and the objects in it—the
sizes, shapes, and locations of things, and their
textures, colors, and distances.
1. Visual dysfunctions exist, and the most severe of
all is total blindness which, often results from
traumatic damage to nerve tissue. One dysfunction
is called color deficiency which occurs when
particular cones are missing or malfunctioning.
The most common color deficiency is an inability
to recognize red and greens
28
1. Lens- a flexible, elastic, transparent structure in the
eye that changes its shape to focus light on the
retina.
2. Retina- the innermost coating of the back of the
eye, containing the light-sensitive receptor cells.
0. Cones – provide the receptors for color
vision and sharp details. They function
primarily in daylight or highly illuminated
visual circumstances.
0. Rods – are receptors that function in dim
light and are largely insensitive to color
and fine details.
2. The Ears
29
Figure 13 : The Human Ear
30
Figure 14 : Decibel levels of common sounds
3. The tongue
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2. Salty
3. Sour
4. Sweet
5. Bitter
6. Umami
4. The nose
32
opening in the palate at the back of the mouth.
33
2. Nerve Endings
7. Ruffini’s ending
8. Pacinian corpuscles
9. Meissner corpuscles
10. Krause end bulb
Perception
1. What is Perception
2. Sensation
3. Expectation
4. Emotion
5. Culture
3. Perceptual Set
2. When you have an expectation of what or how something should be, you
create a tendency to interpret sensory information in a particular way. This
expectation is known as a perceptual set
34
1. Examples
2. Figure-ground organization
ii. The brain makes sense of the world by creating whole structures
out of bits and pieces of information in the environment. “The
whole is more than the sum of the parts”.
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proximity, continuity, similarity, simplicity, and closure.
Proximity
The closer the objects or
events are to one another,
the more likely they are
perceived as belonging
together.
Similarity
Similar elements are
perceived to be part of a
group.
Continuity
Sensations that appear to
create a continuous form
are perceived as belonging
together.
Closure
We tend to fill in missing
contours to form a
complete object.
Common Fate
Objects that are moving in
the same direction at the
same speed are perceived
together.
Figure 20. Gestalt Principles
36
B.A.A.A.A.A.A.A.A. Connectedness. Elements that are connected by
other elements tend to be grouped together.
5. Perceptual Constancy
3. E.g. When you look out a window at night and see that the trees,
grass do not appear to be the same color or brightness as they are
during the daytime.
37
transferring one’s thoughts;
2. Psychokinesis involves moving objects through purely
mental effort;
3. Precognition is the ability to foretell events.
7. Illusions
Chapter 4
Altered States of Consciousness
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter the students are expected to be able to:
1. Describe consciousness and its qualities.
2. Describe daily body rhythms.
38
3. Explain the stages of sleep and sleep disorders.
4. Explain drug abuse and drug tolerance
5. Describe and assess psychoactive drugs, including depressants, stimulants,
hallucinogens and inhalants
_________________________________________________________________
Consciousness
A. What is Consciousness?
1.1.1.1. wakefulness
2. Sleep
39
1. is an altered state of consciousness, which is an awareness of
yourself and your surroundings that is noticeably different from
your normal state of consciousness (Franzoi, 2011, 439).
1.1.1.1. While awake, the two most common EEG patterns are beta waves
and alpha waves.
40
4.1.1.1. Why do we need sleep?
2.1.1.1.1. Protective- kept our early ancestors from
navigating at night
41
in a confusing symbolic manner to protect the dreamer’s
peace of mind and ability to sleep.
1. What is Hypnosis?
42
unusual situations that differ from normal reality.
4.1.2. Hypnosis acts like a truth serum, forcing people to tell the
truth. Hypnotized people can lie and keep secrets.
43
mentally returned to an earlier age, they typically display cognitive
abilities far beyond those of a child.
3.1. Meditation- Mental exercises that focus attention and increase awareness.
2. Drug abuse- Continued drug use despite it interfering with the drug user’s
behavior or social relationships.
i. Depressants
44
i. are psychoactive drugs that slow down, or depress, the
nervous system and decrease mental and physical activity.
Depressants include alcohol, sedatives, tranquilizers, and
opium and its derivatives.
i. Alcohol
ii. Tranquiliers
ii. Stimulants-
ii. are drugs that speed up, or stimulate, the nervous system
and increase mental and physical activity. Commonly used
stimulants are caffeine and nicotine. Caffeine is in coffee,
tea, cocoa, and colas. Nicotine is found in tobacco.
45
Caffeine withdrawal symptoms include headaches and
depression.
i. LSD.
iii. Marijuana
46
i. produced from the Cannabis plant.
ii. The major psychoactive ingredient in marijuana is
THC, short for the molecule delta-9
tetrahydrocannabinol.
vii. Marijuana is mildly physically addictive, but
habitual users experience unpleasant withdrawal
symptoms such as insomnia, anxiety, irritability,
and headache. Physiological effects are increases in
heart rate and blood pressure, and dryness of the
mouth and throat.
i. Inhalants-
47
1.1.1.3. Feeling that life is meaningfulness
1.1.1.4. Stress
1.1.1.5. Psychological disorders (e.g. depression)
Chapter 5
48
Learning and Memory
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to be able to:
1. Explain how people learn and remember things.
2. Develop better ways of learning and remembering.
3. Explain why people forget.
________________________________________________________________________
Learning
A. What is Learning
A.A. Definition
B. Forms of Learning
C.A.A. Definition
49
C.A.C. Types of Associative Learning
50
0.0.0.0.D. Basic Process (Bernstein,2008)
51
0.0.0.0.I. Schedules of Reinforcement:
Figure 26
52
when followed by the termination of an appetitive
stimulus.
A.0.0.0.0. Extinction : a decrease in the frequency of a
previously reinforced response because it is no longer
followed by a reinforcer (Carlson and Buskist, 1997).
A.0.0.0.A. Shaping : Shaping involves reinforcing a
behavior that 'successively approximates' the desired
response.
53
behavior.
A.0.0.0.G. Four Processes of Observational Learning
D.0.0.0.0.B. Attention
D.0.0.0.0.C. Retention
D.0.0.0.0.D. Reproduction
D.0.0.0.0.E. Motivation
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Memory
A. What is memory
A.C. It allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments
ago.
B. engram to refer to the physical change in the nervous system that occurs as
a result of experience. (Today most psychologists use the term memory
trace to describe the same thing.)
55
Figure 26 : Brain Structures for Memory
A.A.C. memories are not localized in one place in the brain, but
rather involve interacting circuits operating across the brain
56
3. Retrieval: The process of recalling information stored in memory.
57
0.0.0.0.B. It can hold only a limited amount of
information at one time (magical 7 plus minus 2)
0.0.0.0.C. Working memory is critical for mental
work, or thinking.
0.0.0.0.D. Working memory capacity is correlated
with intelligence
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Source : https://www.google.com.ph/search?q
Forgetting
A. What is Forgetting
A.A. Loss of information overtime
A.A.B. Problem :
0.0.0.0. does not really provide an explanation of
forgetting, but merely a description.
0.0.0.A. the phenomenon of reminiscence, the fact that
59
sometimes memories actually recover over time.
Use elaborative Material is better remembered if Think, for instance, “Proactive interference is like
encoding. it is processed more fully. retroactive interference but it occurs in a forward
manner.”
Make use of the Material is better remembered if Think, for instance, “I remember a time when I
self-reference it is linked to thoughts about the knew the answer to an exam question but
60
Technique Description Useful example
Be aware of the Information that we have Review the material that you have already studied
forgetting curve. learned drops off rapidly with right before the exam to increase the likelihood it
time. will remain in memory.
Make use of the Information is learned better Study a little bit every day; do not cram at the last
spacing effect. when it is studied in shorter minute.
periods spaced over time.
Rely on We can continue to learn even Keep studying, even if you think you already have
overlearning. after we think we know the it down.
information perfectly.
Use context- We have better retrieval when it If possible, study under conditions similar to the
dependent occurs in the same situation in conditions in which you will take the exam.
retrieval. which we learned the material.
Use state- We have better retrieval when Many possibilities, but don’t study under the
dependent we are in the same psychological influence of drugs or alcohol, unless you plan to
retrieval. state as we were when we use them on the day of the exam (which is not
learned the material. recommended).
Chapter 6
Motivation and Emotion
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to be able to:
61
Motivation
A. What is Motivation
A.A. Definition
62
Figure 29
B. Types of Motivation
B.A.E. Examples
63
0.0.0.0.K. Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost
from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
0.0.0.0.L. Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn
out of cells because of increased concentration of
salts and minerals outside the cell
0.0.0.0.0.C. Best satisfied by drinking water
64
B.A.F. Example
B.A.I. Drives
0.A.A.0. Drives push people to satisfy needs, thereby
reducing the drives and the arousal they create.
65
related to biological needs
C.A.A. Examples
66
A.H. Humanistic Theory
Figure 30:
Source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=Maslows+1990+hierarchy+of+needs
67
Figure 31
Source : www.google.com.ph/search?espv=2&biw=1440&bih=809&tbm=isch&sa
Emotion
A. What is Emotion
A.A. Definition
68
A.A.A.C. Different emotions stimulate different responses
A.A.A.D. Amygdala
69
A.D. Two Dimensions
C. Theories of Emotions
B.A.E. Example
A.B.A. The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily
arousal to occur at the same time.
B.A.F. Example
70
A.G. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory:
B.A.G. “I see a bear. Is the bear posing a threat? If yes, run. If not, get
the camera.”
Figure 34
71
Figure 35
72
Chapter 7
Human Development
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. “The scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human
life span” (Papalia and Feldman 12th ed. , 2012 p.4).
C. Domains of development
1. Physical Domain
2. Cognitive Domain
3. Psychosocial Domain
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D. Periods of the Human Life Span
Figure 36
Table 6 :
Age Period Physical Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development Development
Prenatal Conception occurs by Abilities to learn and Fetus responds to
normal fertilization or remember and to mother’s voice and
other means. respond to sensory develops a preference
stimuli are developing. for it.
The genetic endowment
interacts with
environmental
influences from the
start.
Vulnerability to
environmental
influences is great.
74
Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development
Infancy and All senses and body Abilities to learn and Attachments to parents
Toddlerhood systems operate at birth remember are present, and others form.
to varying degrees. even in early weeks.
Self-awareness
The brain grows in Use of symbols and develops.
complexity and is ability to solve
highly sensitive to problems develop by Shift from dependence
environmental end of second year. toward autonomy
influence. occurs.
Comprehension and use
Physical growth and of language develop Interest in other
development of motor rapidly. children increases.
skills are rapid.
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Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development
Middle Childhood Growth slows. Egocentrism Self-concept becomes
diminishes. more complex,
Strength and athletic affecting self-esteem.
skills improve. Children begin to think
logically but Coregulation reflects
Respiratory illnesses concretely. gradual shift in control
are common, but health from parents to child.
is generally better than Memory and language
at any other time in the skills increase. Peers assume central
life span. importance.
Cognitive gains permit
children to benefit from
formal schooling.
Young Adulthood Physical condition Thought and moral Personality traits and
peaks then declines judgments become styles become relatively
slightly. more complex. stable but changes in
personality may be
Lifestyle choices Educational and influenced by life
influence health. occupational choices stages and events.
are made, sometimes
after period of Intimate relationships
exploration. and personal lifestyles
are established but may
not be lasting.
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Age Period Physical Cognitive Psychosocial
Development Development Development
Middle Adulthood Slow deterioration of
Mental abilities peak; expertise and continues to develop;
Sense of identity practical problem- midlife transition may
sensory abilities, solving skills are occur.
health, stamina, and high.
strength may begin, Dual responsibilities
but individual Creative output may of caring for children
differences are wide. decline but improve and parents may
in quality. cause stress.
Women experience
menopause. For some, career Launching of children
success and earning leaves empty nest.
powers peak; for
others, burnout or
career change may
occur.
Late Adulthood Most people are Most people are Retirement from
healthy and active, mentally alert. workforce may occur
although health and and may offer new
physical abilities Although intelligence options for use of
generally decline. and memory may time.
deteriorate in some
Slowing of reaction areas, most people People develop more
time affects some find ways to flexible strategies to
aspects of compensate. cope with personal
functioning. losses and impending
death.
Relationships with
family and close
friends can provide
important support.
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F. Theories on Human Development
78
Table 8 : Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Age Central Psychological Issue or Resolution
Crisis
First Year Trust versus Mistrust Hope
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Resolution
Crisis
Middle Age Generativity versus Stagnation Care
Level 1: Preconventional
Level 2: Conventional
Stage 3 Good Boy/Good Girl Pleasing others and getting their approval.
Orientation Living up to social expectations and roles.
Stage 4 Authority Orientation Doing one’s duty, following rules and social
order.
Level 3: Postconventional
Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Respecting rules and laws but recognizing
that they may have limits.
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Chapter 9
Personality
Chapter Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. Describe personality.
2. Explain the different approaches of personality.
___________________________________________________________________________
A. What is Personality
B. Theories of Personality
A.0.0.0. The Id
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0.0.0.0. The Ego
82
A.A.C. Ego Defense Mechanisms
0. The ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, not offend the
moralistic character of the superego, while still taking into
consideration the reality of the situation.
83
D.D.D.D.D.D.D.D.D. Psychosexual Stages
84
0.0.A. It is a perspective in which personality is seen as a combination
of characteristics that people display over time and across situations.
0.0.0.A. Often called the “five robust factors,” or “the big five,”
they are:
85
0.0.A. It is founded on the belief that all human beings strive for self-
actualization.
A.A.F. It is the realization of our potentialities as unique human beings.
86
B. Rogers believed that each person is constantly struggling to
become more and more complete and perfect. Anything that furthers
this end is good—the person wants to become everything he or she can
possibly be.
B.A.A. Carl Roger’s view, the self-concept is the most important
feature of personality.
B.A.B. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts
and that they do not often exactly match reality.
87
88
89
The fully-functioning person
1. Openness to experience. It is the accurate perception of
one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings.
2. Existential living. This is living in the here-and-now.
3. Organismic trusting. Organismic trusting assumes you are
in contact with the actualizing tendency.
4. Experiential freedom. Rogers says that the fully-
functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom,
and takes responsibility for his choices.
5. Creativity. Creativity as Rogers uses it is very close to
Erikson's generativity.
90
Chapter 9
Health and Stress
Chapter Objectives
At the end of the chapter, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. What is Stress?
1. Stress occurs when there is an imbalance between a demand made on a
person and the resources available to respond to the demand.
2. Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand.
(http://www.mtstcil.org/skills/stress-definition-1.html)
3. Stress is the process where the person and environment interact. (Nezu, et.al.,
2003)
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(“I am helpless”)
2. Eustress
2. Positive stress
5. Can have a positive impact on a person.
6. Gives the person extra energy to perform at his best.
7. This is caused when a person is feeling as though he or she:
1. Has ideas of possible solutions to the challenge.
(“Look at all these possibilities”)
2. Has the resources to solve the challenge.
(“I can do it”)
3. Has some control over what’s happening.
(“I have choices”)
4. Has had sufficient rest between his/her challenges.
6. Coping Process
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1. What is Coping
1. Coping refers to the way the mind responds to events that are
challenging or threatening. It is important to be aware that an
occurrence perceived as threatening by one person may be a challenge
to another; and be perceived by a third person as normal.
2. Coping Strategies
3.Primary appraisal
3.Secondary appraisal
4.Reappraisal
.
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