Solar Power

(Technology and Economics)

 
The earth receives more energy from the Sun in just one hour than the world's
population uses in a whole year.
The total solar energy flux intercepted by the earth on any particular day is 4.2 X
1018 Watthours or 1.5 X 1022 Joules (or 6.26 X 1020 Joules per hour ). This is equivalent
to burning 360 billion tons of oil ( toe ) per day or 15 Billion toe per hour.
In fact the world's total energy consumption of all forms in the year 2000 was only 4.24
X 1020 Joules. In year 2005 it was 10,537 Mtoe (Source BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006)
 
Solar Radiation
Sunlight comes in many colours, combining low-energy infrared photons (1.1 eV) with
high-energy ultraviolet photons (3.5 eV) and all the visible-light photons between.
The graph below shows the spectrum of the solar energy impinging on a plane, directly
facing the sun, outside the Earth's atmosphere at the Earth's mean distance from the
Sun. The area under the curve represents the total energy in the spectrum. Known as
the "Solar Constant" G0, it is equal to 1367 Watts per square metre (W/m2).

The radiant energy falling within the visible spectrum is about 43% of the total with
about 52% in the infra red region and 5% in the ultra violet region.
 
The graph below shows the energy at sea level.
Direct energy is the energy received directly from the sun.
Global energy includes energy diffused, scattered or reflected from clouds and energy
re-radiated by the earth itself.

Energy received at sea level is about 1kW/m2 at noon near the equator
 
Irradiance and Insolation
Total solar irradiance is defined as the the amount of radiant energy emitted by the Sun
over all wavelengths, not just visible light, falling each second on a 1 square metre
perpendicular plane outside Earth's atmosphere at a given distance from the Sun. It is
roughly constant, fluctuating by only a few parts per thousand from day to day.
On the outer surface of the Earth's atmosphere the irradiance is known as the solar
constant and is equal to about 1367 Watts per square meter.
The amount of solar energy that actually passes through the atmosphere and strikes a
given area on the Earth over a specific time varies with latitude and with the seasons as
well as the weather and is known as the insolation (incident solar radiation).
When he Sun is directly overhead the insolation, that is the incident energy arriving on a
surface on the ground perpendicular to the Sun's rays, is typically 1000 Watts per
square metre. This is due to the absorption of the Sun's energy by the Earth's
atmosphere which dissipates about 25% to 30% of the radiant energy.
Insolation increases with altitude
The terms "irradiance" and "insolation" are often used interchangeably to mean the
same thing.
 
Available Solar Energy
Since the Earth's cross sectional area is 127,400,000 km², the total Sun's power it
intercepted by the Earth is 1.740×1017 Watts but as it rotates, no energy is received
during the night and the Sun's energy is distributed across the Earth's entire surface
area, most of which is not normal to the Sun's rays for most of the day, so that the
average insolation is only one quarter of the solar constant or about 342 Watts per
square meter. Taking into account the seasonal and climatic conditions the actual
power reaching the ground generally averages less than 200 Watts per square meter.
Thus the average power intercepted at any time by the earth's surface is around 127.4
X 106 X 106 X 200 = 25.4 X 1015 Watts or 25,400 TeraWatts.
 
Integrating this power over the whole year the total solar energy received by the earth
will be:
25,400 TW X 24 X 365 = 222,504,000 TeraWatthours (TWh)
 
To put this into perspective, the total annual electrical energy (not the total energy)
consumed in the world from all sources in 2011 was 22,126 TWh (International Energy
Agency (IEA)). Thus the available solar energy is over 10,056 times the world's
consumption. The solar energy must of course be converted into electrical energy, but
even with a low conversion efficiency of only 10% the available energy will be
22,250,400 TWh or over a thousand times the consumption. Using the same low
conversion efficiency, the entire world's electricity demand could be supplied from a
solar panel of 127,000 km2. Theoretically this could be provided by six solar plants of
21,100 km2 or 145,3 km per side, one plant in each of the hot, barren continental
deserts in Australia, China, the Middle East, Northern Africa, South America and the
USA or one large solar plant covering 1% of the Sahara desert.
 
Unfortunately the Sun's bounty can only be harvested during daylight hours and some
energy must be stored for use during the hours of darkness and the requirement to
distribute the energy over great distances to where it is needed make this proposition
impractical. The example merely serves to illustrate the abundance of the sun's energy.
What is practical however is to build smaller, more efficient solar power plants to serve
the demands of local communities using free solar energy when it is available in
conjunction with other other energy sources or some local energy storage where
possible. Despite this, less than 0.1% of the world's primary energy demand is supplied
by solar energy.
While using photovoltaic solar cells to to supply the world's electrical power needs may
be technically practical, is still the most expensive way to generate electricity. See chart
of Electricity Generating Costs and Domestic Solar PV System Economics
 
Equivalent Hours of Full Sun (EHS)
Because of the variation in the intensity of
the Sun's radiation during the day and also
the variations in the length of the day it is
difficult to make comparisons of the Sun's
energy falling upon the Earth at different
locations. The graph opposite shows an
example in which the insolation reaches
1000 W/m2 at noon when the sun is at its
highest point in the sky. An insolation of
1000 W/m2 is known as the "Full Sun".
Most of the time the incident energy is
below this value because it depends on the
angle of incidence of the Sun's rays with
the ground, increasing during the day from
a very low value at dawn as the Sun rises
to a peak at noon and falling again as the
Sun sets. (See Angle of Incidence below).
Similarly the insolation will be reduced as
higher latitudes due to the effect of air
mass - (See below).
The graph also shows that, in this case,
the total received energy over the 10 hours
of daylight will be 3.5 kWh.
If the insolation had been constant at 1000
W/m2 the same amount of energy would
have been received in 3.5 hours. The
Equivalent Hours of Full Sun is a measure
of average insolation at different locations.
In this case the EHS is 3.5 hours.
The available solar energy and thus the
Equivalent Hours of Full Sun (EHS) also
depend on the atmospheric conditions of
cloud cover and pollution. See Available
Energy - Practical Systemsbelow.
 
The concept of EHS is useful for
comparing the potential of solar energy
systems when installed at different
geographic locations.
 
Capturing Solar Energy
Solar energy can be captured in two forms, either as heat or as electrical energy.
 Thermal Systems
Thermal systems capture the Sun's heat energy (infra red radiation) in some form
of solar collector and use it to mostly to provide hot water or for space heating, but
the heat can also used to generate electricity by heating the working fluid in heat
engine which in turn drives a generator.
 Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic systems capture the sun's higher frequency radiation (visible and ultra
violet) in an array of semiconductor, photovoltaic cells which convert the radiant
energy directly into electricity.
 
The actual solar energy or insolation reaching a solar collector or array depends on its
position on the Earth, its orientation and it also varies continuously with time as well as
weather conditions.
The amount of energy captured is directly proportional to the area of the Sun's energy
front intercepted by the collector.
 
Some Geometry
The orientation of the solar collector or the photovoltaic array with respect to the
position of the Sun is a major determinant in the efficiency of the solar power system.
 
 Inclined Planes
Angle of Incidence
The amount of energy impinging on a
collector or array is directly proportional to
the area of the radiation wave-front it
intercepts. For optimum energy capture the
collector must be perpendicular to the
Sun's rays when the angle of incidence is
90°. For a flat plate on the ground this
occurs only when the Sun is directly
overhead. Unfortunately unless you live in
the tropics this will never be the case and
solar arrays must be tilted towards the Sun
to receive the maximum insolation.
 
When the incident energy is not
perpendicular to the collector, the angle of
incidence is (90° - Θ) and the effective
area of the collector is A.cosΘ where A is
the area of the collector and Θ is the
deviation from perpendicular of the
radiation.
 Air Mass
The Air Mass is a dimensionless quantity
defined as the ratio between the actual path
length of the solar radiation through the
atmosphere and the vertical path length
through the atmosphere at sea level.
If the Sun's radiation is not perpendicular to
the Earth, the transit path through the Earth's
atmosphere will be longer and hence the
energy absorbed on the way to the collector
or array will be greater.
The effect of the longer route through the
atmosphere is to increase the energy
absorption (or lost energy) by a factor
  of 1/cosΦ where Φ is the deviation from
In the diagram above, the Air Mass perpendicular of the radiation, also called the
corresponds to the factor (1/cosΦ) zenith angle.
Thus in the polar regions as Φ approaches
90 degrees (cosΦ>0) the insolation is very
low, even if the collector is pointed directly at
the Sun, due to the longer path through the
atmosphere.
 
 Altitude
Insolation increases with altitude since the radiation passes through less air mass
hence the energy absorption by the atmosphere is less.
 
Some Astronomy
To calculate how solar insolation varies with time and with the position of the collector
on the Earth's surface we need to know a little astronomy.
 
Though the Earth moves around the Sun, for the purposes of calculating the energy
intercepted by our collectors it is often convenient to assume that the Earth is stationary
and the Sun moves relative to the earth in much the same way as the ancients did
before Copernicus pointed out their error. Assuming the Earth does not rotate, the
apparent trajectory of the Sun follows a two-dimensional plane in the sky called the
ecliptic.
 
 Position
The position of the Sun in the sky relative to an observer on Earth is defined by its
altitude angle α (solar elevation angle) and its azimuth angle Ψ.
 
 The Earth's Orbit
The Earth orbits the Sun with one revolution per year in an elliptical orbit with the
Sun at one of the foci of the ellipse. The orbit's two foci are very close together
however so that the orbit is almost circular, the distance to the Sun from the
perihelion, the point in its orbit closest to the Sun, being only about 3% less than its
distance from the aphelion, its furthest distance.
 
Because the orbit is almost circular, the effect of the orbit on solar irradiance
remains essentially constant throughout the year as the Earth orbits the Sun. The
actual energy received at any distance from the Sun is determined by the inverse
square law. Thus a 3% change in distance gives rise to a 6% change in the
irradiance.
 
 The Earth's Rotation
The Earth's rotation of once per day defines our day and night. As the Earth rotates
the insolation at any point on its surface rises to a maximum at mid day and falls to
zero during the night as the Earth presents a different face towards the Sun. For
maximum efficiency the orientation of the collector should follow the Sun as it
passes overhead from East to West.
 
 Latitude
A solar collector or array placed on the ground will only receive the maximum
insolation when the Sun is directly overhead. Because the Earth is roughly spherical,
the angle between the plane of the Earth's surface and the incident solar radiation
will gradually increase from 90 degrees as we move away from the equator to the
upper and lower latitudes by an angle Θ equal to the latitude of the observer. At this
point the altitude angle α of the Sun will be (90 - Θ) degrees. Because of the
increased inclination of the Earth's surface the insolation received by a collector
placed on the surface will gradually decrease.
  
This drawback can be overcome by inclining the collector so that it is perpendicular
to the Sun's rays. The amount of elevation from the horizontal, the tilt angle, should
be equal to the latitude angle Θ of the location of the collector.
 
For maximum effect the axis of the inclination should be perpendicular to the polar
axis. That is, in the Northern hemisphere the direction of the collector should point
due South.
Note that the polar axis is not the same as the compass bearing because the
magnetic poles do not necessarily line up exactly with the geometric poles. The
angle between the magnetic and geographical meridians at any place is called the
magnetic declination or variation and can be as much as 20 degrees or more. It is
expressed in degrees east or west to indicate the direction of magnetic north from
true north.
 
Unfortunately the Sun does not appear to follow a constant path in the Earth's
equatorial plane. It appears to move North in the Summer and South in the Winter.
In fact the Sun is stationary and the effect is due to the tilt of the Earth's axis of
rotation.
 
 The Earth's Tilt
The Earth's rotational axis is tipped over about 23.45 degrees from the plane of its
orbit. This tilt is essentially constant, maintained in that direction due to the
gyroscopic action of the earth's rotation, and always points in the same direction
relative to the stars, so that the North Pole points towards the star Polaris, the North
Star. Over very long time periods however, measured in thousands of years, the
direction of Earth's axis slowly changes due to gyroscopic precession.
 

 
The fixed orientation in space of the Earth's axis as it orbits the Sun determines the
length of the day and creates the world's seasons. At the summer solstice, the
 longest day,. the northern half of the Earth is pointing towards the Sun creating
summer in the Northern hemisphere. The winter solstice, the shortest day in the
Northern hemisphere occurs when the Earth has travelled 180 degrees around its
orbit and the Northern hemisphere is pointing away from the Sun.
From the Earth it appears that the Earth's rotational axis is rocking backwards and
forwards. The apparent tilt of the Earth's axis corresponds to the angular position of
the Sun at its highest point in the sky with respect to an observation point on the
plane of the equator and is called the solar declination δ (Not to be confused with
magnetic variation, also called the declination).
The vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes, in March and September when the day
and night are the same length, occur when the Earth is mid way between the
solstices. Then the plane of the tilt is perpendicular to the direction of the Sun from
the Earth so that the insolation is the same on both hemispheres.
 
As a result of the Earth's tilt, the intensity of the insolation varies during the year
giving rise to the seasons. This is not because tilt causes a point on the Earth's
surface to move closer to or further from the Sun. The change in distance is
negligible. It is because of three factors:
 The Earth's apparent tilt changes the angle of incidence of the solar
radiation, changing its insolation per unit area as noted in the diagram above.
 At the same time the tilt also changes the path length of the radiation
through the atmosphere which in turn changes the amount of the Sun's energy
absorbed by the atmosphere. (also shown in the same diagram above).
 The tilt also changes the number of daylight hours.
These factors all work together to reduce both the intensity and daily duration of the
insolation during winter months.
 
As seen from the northern hemisphere of the Earth, the declination in the elevation
of the Sun varies during the course of the year between minus 23.45° in the summer
and plus 23.45° in the winter.
Taking into account the solar declination, the altitude angle α of the sun is (90 - Θ ±
δ) degrees.
The inclination angle of solar collectors from the horizontal for maximum efficiency
should therefore be (Θ ± δ) degrees and the collector should be able to follow this
variation in declination throughout the year.
 
 Time
Fortunately as a source of renewable energy the Sun is much more predictable than
the wind. It comes up every morning and goes down every night. The intensity of the
wind may be extremely variable, but it is available 24 hours per day, while solar
power is only available during daylight hours. At least solar power is reliable and is
available when it is needed most - during peak demand hours.
 
 Though the insolation is subject to two temporal variations, a diurnal (daily) cycle
due to the Earth's rotation and a yearly cycle due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, we
know precisely the magnitude of these effects at any time so we can design our
solar power systems accordingly. What is less predictable however is the affect of
the weather.
 
Unless they are connected to the grid, systems which must provide energy on
demand need some form of energy storage or an alternative source of energy for
the hours of darkness.
 
Some Meteorology
Unfortunately we have no control over the weather. Overcast skies can severely reduce
the energy received on the ground. Obviously solar power generating plants are best
located in regions with minimum cloud cover, dust and air pollution. At least we usually
have statistics about regional weather conditions to help in choosing suitable locations
for solar power plants.
 
For dimensioning a solar power generating system it is essential to know the number of
hours of daylight expected at the site location. This can normally be obtained from
national meteorological services and environmental research establishments as well as
from NASA in the USA. It helps even more if they are able to provide tables of expected
solar energy for the region.
Note: It is important to check the basis of the data. Some organisations quote the solar
insolation on a horizontal surface, that is the ground. Others base their data on the
insolation of a collector with a fixed angle of tilt corresponding to the latitude of the
location.
 
Energy Capture and Collector / Array Orientation
The table opposite shows how the
effectiveness of a solar array or collector
diminishes as its orientation and tilt move
away from the optimum position.
 
The example shows that to capture
maximum solar energy with an array
located at a latitude of 35° North, the
optimum array orientation is pointing due
South and the optimum tilt is the same as
the latitude, in this case 35°.
If the array system has to be mounted on a
roof with a pitch of 45° on a building
pointing South West it will only receive a
maximum of about 90% of the available
solar energy.
Solar Tracking
As indicated above the amount of energy captured by a solar system can be maximised
if the collector can follow the ecliptic path of the Sun so that the plane of the collector or
array is always perpendicular to the direction of the Sun.
Automatic mechanical tracking systems make it possible to track both the azimuth and
the elevation of the Sun's position to maximise energy capture.
 

 
Note the lower zenith and the reduced azimuth range of the winter Sun. The chart
below shows that, in the UK, the available energy from the winter Sun is between one
sixth and one twelfth of the energy from the summer Sun depending on the latitude.
 
 Azimuth Tracking
Azimuth tracking keeps the collector pointing at the Sun as the Earth rotates.
The insolation varies between zero and its maximum value during the course of
every day and remains around its maximum value for a relatively short period of
time. Azimuth tracking enables the collector to follow the Sun from East to West
throughout the day and brings the most benefits.
Passive systems provide the simplest form of azimuth tracking. They have no
motors, controllers or gears and they don't use up any of the energy captured by the
collector. They depend on the differential heating of two interconnected tubes of
gaseous refrigerants, one on either side of the collector. If the collector is not
 pointing towards the Sun, one side heats up more than the other and vaporises its
refrigerant. The resulting change in weight is used in a mechanical drive mechanism
to turn the collector towards the Sun where it will remain when the temperature and
weight of the two tubes will be balanced.
Active tracking is also possible by employing temperature sensors and a control
system with linear actuating motors taking their drive power from the system.
 
 Altitude/Elevation Tracking
Elevation tracking enables the collector to follow the seasonal variations in the Sun's
altitude but the economic benefits are less than for azimuth tracking.
Compared with the daily variations in insolation, the seasonal variations are very
slow and the range of the variation, due to the solar declination is much more
restricted. Because of this, reasonable efficiency gains can be obtained simply by
manually adjusting the elevation of the collectors every two months. To avoid the
cost and complexity of elevation tracking, it may be more cost effective just to
specify larger collectors.
 
 Dual Axis Tracking
Combining azimuth and elevation tracking enables the installation to capture the
maximum energy using the smallest possible collectors but the systems are complex
and many installations get by with just azimuth tracking.
 
Solar Collectors
A solar collector is simply a heat collecting surface which intercepts the Sun's radiated
energy and heats up a thermal working fluid. In practical thermal systems it is usually
more convenient to focus the Suns heat energy on to a small receiver in order to obtain
a higher temperature rise of the working fluid. Such collectors are called
concentrators. The units used by the solar concentrator community to express the
degree of concentration of the mirror system, similar to the magnification factor of a lens
are called "Suns". Note that this unit is not a precisely defined quantity.
 
Concentrators
Typical concentrators are constructed from parabolic mirrors which reflect the Sun's
parallel rays on to a single spot at the focus of the mirror.
 Parabolic Dish
A parabolic dish will capture the energy intercepted by the dish and concentrate it on
a suitable heat absorber located at the focus. The amount of energy captured and
hence the temperature rise of the absorber will be proportional to the area of the
dish. Size limitations of the dish limit its application to small systems of from 10kW to
50kW.
 Parabolic Trough
Larger systems use arrays of parabolic trough shaped mirrors oriented north-south
to concentrate the solar radiation. They usually also include a tracking system to
track the Sun's path throughout the day.

The thermal absorber, a tube located

at along the focal line of the mirror,
contains the working fluid which is
heated by the solar radiation to a
high temperature and used to drive a
heat engine.

Source: US DOE (EERE)

 Power Tower
An alternative concentrator arrangement is the Power Tower which uses a large
array of parabolic mirrors focused on a solar furnace mounted on the top of a tower.
Because of the long focal length, the mirrors are almost flat.
  
As with the trough concentrators, the solar furnace is used to raise steam to drive a
turbine generator.
 
 Heliostats are sun tracking mirrors which are used to reflect the sun onto the top
of a solar power tower.

This is an example of a heliostat

from the THÉMIS experimental
station in France. The mirror
rotates in both azimuth and
elevation.

Source David66
 

This photograph below shows a

solar-thermal power project near
Daggett, California. Every mirror
in the field of heliostats reflects
sunlight continuously onto the
receiver on the tower.

Source: U.S. NASA

Available Energy - Practical Systems

The table below shows the solar energy available at two extremes of latitude and
provides an indication of the upper and lower limits of the solar energy falling on the
Earth. The insolation (kWh/m2/day) is the monthly averaged incident energy falling on a
horizontal surface at the given location. Also called the "Equivalent Sun Hours" or
"Hours of Full Sun" (See Definition)
 
Solar Energy Available at Different Latitudes
Insolation
Latitude Altitud kWh/m2/Day
Trackin
Location Degree e
g Decembe
s Metres June
r

Anchorage None 4.5 0.6

61.17°N 35
, Alaska
2 Axis 6.8 0.7

Quito, None 4.38 4.81

0.47°S 2851
Equador
2 Axis 6.09 6.62
Source NREL
 
Because of cloud cover and pollution, the quoted hours of "full Sun" are substantially
less than the actual hours of daylight. In sunnier climes, an average of 33% of solar
irradiation comes from diffuse light but for the majority of locations this is typically more
than 50%. The equivalent hours of full Sun takes into account the affect of overcast or
partially cloudy skies.
 
System Dimensioning - Energy Capture
Much care is needed in specifying solar array sizes to meet system power
requirements. Using yearly average insolation figures for the chosen location may be
acceptable if all that is required is a grid connected system with an average annual
generating capacity, but this is almost never the case and it certainly does not apply to
stand alone systems.
Averages can be very misleading, even within the month.
The following table gives the monthly average, and yearly average, insolation at two
locations in the UK.
 
Daily Insolation Levels (kWh/m2/day) at Locations in the UK
Latitud Longitud Ma Jun Jul Au Sep No De Averag
Location Jan Feb Mar Apr Oct
e e y e y g t v c e
Edinburg 55' 55" 0.4 0.9 1.8 3.1 4.3 4.1 3.4 2.4 0.5 0.3
3" 10" W 4.34 1.2 2.26
h N 4 4 6 8 3 3 1 3 9 2
London 51' 32" 0' 5" W 0.6 1.2 2.2 3.4 4.5 4.51 4.7 4.0 2.8 1.6 0.8 0.5 2.61
 N 7 6 2 8 4 4 1 6 5 9 2
Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident On A Horizontal Surface (kWh/m 2/day)
Source NASA
 
If the system capacity were to be based on the yearly average, for most practical
installations there would be a surplus of energy in the summer and a shortfall in winter.
A stand alone system would have to be dimensioned to be able to provide the peak load
during the winter months, otherwise an auxiliary source of power must be provided. The
system would then be over-specified for the summer months and some form of reducing
the capacity or dumping the excess energy must be found. A hybrid system combining
wind and solar power could be the answer.
 
Electrical Energy Storage
Because no power is provided during the hours of darkness, the stand alone systems
must generate and store sufficient energy during the day to satisfy the peak daily load.
The storage should also be sufficient to cover several days when no sunlight is
available. Batteries are normally used as a buffer to provide the necessary storage to
guarantee short term continuity of supply by storing surplus energy during the day for
use during the night and during periods of overcast skies. Unfortunately it is not
practical to store the summer's surplus energy for use during the winter. See
alternaitive Thermal Storage below
 
Solar Power Generation (Thermal)
Electricity generation in a solar thermal plant occurs in two stages. First the heat energy
from the Sun is captured and used to heat a working fluid which is then used in a
second energy transformation stage to generate the electricity. Note that the thermal
energy comes from the Sun's radiation and not from the air whose temperature will
usually be much lower than the temperature of the working fluid. The actual operating
temperature reached by the working fluid will depend on the rate at which the thermal
energy is being extracted by the working fluid (the flow rate) and delivered to the
electricity generating system.
A solar thermal power plant usually has a system of mirrors to concentrate the sunlight
on to an absorber, the absorbed energy then being used to power a heat engine which
in turn drives a rotary generator. In large scale systems, the heat engine is usually a
turbine driven by steam or other vaporous working fluid. In small scale systems the heat
engine may be a Stirling engine.
 
Electricity Generating Systems
Large Scale Solar Thermal Plants
The system below is designed to capture the thermal energy radiated from the sun.
 
 
Thermal energy from the Sun is intercepted by a concentrator which focuses the energy
on a heat absorber containing the working fluid, usually a synthetic oil, which is heated
by the solar radiation to a high temperature typically 400° C. The system may use
a binary cycle in which the heated oil is passed through a heat exchanger to raise
steam which is used to drive a conventional turbine and generator in a separate circuit.
To maintain the thermal efficiency of the turbine, the working fluid leaving the heat
exchanger should not be allowed to cool down. Solar plants are therefore supplemented
by gas-fired boilers which generate about a quarter of the overall power output and
maintain the temperature overnight.
Several such installations in modules of 80 MW are now operating and solar conversion
efficiencies of between 15% and 23% have been achieved. Each module requires about
50 hectares of land and needs very precise engineering and control. Power costs are
two to three times that of conventional sources.
 
Thermal Energy Storage
The use of molten salts to provide the capture, storage and release of solar energy has
recently been demonstrated. (See Alternative Storage). The solar thermal energy may
be captured directly by a molten salt which has a high thermal capacity in a "Power
Tower" or indirectly in a heat exchanger from the hot working fluids circulating through
arrays of solar concentrators. A suitable salt such as potassium nitrate is liquid above
370 °C (698 °F) and acts as a second working fluid. It gives up its heat when required to
water in a second heat exchanger to form steam for driving the turbine.
The Solana concentrating solar thermal plant in Arizona which uses molten salt storage
can keep delivering power for six hours after sunset.
 
Small Scale Thermal Plants
Steam turbines are only practical for very large installations. Stirling Engines are often
used in small systems to drive the electrical generator.
 
Solar Stirling
Domestic thermal generating plants typically use an array of water filled panels or a
small array of parabolic trough concentrators to capture the Sun's thermal energy. Very
small system such as those used in space applications may simply use a parabolic dish
to capture the energy.
 

 
The working fluid is then used as the external heat source for powering the Stirling
engine which in turn drives a rotary generator.
An off-grid stand alone solar electric system must have batteries supported by Balance-
of-System (BOS) components including chargers, inverters and controllers to manage
the energy flows in order to provide power on demand. This makes the system very
expensive. Grid connected systems also need power conditioners and control systems
if surplus energy is to be sold back to the utility company.
Efficiencies achieved with small scale systems range from 18% to 23%.
 
Domestic Water Heating Applications - A brief diversion
Many small domestic solar thermal systems are merely used for water heating and not
for generating electricity.
 
 Practical Systems
The working fluid is water, circulating through a rooftop mounted solar panel and fed
directly into the domestic hot water system. As an alternative, the working fluid may
be passed through a heat exchanger consisting of a coiled pipe in the hot water
storage tank to heat the water indirectly.
The front surface of the solar panel is double glazed, allowing the Sun's radiation to
pass through to heat up the water flowing through the panel while preventing heat
loss from the warmer water due to convection and conduction in the opposite
direction (from the panel to the colder atmosphere). The rear surface of the panel is
also insulated to prevent heat loss in that direction.
The system works in cold weather because the water is heated by the Sun's
radiation, not by the ambient air from which it is insulated.
 
 Water Temperature
An elegant, self regulating solution for maintaining the water temperature is
provided by incorporating a small, subsidiary photovoltaic panel (see below) to
generate the electrical energy needed to power the water circulation pumps
instead of using mains electricity.
At sunrise, the pump remains switched off until the water reaches its operating
temperature at which point the pump is switched on. As the Sun's radiation
increases during the morning, the water temperature will rise, but at the same
time the solar powered pump will run faster, increasing the water flow and thus
transfering heat more quickly from the panel to the hot water storage tank. By
suitably dimensioning the pump and the photovoltaic panel, the heat transfer rate
from the panel can be matched to the heat absorption rate from the Sun thus
maintaining a constant water temperature. As the received Sun's energy wanes
in the afternoon the process is reversed, the pump runs more slowly reducing the
rate at which heat is extracted from the panel thus maintaining its temperature.
Being completely independent of the electricity grid, these systems have the
added economic and environmental benefits that no electrical energy is drawn
from the grid for running the pumps.
 Temperature Limits
With water as the working fluid, the system is prone to freezing and boiling
unless special precautions are taken. Low cost systems allow the water to freeze
in very cold and dark environments by using flexible freeze-tolerant, silicone
rubber pipework which is sufficient to accommodate the expansion of the water
as it turns to ice. The volume of water used in solar thermal panels is very small,
typically around 2 or 3 litres and is spread over a very large area to capture the
maximum solar radiation. The high received radiation acting on a low water
volume enables the water to heat up very quickly but for the same reason makes
it susceptible to boiling. Unless there is a constant water flow to a storage tank
with the heated water in the panel being replaced by cold water from the tank,
the water could reach temperatures of 150 degrees C or more and for this
reason the water pumps must be continually switched on. Even so, the possibility
of boiling still remains, even with the pumps running, if the system is incorrectly
dimensioned. The equilibrium temperature reached will depend on the balance
between the solar energy captured by the panel and the thermal energy
absorbed in the storage tank, the rate at which it is withdrawn from the tank and
the system heat losses. Using a very small panel coupled to a very large tank
with high hot water usage will result in a low water temperature in the tank.
Conversely using a very large panel with a very small tank could result in boiling,
 particulaly if the hot water usage is very low. This need not be a disaster since
the water content in the panel is very low and system could be designed to allow
the steam to vent in case of boiling.
 Efficiency
Energy conversion efficiencies achieved in these pure thermal applications may
be three or four times the efficiency of photovoltaic applications though their
applications are much more limited.
 Economics
In higher latitudes the available solar energy captured by practical domestic
installations may be sufficient to provide hot water for washing and showering
but not enough to supply building space heating requirements during the colder
months. Back-up heating systems will consequently be needed to cater for the
base load to satisfy these requirements. Because the supply of solar energy is
intermittent, the conventional heating system must fill in the gaps and there is
little opportunity to downsize it. The householder will therefore, most likely have
to pay the capital costs of a base load system capable of supplying the full
heating load as well as the solar heating system even though the conventional
heating system will not be working at full capacity most of the time.
Domestic solar thermal systems may not generate electricity directly but they do
contribute to a reduction in the use of electrical energy and its associated costs.
 Example
Useful Energy Captured
The table above shows that in the UK, the average solar radiation received is
about 2.5 kWh / M2 / day. A single solar panel with an area of 3 M 2 will
therefore capture 2.5 x 3 x 365 = 2737 kWh of energy per year. With a
system conversion efficiency of around 40% and less than optimal orientation
of a typical rooftop mounted solar panel, the maximum usable energy
received by a single panel system will be around 1000 kWh. This is roughly
equivalent to the energy supplied by a 3 kW immersion heater used for one
hour per day. As always however, averages can be misleading. In the
summer, the solar panel could deliver an "average" of about 5 kWh of heating
energy per day, but in the winter this could be as low as 0.4 kWh per day.
The energy captured can of course always be increased by increasing the
number of solar panels employed in the system.
Cost Savings
The cost saving will depend on whether the solar system is replacing 1000
kWh of heating energy supplied by a gas or an electric water heating system
and the associated tarriff charged for the energy. With UK domestic gas
currently costing less than £0.03 per kWh ($0. 045) and electricity costing
about £0.10 per kWh ($0.15) the annual savings are likely to be somehwere
between £30 and £100 ($50 to $150).
Since typical single panel installations cost around £2,500 or £3,000 ($4,000
to $5,000), unless the systems qualify for a government subsidy or there is a
 very large increase in energy costs, the payback time for the investment will
be measured in decades rather than years. Saving the planet can be quite
expensive.
Carbon Footprints
As with wind power, if the investment fails the conventional economic tests,
the notion of carbon footprints is often used to jusify the expense, based on
the potential for reducing the amount of greenhouse gases emitted by
alternative methods of power generation.
 
See also Domestic Solar PV System Economics below.
 
Solar Power Generation (Voltaic)
Solar voltaic power generation is the direct conversion of solar energy into electricity.
Sunlight comes in many colours, combining low-energy (1.1 electronVolts (eV))
infrared photons with high-energy (3.5 eV) ultraviolet photons and all the rainbow of
visible-light photons in between. Solar cells, also called photovoltaic or PV cells, are
semiconductor devices designed to capture these photons and convert their energy
directly into electrical energy.
 
How Solar Cells Work
When a photon with sufficient energy impinges upon a semiconductor it can transfer
enough energy to a electron to free it from the bonds of the semiconductor's valence
band so that it is free to move and thus carry an electric current. The junction in a
semiconductor diode provides the necessary electric field to cause the current to flow in
an external circuit.
A more detailed explanation of how solar cells work is given in the section
on photovoltaic diodes.
 
Conversion Efficiencies
The typical output voltage of a PV cell is between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts and the energy
conversion efficiency ranges from less than 10% to over 20%. An array of cells can
therefore generate about 200 Watts of electrical power per square metre when
illuminated by solar radiation of 1000 Watts per square metre. The corresponding
current density will be about 400 Amps/m2. Because of climatic conditions the intensity
of the insolation rarely reaches 1000 W/m 2.
Practical cells are also much smaller than one square meter with actual sizes of
commercially available cells ranging from about one centimetre square to 15
centimetres square. The corresponding output Wattages for these cells range from 20
milliWatts to about 4 Watts.
 
Solar PV systems are amongst the least efficient ways of generating electricity,
(see Efficiency Comparison Table), but this poor performance is not just due to the low
PV conversion efficiency of the cells which is improved year by year by ongoing
research and development. It is mainly due to the lack of available sunshine, and no
amount of R&D can improve that.
 
A PV conversion effifiency of 15% may appear to be very low, but it is on a par with
the "well to wheel" conversion efficiency of the energy used to power a gasoline/petrol
driven automobile.
 
PV Cell and Module Ratings
 Standard Test Conditions (STC)
In order to compare solar cells on a like for like basis a set of Standard Test
Conditions (STC) has been defined.
The conditions are: Normal Irradiance of 1000 W/m2, Cell Temperature 25 °C (77 °F)
and Air Mass =1.5
 Air Mass
The receiving surface corresponding to AM 1.5 is defined as an inclined plane at 37°
tilt (the average latitude in the USA) toward the equator, facing the sun. In this case,
the surface normal points to the sun, at an elevation of 48.81°, its zenith angle,
above the horizon.
 Rated Power
Rated Power is defined as the maximum power (Wp or kWp) generated by the cell
or module under the Standard Test Conditions.
 
Alternative PV Cell Rating
The STC laboratory test conditions are not truly representative of typical open air
operating conditions and for this reason a more realistic set of test
conditions, NOCT, was developed.
 Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)
Normal Irradiance 800 W/m2, Air Temperature 20°C (68°F), Wind Velocity (cooling)
of 1 meter per second (2.24 miles per hour), with the rear side of the solar panel
open to the air flow.
 Air Mass and Rated Power similar to STC
 
Interpretation and Application of the STC and NOCT Ratings.
The following is an example of key data taken from a reputable manufacturer's
specification sheet for a 250 Watt solar panel.
 Information provided:
STC rating 250 Wp
NOCT raring 183.3 Wp
Cell dimensions 156 mm X 156 mm
Number of cells 60
No mention of the area
No mention of conversion efficiency
 What does this mean in practice
 The STC and NOCT ratings are the power outputs achieved under test
conditions.
 The test conditions are designed to represent the maximum solar energy
which could be received under ideal conditions.
 In practice you will never achieve these power outputs from sunlight
 The STC and NOCT ratings assume a constant high level of
irradiance (1000 W/m2or 800 W/m2). These are simply different standard
input power levels used for the tests, thus any cell will normally generate a
larger output power under STC conditions compared with NOTC conditions.
 Outside of the tropics, the irradiance from the Sun at ground level
on typical solar panels will rarely even approach these test levels.
 The insolation which is the average effect of the Sun's irradiance,
taking into account, the hourly, daily, and seasonal variations as well as
latitude and local climate conditions, will be much lower than the test
irradiance. The NREL maps on the Going Solar page indicate the expected
regional insolation levels.The consequence is that the average solar energy
intercepted by the panels will be very small and the corresponding electrical
energy output from the panels will also be very small.
 The actual solar energy captured also depends on the configuration
of the solar panels and whether they are able to track the Sun during its path
across the sky.
  What will be the average electrical power output from the above "250
Watt" solar panel?
It depends on the location and the type of solar array and the conversion
efficiency of the solar PV cells. Assuming a fixed solar array located in the North
East of the USA, facing South and tilted towards the Sun at an angle
corresponding to the latitude of the site, the NREL map shows that the insolation
is around 4 kWh/m2/day. In the sunnier South West the insolation will be about
50% more at 6 kWh/m2/day which translates directly into 50% more electrical
output power from the same solar panels.
 
The 60 cell solar panel has an effective area of 60 X 0.156m 2 = 1.46 m2
In the North East this panel will therefore intercept 1.46 X 4 = 5.84 kWh of solar
energy per day.
This insolation is equivalent to a constant (average) solar power of 5840 / 24 =
243.3 Watts during the 24 hour day.
The conversion efficiency of the solar cells is calculated from the manufacturer's
specified electrical power output achieved from the NOCT specified power input.
The energy intercepted by the 1.46 m2 panel under NOCT conditions will be 1.46
X 800 = 1168 Watts
The specified electrical output power from the panel is 183.3 Watts
Thus the conversion efficiency = 183.3 / 1168 X100 = 15.7%
 Applying this conversion efficiency to the actual insolation of 243.3 Watts gives
an average electrical power output from the panel of 243.3 X 0.157 = 38.2 Watts
(This corresponds to an electrical output of 26.2 W / m 2)
 
Not bad for a solar panel rated at 250 Watts?!
 
Solar Cell Operating Characteristics
The graph below shows that with constant irradiance the output voltage of a cell or an
array of cells falls as it is called upon to deliver more current.

 
Maximum power delivery occurs the voltage has dropped to about 80% of open circuit
voltage voltage.
The Fill Factor (FF) is defined as the ratio between the power at the maximum power
point and the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. It is typically
better than 75% for good quality solar cells.
 
The short circuit (SC) current is directly related
to the number of photons absorbed by the
semiconducting material and is thus
proportional to light intensity.
The conversion efficiency is therefore
reasonably constant so that the power output is
proportional to the irradiance down to fairly low
levels, however the efficiency is reduced if the
cell temperature is allowed to rise.
The open circuit (OC) voltage varies only
slightly with light intensity.
As temperature increases, the band gap of the
intrinsic semiconductor shrinks, and the open
circuit voltage (Voc) decreases.
At the same time, the lower band gap allows
more incident energy to be absorbed because a
greater percentage of the incident light has
enough energy to raise charge carriers from the
valence band to the conduction band. A larger
photocurrent results. As the temperature is
raised however, the internal resistance of the
material increases and the electrical
conductivity decreases.
The increase in the current for a given
temperature rise is thus proportionately lower
than the decrease in voltage. Hence the
efficiency of the cell is reduced.
 
Solar Cell Efficiency
The following graphs show the same information as those above but in a slightly
different form showing how increased temperature reduces the efficiency.
 

 
Typically, PV cell power output reduces by about 0.5% with every degree Celsius
increase in temperature.
In real outdoor conditions the rated peak power Wp is seldom achieved, since module
temperature usually is more in the range of 40°C - 60°C. Efficiency can be improved by
cooling the cells and some systems have been designed to make use of the heat
absorbed by the cooling fluid in solar heating applications.
NOTE: A hot sunny day is a double-edged sword for a PV cell. Even though the
conversion efficiency goes down as the cell heats up, the overall power collected may
go up due to the increase in sunlight on the cell.
 
Solar Cell Types
Several types of solar cells have been developed with the aims of reducing costs and
improving efficiencies.
 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Benefiting from the manufacturing experience of the semiconductor industry,
crystalline silicon is the leading solar cell material, though still relatively expensive.
Monocrystalline cells are cut from single crystals of high purity electronics grade
silicon. These cells are about 25 percent efficient at best. Using the easier to
manufacture polycrystalline silicon cut from from a block of crystals or less pure, so
called "solar grade" silicon, efficiencies may be only about 15% or 16% due to the
effect of grain boundaries or impurities but they cost a fraction of single crystal
electronics grade cells.
 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
Amorphous Silicon has been employed for many years in the manufacture the solar
cells used for powering electronic calculators and watches and promises the
possibility of low cost, higher power cells. Amorphous material appears like a solid
but has no regular crystal lattice structure. Glass is an example of such materials.
The presence of controlled quantities of certain "impurity" elements such as
hydrogen and the random crystal lattice formation actually enhance the otherwise
very low conversion efficiency. Typical cell efficiencies range from 5% to 10%.
Manufacturing yield is still a problem and the cells suffer from degradation when
exposed to the sun.
 Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells
Thin film cells are made by depositing the active photovoltaic material, such as
amorphous silicon or other semiconductor onto a glass or other substrate together
with the necessary current collecting contacts. The cell construction is much less
costly than using semiconductor wafers and the manufacturing process is also
simpler as well as being suitable for making cells with a much larger area and hence
current carrying capability. Efficiencies of 11% to 14% have been achieved with this
construction.
PV systems on flexible polymer substrates have also been made using Copper
Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) active material with efficiencies of 10%.
 Organic PV Solar Cells
Intensive research is being carried out by various teams on the use of organic
semiconductors in the construction of PV cells. Devices can be fabricated by means
of a printing process from single or double layer organic polymer films sandwiched
between a pair of electrodes. Manufacturing does not involve the high energy
consumption associated with crystalline semi conductors and brings the possibility of
high volume, low cost products printed onto flexible films. Currently, conversion
efficiencies are rather low at around 12% but this is expected to improve.
 Multi Layer (Tandem) Solar Cells
Better conversion efficiencies are possible by using multiple layers of differing
semiconductor materials, optimised for different wavelengths, in a single device.
 This can raise the theoretical efficiency limit, currently about 30% for a single
junction device, to about 45% for a three junction cell.
Efficiencies of over 33% have already been achieved in practical devices.
 Exotic Materials
Materials such as Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Diselenide, Cadmium Telluride
and Indium Nitride have been employed to provide particular characteristics to
optimise solar cells for specific applications.
Gallium Arsenide is used for military and aerospace applications in a variety of cells
in combination with other elements because of it's suitability for capturing high
energy photons (ultra violet radiation), high potential conversion efficiency and its
ability to withstand high temperatures. It is however more difficult to manufacture
and cells using Gallium Arsenide can be 100 times more expensive than commercial
silicon based cells.
Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride are used in polycrystalline form in
low cost thin film cells because of their ease of manufacture and reasonable yields.
Efficiencies are however low ranging from 8% to 14%
Indium Nitride is suitable for capturing low energy photons (infra red radiation)
making it suitable for full spectrum devices when used in tandem solar cells in
combination with other materials such as Gallium Arsenide which capture the high
energy photons.
 Electrochemical Solar Cells - Dye Sensitised Solar Cells (DSSC or Grätzel
Cells)
Relatively new, these cells are low cost devices which use dye sensitised Titanium
dioxide in combination with a liquid electrolyte to generate the current. Up to now
they are only available in small sizes with efficiencies between 7% and 10%.
 
Solar PV Collectors
Solar cells are usually sold in modules built up from a number of cells arranged in series
and / or parallel to provide convenient or commonly used voltages and power ratings.
Solar Arrays
Modules can be similarly interconnected to create larger arrays with the desired peak
DC voltage and current.
 
Concentrators
As with thermal collectors, concentration of the incident energy on to a smaller surface
is possible. For very small applications, optical mirrors and lenses are used.
 
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
A power source will deliver its maximum power to a load when the load has the same
impedance as the internal impedance of the power source. (Jacobi's Law).
Unfortunately, batteries are far from the ideal load for a solar array and the mismatch
results in major efficiency losses.
A typical PV array designed to charge 12 Volt batteries delivers its maximum power at
an operating voltage around 17 Volts. Lead Acid batteries are normally charged up to
14 Volts though the voltage quickly drops to 12 Volts as they start to deliver current and
lower still as the depth of discharge (DOD) increases. 
In its simplest form, charging is carried out by connecting the PV array directly across
the battery. The battery however is a power source itself and presents an opposing
voltage to the PV array. This pulls the operating voltage of the array down to the voltage
of the discharged battery and this is far from the optimum operating point of the array.

The diagram below shows the performance of a17 Volt, 4.4 Amp, 75 Watt PV array
used to top up a 12 Volt battery. If the actual battery voltage is 12 Volts, the resulting
current will only be about 2.5 Amps and the power delivered by the array will be just
over 50 Watts rather than the specified 75 Watts: an efficiency loss of over 30%.
Maximum Power Point Tracking is designed to overcome this problem.
 

 
The power tracker module is a form of voltage regulator which is placed between the PV
array and the battery. It presents an ideal load to the PV array allowing it to operate at
its optimum voltage, in this case 17 Volts, delivering its full 75 Watts regardless of the
battery voltage. A variable DC/DC converter in the module automatically adjusts the DC
output from the module to match the battery voltage of 12 Volts.
As the voltage is stepped down in the DC/DC converter, the current will be stepped up
in the same ratio. Thus the charging current will be 17/12 X 4.4 = 6.2 Amps and,
assuming no losses in the module, the power delivered to the battery will be 12 X 6.23 =
the full 75 Watts generated by the PV array.
In practice the converter losses could be as high as 10%. Nevertheless a substantial
efficiency improvement is possible.
 
It is not enough however to match the voltage at the specified maximum power point
(MPP) of the PV array to the varying battery voltage as the battery charges up. Due to
changes in the intensity of the radiation falling on the array during the day as well as to
changes in the ambient temperature, the operating characteristic of the PV array is
constantly changing and with it the MPP of the PV also changes. Thus we have a
moving reference point and a moving target. For optimum power transfer, the system
needs to track the MPP as the solar intensity and ambient temperature changes in order
to provide a dynamic reference point to the voltage regulator.

High performance MPPT modules may incorporate software algorithms to take account
of the variations in insolation and temperature. A typical job for fuzzy logic or a neural
network. Alternatively the optimisation can be accomplished in hardware by means of a
perturbation signal incorporated in a feedback loop which drives the system operating
point to the MPP.
A small dither voltage is superimposed on the PV voltage and its affect on the regulator
output current feeding the battery is monitored. If the current drawn by the battery
increases when the dither voltage increases, then the operating point has moved
towards the MPP and therefore, the operating voltage must be increased in the same
direction. On the other hand, if the current into the battery decreases, then the operating
point has moved away from the MPP and the the operating voltage must be decreased
to bring it back.
 
Large Scale Photovoltaic Plants
Several large scale grid connected PV power plants have been constructed throughout
the world, mostly of 300 kW to 500 kW capacity but some as high as 300MW or more.
Up to now deployment of large scale plants has been limited to experimental
installations because of the high cost of the solar panels. With typical efficiencies of
around 15%, a 500 kW plant will need around 20,000 square metres of PV panels
costing about $1.00 per Watt as well as large scale inverters capable of handling the full
system power output. See an example of a Grid Scale Solar PV System.
 
Small Scale Photovoltaic Plants and Domestic Applications
The diagram below shows the basic building blocks of a small stand-alone off-grid PV
power generating system. A grid connected system would not need the battery and
MPPT power tracking system. They do however need alternative capacity to come on
stream to carry the load during the hours of darkness.
 
 
Photovoltaic System Dimensioning
 
 Array sizes for Photovoltaic System
The following example show the array sizes necessary to generate 10 kWh of
usable energy with an average daily insolation of 2 kWh/m 2/day. Note that the
results are heavily dependent on the efficiency assumptions used.
Needless to say the array must not be shaded by objects such as trees or buildings.
 
 Example
Energy received per unit area = Insolation X Solar conversion efficiency.
Thus:
The area required for a given energy capture = Energy required ÷ ( Insolation at
the desired location X Solar conversion efficiency)
Using an efficient (expensive) photovoltaic array with a conversion efficiency of
15% the area of the array will be:
10÷(2 X 0.15) = 33.3 m2
Insolation data is usually provided for the energy falling on a flat surface. By
tilting the array to an angle corresponding to the latitude of the location, an extra
10% of energy can be captured reducing the area required to 30 m 2. See the
diagram showing Array Orientation
This advantage will be lost however if the array is to be mounted on a roof which
is not optimally aligned towards the Sun.
If the array is free standing on the ground, and not constrained to be used on a
roof, a solar tracking system can be used to enable more of the Sun's energy to
be captured. A 30% improvement is possible reducing the required array area to
about 21 m2
 
Note that the PV array output is DC electrical power.
To provide AC power there would be further electrical losses of 10% to 20% in
the voltage regulator, inverter and control circuits.
  
 Grid-connected Systems
Assuming 20 % electrical system losses, a fixed PV array with an area of
around 36 m2, or a solar tracking PV array of 25 m2 would be required to
provide 10 kWh of AC power per day.
 
 Stand Alone Systems
Off-grid systems are subject to the same performance parameters as grid-
connected systems however since they also use battery storage they suffer
from an extra efficiency loss of up to 30% due to the back emf of the battery.
Unless an MPPT tracking system is used to reduce these losses the array
would have to be 30% bigger to compensate. Thus to provide the same 10
kWh of AC power per day in a stand-alone system, the required PV array
area would have to be 47 m2 for a fixed installation and 33 m2 for a solar
tracking system.
 
Electricity consumption in many households in Europe and the USA is 2 or 3
times more than 10 kWh per day, particularly for those willing to invest in solar
PV electricity generation. (See Energy Demand Table). This implies that very
large PV arrays with areas up to 150 m2 or more, probably larger than the
available South facing roof surface, would be needed to satisfy their energy
demands.
 
All of the above is based on an average insolation of 2 kWh/m 2/day, but in
northern temperate zones the winter insolation is likely to be less than a quarter
of the average for the location. See the table for Energy Availability and Energy
Captureabove. Thus the available energy will be only 2.5 kWh/day during the
winter months or the systems would need to be four times bigger in order to
supply the same 10 kWh/day of electrical energy in the winter.
 
Domestic Solar PV System Economics
Example
 Costs
According to the UK Government Energy Saving Trust, the costs for installing a
solar PV system vary greatly. An average domestic system is quite small
generating around 2.2 kWp and costs around £12,000 ($18,000). Larger solar
electricity systems can cost in the region of £4,500 ($7,000) to £8,000 ($12,000)
per kWp, reducing slightly as the system size increases.
 Benefits
A 2.2 kWp system only delivers the full 2.2 kW of power under Standard Test
Conditions of 1000 W/m2 insolation. It would generate 52.8 kWH (52.8 Units) of
electricity per day if the Sun was directly overhead and shining constantly day
and night. But the table above shows that the average insolation in the UK is
 only about 2.5 kWh/m2/day. This is equivalent to 2.5 hours of full Sun
(see EHS above) per day, not 24 hours. Thus the actual electrical energy output
from the PV system in the UK will be about 5.5 kWh per day or 2,000 kWh per
year.
 Payback
Buying 2,000 kWh of electrical energy from the local utility company would cost
£200 ($300) with the curent costs of electricity at £0.10 ($0.15) per unit. Ignoring
maintenance costs, this gives a payback period of sixty years.
Fortunately, many governments provide generous grants to subsidise the
installation and/or operation of solar power systems thus reducing the capital
outlay and decreasing the investment payback time.
  Selling surplus energy back to the utility company
The average UK household consumes about 5,000 kWh of electrical energy per
year or around 14 units per day. The likelihood of a domestic installation as
described above having regular surpluses is quite remote.
Furthermore, feeding electrical energy back into the grid involves the obligatory
installation of additional, costly metering and safety systems as well as
synchronisation electronics so that this option is only economically justifiable for
installations with relatively large surplusses.
 
Beware when the solar panel salesman comes knocking!
 
See also economics and practicality of Grid Scale Solar PV Systems
 
See also Domestic Solar Heating and a comparison of Electricity Generating
Costs for different fuels.
 
 Balance of System (BOS) Components
The associated BOS components needed to complete the system are described in
the section on Small Scale Systems.
 
 Other PV System Considerations
Converting the direct current output of the PV array to alternating current is both
costly and inefficient. Some of this cost and waste can be avoided by using
household appliances designed to run on DC power where they are available.
Similarly it is not sensible to run heaters from PV systems.
 
 
Solar energy may be free, but converting it into electrical energy is not.