H. R. Vallentine (Auth.) - Applied Hydrodynamics-Springer US (1967) PDF

APPLIED HYDRODYNAMICS
APPLIED
HYDRODYNAMICS
H. R. VALLENTINE
Professor of Civil Engineering

University of Newcastle, New South Wales
SECOND EDITION
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

1967
First published by
Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd.
First Edition, 1959

Second lmpression, 1961
Third Impression, 1963
Fourth Impression, 1965
Second Edition, 1967
©
Springer Science+Business Media New York
1967
Original1y published by Butterworth & Co. (Pub1ishers) Ltd. in 1967.
Library ofCongress Catalog Gard number 67-29085

Set in M onotype Baskerville type
London and Colchester
ISBN 978-1-4899-6270-6 ISBN 978-1-4899-6586-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-6586-8
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1967
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The continuing demand for this book by students of Engineering,

Science and Applied Mathematics appears to justify this new edition.
In its general revision, numerous minor changes have been made to
the text, a new chapter devoted to Vortex Motion has been added
and Chapters 4 and 5 have been extended by the inclusion of treat-
ment of the Method of Images and its applications. The tr~atment
of some aspects of the flow of real fluids in Chapter 2 is purposely
brief since it is assumed that the Engineering and Science students,
for whom the chapter is primarily intended, will have had an
introduction to fluid mechanics.
This edition incorporates a number of suggestions made by re-
viewers and by colleagues in various countries, to all of whom the
author is particularly grateful.
Newcastle H. R. vALLENTINE
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
DEVELOPMENTS over the past few decades in the science of fluid
mechanics have provided scientists and engineers with the means of
predicting the behaviour of fluids with a precision far greater than
was considered possible at the turn of the century. In particular, the
principles and methods of classical hydrodynamics, once neglected
as unpractical, have been shown to be usefully applicable, within
defined limits, to many practical flow problems. The study of this
branch of applied mathematics provides not only a broad funda-
mental basis for the scientist's and the engineer's knowledge of fluid
mechanics, but also the means of attacking problems of flow in two,
and in many instances, three dimensions.
This book is intended for use in universities as an introduction to
Hydrodynamics for students of Applied Mathematics, and as a
course in Fluid Dynamics for senior and post-graduate students in
Civil, Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering. In lts _(lpproach
to the subject, the book has a bias towards practical application and,
in this respect, it differs from those established hydrodynamic works
which are essentially mathematical treatises. For the student who
finds difficulty in mastering mathematical abstractions, particular
attention has been paid to the provision of detailed physical ex-
planations of such concepts as stream function, potential function
and conformal transformation, as a prelude to the more formal
mathematical treatment of these topics.
The practical approach has made it seem desirable to depart from
the tradition of hydrodynamics texts in other ways. Since the object
is to demonstrate the methods of adapting non-viscous flow theory
to the analysis of real, or viscous, fluid flow, it is necessary that the
student be forewarned regarding possible sources of error· in the
application of the methods. For this reason, following upon the
presentation of the fundamentals of non-viscous flow in Chapter 1,
there is provided, in Chapter 2, a brief description of the distinguish-
ing characteristics of real fluid flow and of the exact and approximate
methods available for its analysis. The chapter provides a justifi-
cation for the application of the methods of classical hydrodynamics
under certain conditions and defines, in general terms, the permissible
limits of such application.
Other departures from tradition are evident in the presentation of
the subject-matter chapter by chapter as a series of more or less
vii
PREFACE
alternative methods of approach; the inclusion of the useful yet

simple methods of graphical and numerical analysis; and the order
of presentation, which has been so arranged that, for Engineering
students, the first three chapters are suitable for inclusion in under-
graduate lecture courses in Fluid Mechanics whilst the balance of
the book can be used in elective, honours or graduate courses; for
Mathematics and Science students, a selection can be made of those
chapters appropriate to their particular courses of study.
The book is based upon the author's courses oflectures in Hydro-
dynamics presented over the past five years to final year and graduate
students in Civil Engineering at the University of New South Wales.
Material has been drawn from numerous sources as the reference
lists show, but particular acknowledgment is made to Lamb's
Hydrodynamics (Cambridge University Press, 1932), Streeter's Fluid
Dynamics (McGraw-Hill, 1948), to the lectures on Hydrodynamics
given in 1952 at the Iowa Institute ofHydraulic Research of the State
University oflowa by Professor C. S. Yih and to the various published
works of the Director of that Institute, Professor Hunter Rouse.
The author is particularly grateful to his colleagues, Professor
L. C. Woods, Professor A. S. Hall, Mr. P. S. Barna and to fellow
members of the staff of the University's Hydraulic Research Station
for many valuable suggestions.
H. R. VALLENTINE
Sydney
viii
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION v
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION • vii
1. FLOW OF AN IDEAL FLUID
Introduction. Fluid properties, viscosity; the ideal fluid.
Pressure at a point. Equation of continuity. Boundary con-
ditions. Streamlines. Two-dimensional flow patterns. Rota-
tional and irrotational flow, rotation, vorticity. Stream
functions, definition and properties. Velocity potential func-
tions; definition and properties; use of polar co-:ordinates.
Flow nets; definition and characteristics. Euler's equations of
motion. The Bernoulli equation, general and restricted forms.
Velocity and pressure distributions; the effect of gravity; piezo-
metric head; flow with a free surface. Energy considerations;
non-viscous flow; irrotational flow; irrotational flow theorems.
Determination of flow patterns.
2. FLOW OF A REAL FLUID • 55
The effects of viscosity; laminar and turbulent flow. Laininar
flow; pressure at a point; the Navier-Stokes equations, exact
solutions, approximate solutions for flows at low and at high
Reynolds numbers. Turbulent flow and the boundary layer;
laininar and turbulent boundary layers, boundary layer thick-
ness, pressure distribution along a boundary. Velocities in the
boundary layer; the laininar sub-layer, the Karman-Prandtl
equations for flow past smooth and rough boundaries. Bound-
ary layer separation, streamlining, submerged and free surfaces
'of separation. The Bernoulli equation in real fluid flow. Flow
pattern analysis.
3. GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS, NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND
ExPERIMENTAL ANALOGIES 77
Graphical flow nets; principle; method ofconstruction; seepage
flow nets, confined and unconfined flow. Numerical analysis;
principle; method. Experimental analogies; the membrane
analogy; the electrical analogy; theviscous flow analogy.
4. STANDARD PATTERNS OF FLOW. 102
Uniform flow. Source. Irrotational vortex; circulation.
Doublet. Graphical addition of patterns. Source and sink.
Vortex pair. Source and vortex-spiral flow. Source and uni-
form flow-flow past a half-body. Doublet and uniform flow-
flow past a cylinder; virtual mass. Doublet, vortex and uniform
I* ix
CONTENTS
flow-flow past a cylinder with circulation; Magnus effect;

coefficient of lift. Source, sink and uniform flow-flow past a
Rankine body. Method of images.
5. CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-I 136

Complex numbers. Operations with complex numbers. Func-
tions of a complex variable. Analytic functions; singularities;
the Cauchy-Riemann equations; complex potential. Signifi-
cance of dw/dz: (I) The complex operator; (2) The complex
velocity. Inverse transformations. Successive transformations.
Some simple transformations: ( 1) Uniform flow. (2) (i) Source
at z=a; (ii) Vortex at z=a; (iii) Spiral vortex at z=a.
(3) Doublet. (4) Source and sink. (5) Flow at a wall angle.
(6) Flow through an aperture. (7) Flow into a rectangular
channel. (8) Flow past a cylinder: (i) without circulation;
(ii) with circulation. Transformations of the circle, J oukowski
profiles. ( 1) Flow parallel to a flat plate. (2) Flow normal to a
flat plate. (3) Flow past an ellipse. (4) Flow past a streamlined
strut. (5) Flow past a circular arc. (6) Flow past an aerofoil.
Lift of an infinite aerofoil; Joukowski's hypothesis. Use of
images.
6. CoNFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-I! }89

Simple closed polygons. The Schwarz-Christoffel theorem.
Semi-infinite and infinite strips. Flow out of the end of a chan-
nel. Flow out of the side of a channel. Flow past a flat plate
without separation. Flow into a rectangular channel. Free
streamline theory. Flow through a plane slot. Flow through
a 90° slot. Flow through a nozzle. Borda's mouthpiece. Flow
past a flat plate with separation.
7. THREE-DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL FLOW . 231

Introduction. Equation of continuity in cartesian, cylindrical
and spherical co-ordinates. Stokes's Stream Function for axi-
symmetric flow; relationship between ,P and Q; irrotational
flow equations. Velocity potential function for three-dimen-
sional flow; axisymmetric flow. Standard flow patterns; uni-
form flow, source, doublet, line source. Source and uniform
flow-flow past a half-body. Doublet and uniform flow-flow
past a sphere. Source, sink and uniform flow-flow past a
Rankine body. Source, line sink and uniform flow-flow past
a streamlined body. Numerical analysis.
8. VoRTEX MoTio::>~ . 256

Introduction. Circulation and vorticity; vortex lines and
tubes; persistence of vortex strength; vortex sheet; vortex
street; motion due to two-dimensional vortices; vortex rings;
the finite wing.
X
CONTENTS
APPENDIX A The Theorems of Green, Stokes, Cauchy and

Blasius . 274
APPENDIX B A summary of trigonometric, exponential and
hyperbolic functions 286
APPENDIX C A summary of hydrodynamic equations for
incompressible non-viscous flow 289
INDEX • 293
xi
1
FLOW OF AN IDEAL FLUID
1.1 Introduction
HYDRAULIC and aerodynamic engineering analysis and design
involve predictions of patterns of fluid motion and of fluid forces
associated with those patterns. The selection of the appropriate
method for making the predictions is determined by the nature of
the particular problem and by the precision desired. In some cases
the task is quite simple, as, for example, the precise determination,
by the principles of hydrostatics, of pressure forces exerted by a
stationary body of water. Certain cases of viscous flow can be solved,
either precisely or with negligible error, by means of the viscous flow
equations due to Navier and Stokes. In the great majority of fluid
flow problems, however, precise analytical determinations of forces
and .velocities are not possible, owing to the complex effects upon
the flow of fluid viscosity. In such cases, recourse must be had to
simplifying assumptions in order that approximate analytical solu-
tions may be obtained.
The simplest and most common approximation is the method of
analysis in one dimension, which yields entirely adequate solutions
to many problems requiring the determination of total forces rather
than pressure distributions, or of average velocities rather than
velocity distributions. In a one-dimensional analysis, velocities and
pressures are assumed to vary with distance only in the general
direction of flow, and mean values of the velocity on planes normal
to this flow direction are adopted for purposes of calculation. On
these planes, velocity variations due to the effects of viscosity and to
changes in boundary alignment are ignored (Fig. 1.1).
Pressure and velocity distributions in general cannot be determined
by means of the one-dimensional approach. In certain cases, they
can be determined with good precision by analysis in two or three
dimensions and, where such methods are inadequate, laboratory
model tests must be undertaken.
Most analytical approaches are based upon the methods of
classical hydrodynamics, the branch of applied mathematics which
treats of the perfect or ideal fluid. This hypothetical fluid is, by
definition, incompressible and non-viscous, so that it experiences no
shearing stresses and its elements in contact with solid boundaries
l
slip tangentially, without resistance, along those boundaries. The

fluid force on any element of the boundary surface is normal to that
surface.
In the case of motion of a real fluid, shearing stresses are always
present and there is no slip at the boundary. The fluid particles in
contact with the boundary adhere to it and have no tangential
motion along it. These fundamental differences between ideal and
real fluids with respect to slip and shear stresses account for the
divergence of theoretical predictions from experimental fact in many
cases of real fluid flow. According to the ordinary theory of ideal
fluid flow, for example, a body which moves through a fluid ofinfinite
extent experiences no drag force (d'Alembert's paradox). In a real
fluid, the condition of no slip between the surface of the body and the
1"111~.
f::::
---::r-
~Turbulent flow 4~
~;,.,."'"""""~ Irrotabonal flow
(a) (b)
Figure J.J-Velocity distribution in a two-dimensional contraction.
(a) Irrotational flow and turbulent flow, (b) one-dimensional
approximation
fluid elements in contact with it, and the existence of viscous tan-
gential stresses in the neighbouring fluid layers together account for
the ever-present drag on the moving body.
There are, nevertheless, many practical problems in fluid
dynamics which can be solved with fair precision by the methods
of classical hydrodynamics, in particular, by the potential flow
theory. They include such cases as the distributions of velocity and
pressure around the leading portions of streamlined objects and in
flow in converging passages, the form and motion of surface waves on
a liquid, the profiles offree jets and weir nappes, pressure distributions
resulting from impulsive actions (prior to the occurrence of appreci-
able fluid motion) and, paradoxically for an ideal fluid theory, certain
classes of essentially viscous motion, such as percolation through
granular materials.
A sound appreciation of the possibilities and limitations of classical
hydrodYIJamic theory as a practical engineering design tool requires
a knowledge of elementary hydraulics, which it is assumed the reader
2
FLUID PROPERTIES
possesses, and some familiarity with modern developments in the

science of the mechanics of fluids. Therefore, following the treatment
of the fundamentals of ideal fluid flow in this chapter, attention is
directed, in the next, to the characteristics of real fluid flow which
distinguish it to a greater or lesser extent from ideal fluid flow. The
remainder of the book is devoted to patterns of ideal fluid flow and
methods of predicting those patterns, and it should be read with the
nature of real fluid flow borne in the mind, so that the possibilities
and limitations of ideal flow theory as a practical design approach
may be assessed correctly.
1.2 Fluid properties
A fluid is a material which flows. Its capacity to flow, which
distinguishes it from a solid, results from the fact that its particles
can be readily displaced under the action of shearing stres~es. Like
solids, the fluids known as the liquids offer considerable resistance to
compression and tensile stresses but all fluids deform readily and
continuously under the action of a shearing stress, so long as that ·
stress operates. If the rate of shear deformation is small, the fluid
offers negligible resistance. With increased rates of deformation, it
offers an increased resistance, which disappears, howe\rer, once the
deforming motion ceases. The resistance arises from the existence of
viscosity in the fluid.
A Newtonian fluid is one in which the shearing stress, in one
directional flow, is proportional to the rate of deformation as meas-
ured by the velocity gradient across the flow. Thus,
du
T = /L- •. • • (1.1)
dy
where -r is the shearing stress in the x-direction on planes normal to
they-axis; u is the velocity in the x-direction, varying only withy;
and IL• the constant of proportionality, is the dynamic viscosity or
coefficient of viscosity, which for any particular fluid varies sig-
nificantly only with change in temperature (Fig. 1.2). The common
fluids, such as air, water and light petroleum oils, are Newtonian
fluids. Non-Newtonian fluids, whose behaviour does not conform
to Eq. 1.1, are not usually met in engineering practice and will not
be considered further.
A liquid is a fluid which, at a given temperature, occupies a
definite volume which is little affected by change in pressure.
Poured into a stationary container, the liquid will occupy the lower
part of the container and form a free level surface. In most hydraulic
calculations, liquids can be regarded as incompressible. In fact,
3
under many conditions, it is convenient and reasonable to regard

even a gas such as atmospheric air as incompressible, provided that
the velocities involved are small compared with the velocity of sound
in the gas.
The mathematical approach to the study of fluid flow is greatly
simplified if attention is restricted to a hypothetical 'ideal', or
'perfect' fluid, which is assumed to possess zero viscosity. In common
with real fluids, it has density and it flows, but it offers no resistance
to shearing deformations so that there can be no shear stress in an
ideal fluid. It is assumed to exhibit no surface tension effects and it
does not vaporize, so that cavitation, or the formation oflow pressure
vapour pockets, does not occur. The density of the fluid and the
!Y!..-
dx-
0 dp -ve
dx
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2-Relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient in one-<lirec-
tional flow between parallel plates. (a) One plate moving in its own plane, zero
pressure gradient, (b) both plates fixed, negative pressure gra<lient
pressure, velocity and acceleration, if they vary with position, are

assumed to vary continuously from point to point, except possibly at
isolated points, lines or surfaces of discontinuity, which are called
' singularities'.
The characteristics of the flow of an ideal fluid in many cases
resemble those of real fluid flow and the simplified mathematical
approach yields useful practical results. In this chapter the funda-
mentals of ideal fluid flow are investigated. In the next chapter
attention is directed to the modifying effects of viscosity and the
resulting limitations of the ideal fluid flow theory in its application
to real fluid flow.
1.3 Pressure at a point
All matter is, on a very small scale, discontinuous. In order to
provide unambiguous meanings to such terms as the density, or the
velocity, or the pressure 'at a point', it is necessary to define a
4
PRESSURE AT A POINT
'point' as a very small volume which is yet very large compared with
the spacing of fluid molecules. Alternatively, the fluid is assumed to
be a continuous medium in which point values correspond to the
average values in the small volumes mentioned above.
The forces acting upon a small element in a mass of fluid are
classified for convenience as body forces and surface forces. A body
force is an external force, which is proportional to the volume of the
element and acts 'at a distance' through its centre of mass. Gravity
forces are the only body forces with which the hydraulic engineer is
y
Figure !.~Forces acting on an element of fluid in

two-dimensional non-viscous flow
concerned. A surface force is an internal force with a magnitude

proportional to the area upon which it acts. Internal pressure and
viscous shear forces are the surface forces involved in fluid flow. In
an ideal fluid, since there is no tangential or shearing stress, the only
surface forces are pressure forces normal to the areas they act upon
The interrelationship of the stresses at a point resulting from these
forces is developed for two-dimensional ideal fluid flow, with reference
to Fig. 1.3 in which for purposes of generality, they-axis is inclined at
some angle ,8 to the line of action of gravity. The lengths of the sides
of the triangular element are respectively a, b and c and the corre-
sponding normal pressures are Px• py, and Pa.· The fluid density is p
and the acceleration due to gravity is g.
The sum of the x-direction components of the forces acting upon
the element within the fluid equals the product of the mass of the
5
element and its acceleration, ax, in the x-direction, in accordance

with Newton's second law of motion.
Pxa-p,_csinor.+tpabgsinfJ = lpabax
:. Px-Prr.~+ipbgsinfJ = ipbax
a
In order to consider the stress at a point, let a and b approach zero.
The equation reduces to
Px-Prr. = 0
Since a similar treatment of the force components acting in the
y-direction shows that py-p,_ = 0, it follows that
Px = PY .... (l.2a)
For the three-dimensional case, it can be shown that
.... (l.2b)
so that, in an ideal fluid, even if the fluid is accelerating, the pressure
at a point is the same in all directions.
1.4 Equation of continuity

The velocity components and the density of the fluid at a point
are related through the requirement that the fluid must be con-
tinuous, both in space (that is, no voids occur in the fluid) and in
time (that is, fluid mass is neither .created nor destroyed). The
relationship holds for both viscous and non-viscous fluids. Consider
an elemental parallelepiped of dimensions Sx, Sy, Sz, through which
fluid is flowing (Fig. 1.4). If the centre of the element is at (x,y, z)
and the velocity components at the timet at this point are respectively
u, v and w, then the mass flow rate past the centre, through the
element in the x-direction is (mass-per-unit-volume) x velocity x area,
pu Sy Sz. The mass flow rate in through the face nearer the origin a
distance !Sx is (pu- 0 ~:) tsx) SySz and the mass flow rate out
through the face farther from the origin a distance tSx is
(pu+ 0 ~:) tsx) SySz. The net gain in mass per unit time, within
the element from these two faces is - 0 ~:) Sx8y8z. Similarly, the
gains in mass per unit time from the other two pairs of faces are
- o(pv) Sx8y8z and - o(pw) Sx8y8z
ay az
6
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
The total gain in mass per unit time from all faces is
- [o(pu) + o(pv) + o(pw)] 3x3y3z

ax ay oz
which must equal the time rate of increase in mass :t (p3x3ydz) or
~ 3x3y8;:; whence
.... ( 1.3)
which is the Equation of Continuity. It is applicable throughout all

fluids, except at isolated singularities, to be discussed in later chapters.
Figure 1.4-Equation of Continuity. Mass flows in the x-direction across

the faces of a parallelepiped in three-dimensional flow
For incompressible fluids, with p constant, the Equation of

Continuity reduces to
.... (1.4)
If the velocity component is constant in one direction say, the

;:;-direction, the corresponding term disappears from the continuity
equation which reduces to the two-dimensional form
~u + oy
vx
~v = 0 .... (1.5)
7
One-dimensional considerations lead to the simpler form of the

continuity equation of elementary hydraulic texts. The tube-shaped
volume in Fig. 1.5 is so located in the flow that fluid flows only
axially along it; flow does not occur inwards or outwards through its
sides but only across its ends. If its cross-sectional area and the mean
velocity of flow midway along its length are respectively A and V, both
Figure 1.5-Equation of Continuity. Mass flows across the faces of

a stream tube
of these being functions of the distance, s, along the axis of the tube,
an approach similar to that adopted above yields the relationship
o(pA) o(pAV) O
at+ ----as- =
For incompressible fluids with p constant and A a function of s and t,
as in unsteady open-channel flow
oA + o(AV) =0
ae as
and for steady flow, ato = 0, hence d(AV)
dS =0
A V = constant .... (1.6)
In this form the continuity equation for steady flow ofan incompres-
sible fluid relates the mean velocity in a given direction to the flow
cross-sectional area normal to that direction. Eqs. 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5,
on the other hand, show the interrelationship of the velocity com-
ponents at any point in the flow.
1.5 Boundary conditions
The data necessary for an analysis of a fluid flow problem must
include sufficient information concerning all of the boundaries
including any arbitrarily located fluid inflow and outflow boundaries.
8
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The analysis consists of the application of the principles of fluid

mechanics so as to predict the behaviour of the fluid when subjected
to these boundary conditions.
The possible conditions specified for a boundary may include its
nature, whether solid, fluid or free surface, its geometrical form, the
pressure distribution on it or the velocity distribution along or
across it.
An ideal fluid flowing along a solid boundary is assumed to
remain in contact with the boundary without penetrating it, so that
a fluid particle on a stationary boundary can have no component of
velocity normal to the boundary. If the boundary is moving, the
velocity normal to the boundary of a particle at a point on it must
be equal to the velocity of the boundary normal to itself at that point.
If l, m and n are the direction cosines of the inward normal to the
surface at a point (that is, the cosines of the angles between the
z
of boundary
Figure 1.6-Velocity relationships at a solid
boundary
particle's velocity components, u, v and w, and the normal drawn into

the fluid) the components of u, v and w, along the normal are lu, mv,
and nw, respectively. The particle velocity along the inward normal
is the arithmetic sum of these components (Fig. 1.6). If the boundary
velocity normal to itself at the point is vn then
lu+mv+nw = vn .... (1.7a)
and if the boundary is stationary,
lu+mv+nw = 0 .... (1.7b)
Use will be made of these equations in the consideration of energy
relationships in Section 1.15.
9
It is evident that fluid particles on a stationary or moving boundary

must remain in contact with it, their movements being wholly
tangential to it. (However, there may be isolated points or lines of
discontinuity, to be discussed later, where the fluid particles do, in
fact, leave the boundary.) If the equation of the boundary surface is
F( x, y, z, t) = 0 the co-ordinates ofany fluid particle on the boundary
must continuously satisfy this equation.
Suppose that, in a small element of time, St, a particle moves along
the boundary through a short distance whose components are
Sx, Sy, Sz. Since its new position must satisfY the equation of the
boundary surface, the change SF must be zero.
oF oF oF oF
SF= -Sx+-Sy+-Sz+-St = 0
ox oy oz ot
SF_ oFSx oF~ oFSz oF= O
St- oxSt+oy St+ozSt+ot
and, therefore, as St -? 0
dF oF oF oF oF
-dt = u-+v-+w-+-
ox oy oz ot
=0 .... (I. 7c)
where u, v and ware the velocity components of the particle.

This equation must be satisfied at all points on a boundary surface
(except at points of discontinuity in the flow pattern).
ExaDlple ·
1.1. The parabolic profiley= kx112 moves in the negative x-direction with
a velocity U, through a fluid which was initially stationary. If u and v are
the instantaneous velocity components of a fluid particle on the boundary,
v k2
show that - - = -
u-U 2y
Solution.-The equation of the moving profile is y=k(x-Ut) 112 or

y2 =k2 (x-Ut) or
F = y 2 -k 2 (x- Ut) = 0
with t measured from the instant the profile is tangential to they axis (U
being negative). Since':::= 0 for all particles on the profile
oF oF dF
u-+v-+- -uk2 +2r:Y+ Uk2 0
ox oy dt
= -
•. 2r:Y= (u-U)kZ
v k2
·· u- U == 2)
10
STREAMLINES
If the co-ordinate axes are considered to move with the profile, U becomes
zero and the undisturbed fluid has a steady velocity of magnitude U in the
positive x-direction. The profile is now tangential to they-axis and, for fluid
particles in contact with it, the above equation becomes
v k1
u= 2Y
that is, the slope, ~, of the velocity vector equals the slope of the profile,
u
since dy = _<!_ (kxl/2) = ~
dx dx 2y
In addition to the above kinematical condition for solid boundaries,

certain other physical boundary conditions can be stated briefly.
Stationary fluids and non-viscous fluids exert pressure forces which
are wholly normal to the elements of solid boundaries, while forces
exerted by moving viscous fluids have tangential (shearing) as well
as normal components. When two different fluids are in contact,
the pressure must be the same in each fluid at a point in the surface
of contact, that is, the pressure cannot suddenly increase ~long a line
passing through the surface. In the case of motion of a body under
the action of a finite force through a fluid which extends to infinity,
an essential condition is for the velocity of the fluid at infinity to
remain unchanged by the body's motion. Otherwise the action of a
finite force would be imparting kinetic energy to an infinite mass of
fluid in a finite time, which is impossible.
1.6 StreaJnlines
Analysis of a particular condition of flow, in order to determine
the velocities and pressures, involves the determination of the pattern
offlow. The flow rna y be two-dimensional, in which case its character-
istics, such as velocity and pressure, vary only in two co-ordinate
directions, say, the x- andy-directions. There is no flow variation in
the z-direction so that the patterns of flow on all planes in the fluid
normal to the z-axis are the same.
In three-dimensional flow, the flow characteristics vary in the
x-, y- and z-directions. A special class of three-dimensional flow is
axially symmetrical (or 'axisymmetric') flow in which the pattern
of flow in all planes containing the axis is the same (Figs. 1.7, 7.13,
7.14).
A line which is at all points tangential to the velocity vectors at a
given instant is a streamline. For example, in the two-dimensional
flow pattern in Fig. 1.8, the streamline passing through the point
11
P(x,y) is tangential to the velocity vector Vat P. If u and v are the

x- andy-components of V,
v dy
-=tan8=- .... (1.8a)
u dx
dx dy
or .... (1.8b)
u v
or udy-vdx = 0 .... (1.8c)
(a) (b)
Figure 1.7-Examples of three-dimensional axisymmetric flow (see also
Figs. 7.13, 7.14)
Figure 1.8-Definition of streamlines
For three-dimensional flow, the corresponding relationship is

dx dy dz
.... (1.8d)
u v w
It is evident that no flow occurs across a streamline. A surface

across which no flow occurs, in three-dimensional flow, is a stream-
surface and a streamsurface in the form of a tube is a stream tube.
12
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLQW PATIERNS
1.7 Two-dimensional flow patterns

For the visual representation of a flow pattern, the configuration
of an arbitrary number of selected streamlines is established either
analytically, graphically or experimentally. The streamlines are
selected so that they divide the flow into a number of channels with
equal flow rates. If the total flow rate is Q per unit depth normal to
the plane of the streamlines, and the number of channels is n, the
flow throughout the length of each channel is q = q.
n
The mean
velocity, V, in any channel, at a section where the channel width is
A.
c
Distribution of velocity along CD
Figure 1.9-Two-dimensional flow at a conduit entrance. Velocity
distributions detennined from relative spacings of streamlines
i
b, is V = and hence, throughout the pattern, the velocity at any
point is inversely proportional to the streamline spacing at that point.
In Fig. 1.9, two-dimensional flow at the entrance to a conduit is
represented by four streamlines, two of which coincide with solid
.boundaries, and the total flow is divided into three channels. If the
reference section is the region of uniform flow within the conduit,
where the velocity is V0 and the channel width is b0 , then for any
other point P,
13
By measurement of streamline spacings normal to the direction of

flow, the distribution of velocity within the flow is readily established.
Since a velocity so determined is an average value for the width of
the channel, an increase in the number ofstreamlines, within practical
limits, results in an increase in precision in the estimate of the velocity
at a point.
Some of the characteristics of these streamline flow patterns
deserve brief consideration.
(1) Since a streamline is tangential to the velocity vector at all
points, there can be no finite component of velocity normal to it,
that is, there can be no flow across a streamline.
1·0
Irrotational
flow
Turbulent
flow
Figure 1.10-Effects of abrupt changes in boundary alignment on the

velocity
(2) The streamline spacing varies inversely as the velocity, so

that relatively narrow spacings indicate relatively high velocities.
Streamlines converging in the direction of flow indicate an increase
in velocity with respect to distance, that is, a convective acceleration.
(3) Streamlines do not cross. They intersect only at points of
theoretically infinite velocity (Fig. 4.2) and at isolated points of
zero velocity. The latter are called stagnation points (for example,
the pointS in Fig. 1.1Jb).
(4) A point in the flow where the direction of boundary streamline
changes abruptly is a stagnation point if the included angle, measured
within the fluid, is less than 180°; and a point of theoretically infinite
velocity if the angle exceeds 180°. In Fig. 1.10, the point B is a
stagnation point and the point C is a point at which the velocity is
theoretically infinite.
14
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW PATTERNS
(5) In steady flow, the configuration of the pattern of streamlines

does not change with time. In unstea4J! flow with a free surface or
with a moving internal or external boundary, the flow pattern
referred to a stationary origin does change with time. In the case of
unsteadiness resulting from a variation with time of the total flow rate
between fixed and solid boundaries, the general configuration of the
pattern does not change, but the flow rate in each channel, and hence
the velocity at each point, does.
(6) Solid, stationary boundaries are streamlines provided that
separation of the flow from the boundary does not occur, (the pheno-
menon of separation is described in Section 2.5); steady-flow, free-
surface profiles such as that of gradually varied flow in an open
channel and those of a sharp-crested weir nappe are streamlines.
(a) {b)
Figure 1.11-Motion of a body through a fluid. (a) Unsteady pattern, as
would be recorded by a stationary camera with a brief time exposure,
(b) steady pattern as would be recorded by a camera moving with the body
However, in unsteady flow patterns, such as the instantaneous

pattern presented to a stationary observer by the movement of a
submerged object through a fluid (Fig. l.lla) or by the passage of a
surface wave (Fig. 1.12a), the moving boundary, whether a solid or a
free surface, is not a streamline.
(7) Certain cases of unsteady flow patterns resulting from the
movement of a solid or free surface boundary at a constant velocity
relative to the observer can be transformed into steady flow patterns
by the superposition of a pattern of constant velocity in the direction
opposite to that of the boundary motion. In effect, the boundary is
brought to rest relative to the observer by the movement of the
observer with the velocity of the boundary. The procedure results in
an entirely altered streamline pattern and, by eliminating local
acceleration effects simplifies, the study of the fluid motion (Figs.l.Jl
15
and 1.12). Analytical and graphical methods of combining flow

patterns are presented in Chapter 4.
(8) The distinction between streamlines, pathlines and streak-
lines is important. A pathline is the track actually followed by a
particle of fluid. A streakline is a line joining the instantaneous
~ (a)
(b)
Figure 1.12-Streamlines of surface waves. (a) Unsteady
pattern, (b) steady pattern
Figure 1.13--Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines
positions of a succession of particles which have issued from the one

source or passed through one point and its form varies with time in
unsteady flow. In steady flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines
coincide. In unsteady flow, they do not, asmaybeseenfromFig.l.l3,
which shows instantaneous views of a streakline consisting of a wisp
16
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOW
of smoke, at time tl> and a short interval later, at time t 2 • A varying

lateral wind is represented by the instantaneous streamlines wl at
time t 1 and W2 at time t 2 • The smoke particles are blown along the
lines a-b, which are pathlines. The distinction between these terms
is of particular importance in the use of time exposure photography
for the determination of flow patterns in the laboratory.
1.8 Rotational and irrotational flow
A fluid particle in flow in a straight or curved path may suffer
distortion or rotation, or both, in the course of its motion (Fig. 1.14).
If none of the particles in a region of fluid suffers rotation, the flow
is said to be irrotational in that region. Since both the rotational and
(a) (b)
Figure 1.14--Fiow around a curved path. (a) Distortion
without rotation, (b) rotation without appreciable distortion ·
the irrotational forms of ideal fluid flow have their approximate

counterparts in real fluid behaviour, and since the characteristics
of the two forms are quite distinct, it is profitable to consider the
distinction from a mathematical viewpoint.
A particle is said to have zero rotation in a plane if the average of
the angular velocities of two mutually perpendicular linear elements
of the particle in that plane is zero. For example, if one line rotates
in an anticlockwise direction at the same rate as the other rotates in
a clockwise direction (Fig. 1.14a), the particle is distorting, but not
rotating. In Fig. 1.15, which shows a rectangular element in two-
dimensional flow, the broken lines indicate the displacement of the
element relative to one of its points, A, in the period ot.
The angular
velocity of AB about the z-axis is
ov
-oxot
lim ofh = lim ~ ov
Bt-+0 ot Bt-+0 OXOt = OX
and of AD
lim 082 = ou
ar-+o ot - oy
17
The average of the angular velocities of these two line elements is

known as the rotation, w.
w = t(av-
ax au)
ay .... (1.9)
When w is not zero at a point or region, the flow is rotational and
'vorticity', {, which is numerically equal to 2w, is said to exist at
'= axov- auay

that point or region.
.... (1.10)
- .E!:L
ay 6y~yt __ ..,
I
I
---
D --
u •
au 6
---
ay 'Y
I
I
I
c
I I
I I
I
I
v + 8 " 6x
\ 8x
vI
I 6 o, a" 6x 1St
ax
-L--~A~~~~~u~--6x---------1~~--------.. x
Figure 1.15-Definition of rotation
The condition for two-dimensional flow to be irrotational is that

the rotation, and hence the vorticity, is everywhere zero, i.e.,
ov au
ox ay .... (1.11)
In the case of three-dimensional flow, rotation is possible about each
of three axes which are parallel to the x-,y- and z-axes respectively.
There are then three possible components of rotation, wx, wy, and
wz, and three corresponding components of vorticity, ~' 7J and {.
Wy
I (au
= 2 OZ-: OX
ow) = 27]
1 }
. • •. (1.12)
18
STREAM FUNCTIONS
and the condition for irrotationality in three-dimensional flow is

that, throughout the flow,
ow = -;
-
OV ou ow ov ou
oy oz oz = ox; ox= oy .... (1.13)
There may be isolated points or lines in an otherwise irrotational

flow where these conditions are not satisfied. Such points or lines are
known as singularities. They are points or lines where the velocity
is zero or theoretically infinite.
Section 4.3 introduces the subject of circular or vortex motion, in
which the flow may be rotational throughout the region, or pre-
dominantly irrotational with a central core of rotational flow. The
circulation concept is defined and an alternative method of evalua-
ting vorticity in terms of circulation is presented. A more compre-
hensive treatment of vortex motion is given in Chapter 8.
Exa!nple
1.2. Show that the following velocity field is a possible case ofirrotational
flow of an incompressible fluid
u- yzt
v- zxt
w- xyt
Solution.-The equations satisfy the equation of continuity, for
ou = -ov
-
ow 0
ou ov ow
so that- +- + - - 0
ox oy =
oz
- =
ox oy oz
and therefore, the field is a possible case of fluid flow.
The components of rotation are
w
x
- !(ow-
2
ov) -
oy oz t(xt-xt) - 0
w -I (ou ow) i(yt- yt) - 0

2 oz ox
= -- - =
y
w
z
= !(~-~)
2 ox oy = t(zt-zt) = 0
hence vorticity is zero and the field could represent irrotational flow.
1.9 StreaJD functions

It is convenient to have some means of describing, in a concise
manner, the form of any particular pattern of flow. An adequate
description should convey the notion of the shape of the boundaries,
19
the shapes of the streamlines and the scale or magnitude of the flow,
or of the velocity components at one or more representative points in
the flow. It would take several lines to convey such a description in
words even for a pattern so elementary as flow at a corner (Fig. 1.16).
y
6
5
4
3
2
X
0 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 1.16---Irrotational flow at a 90° corner
A mathematical device which serves the above purpose with
accuracy, completeness and conciseness is called the Stream Function
and each pattern of flow for which a stream function can be found is
effectively described by that function. In steady two-dimensional
flow in the x-y plane the stream function (r/J) is a function of the
variables x andy,
r/1 = f(x,y)
and it has the following convenient properties:
(i) When the stream function of a particular flow pattern is
equated to a constant, there results the general equation for the
streamlines of that pattern, different constants defining different
streamlines.
(ii) When the stream function is differentiated with respect toy
and to x, in order, the general equations for the velocity components
u and v are obtained.
(iii) In a flow pattern, the volume flow rate from left to right
between any two streamlines r/J = C1 and r/J = C2 is oQ = orp = C2 - C1 •
(iv) The effect of combining different flow patterns is easily
determined, for the stream function of the resulting pattern is simply
the sum of the stream functions of the component patterns.
As an example, the characteristics of the stream function for steady,
two-dimensional, irrotational flow at a 90° corner can be stated
(Fig. 1.16). It will be seen from subsequent considerations that, for
this pattern, the stream function is
r/J = axy
20
STREAM FUNCTIONS
and the general equation for the streamlines is t/J = constant, that is
axy = C
the streamlines being rectangular hyperbolae. The coefficient, a,
determines the scale or magnitude of the flow and different values of
C define different streamlines. Further, the velocity components,
u and v, at any point (x,y) are given by the following partial
differentiations,
u
oifl
=-=+ax
oy
oifl
v = -ox= -ay
If a is unity, the velocity components, u and v, and total velocity V,

at any point, say P(3, 4), in Fig. 1.16 are therefore respectively,
U = +X= 3; v = -y = -4
v= v(u 2 +v2 ) = 5; 8 = tan-1 ; = tan-1 ( -~)
The flow rate between any two streamlines, say,
o/2 = = 10 and o/ 3 = xy = 15
xy
is 8Q = 8ifl = r/1 3 -r/12 = 15-10 = 5 ft. 3fsec. per foot depth normal
to the plane of the flow.
The question of addition of different flow patterns will be treated
in Chapter4.
The above characteristics can be established by defining a stream
function so that it possesses any one of the characteristics and then by
showing that it must possess the others also. Thus, a stream function
is required to have the property of yielding velocity components on
differentiation. Therefore, to begin with, it is dejined as a function of
x andy (and t, for the general case of unsteady flow) such that when
differentiated with respect toy, it yields u; and when differentiated
with respect to x, it yields - v. This sign convention is adopted so as
to give to t/J, in addition, the characteristic (i) above. Hence, by
definition, for all stream functions,
u =-
or/J
oy
v= --
or/J
OX
} .... (1.14)
2 21
If these values of u and v be substituted in the streamline equation

(Eq. 1.8c)
udy-vdx = 0
it follows that, along a streamline
oifl dy+ oifl dx = o
oy ox
and therefore the total differential
d!fo = oifl dx+ oifl dy = o

ox oy
:. 1/J = constant, along a streamline .... (1.15)
In other words, the general equation for the streamlines in a flow
pattern is obtained by equating the stream function of the pattern to
,, ,=6
JhO
X 1t
0
(a) (b)
Figur1 1.17-Physical significance otrfs in two-dimensional flow
a constant, different constants defining different streamlines. This

is the first of the consequences of the above definition of 1/J.
The physical significance of 1/J follows from consideration of the
difference in the values of1/J for two streamlines !fo1 and !fo2 (Fig. 1.17a).
d!fo = !fos - !fo1
If the volumetric flow rate from left to right across any straight line
oflength 81 joining the two streamlines be 8Q, then
8Q = (usin8-vcos8)81
= (u2-v~)81
81 81
= u8y-v8x
= oifl 8y+ oifl 8x
oy ox
8Q = 81/J •••• (1.16)
22
STREAM FUNCTIONS
Hence the flow rate between any pair of streamlines in two-dimen-

sional flow is numerically equal to the difference in their 1/J-values.
If the streamline passing through the origin is 1/J = 0 then the flow
from left to right between any other streamline and the origin equals
the 1/J-value for that streamline (Fig. 1.17b). This physical significance
is the second consequence of the method of defining 1/J.
The above characteristics of 1/J apply both in rotational and in
irrotational flows. In addition, for irrotational flow, it has been
shown that ~;- ~~ = 0 and substitution of - ~: for v and ~; for u
yields
()21/J ()2lfl
ox2+ ()y2 = 0 .... (1.17)
. r ;;z F ()2 F
The equation 10rm OX 2 + oy2 = 0 lS. the two- d'rmensmna
. 1. .
carteSian
co-ordinate form of what is known as the Laplace equation. The
. h d' . lr . ()2 F ()2 F (}2 F 0 d h
correspond mgt ree- 1mensmna _10rmis ox2 + oy2 + oz2 = an t e
general form, in vector notation, is V2 F = 0. This Lapla~ equation
is met in several other fields of physical science, for example, in
electrostatics, as well as in hydrodynamics.
Whilst it is evident that only certain functions of x andy satisfy
Eq. 1.17, the above reasoning indicates that the stream functions, 1/J,
of all possible two-dimensional irrotational flow patterns satisfy it
or, in other words, are solutions of the Laplace equation. Since there
is an infinite variety of possible boundary conditions and hence of
irrotational flow patterns, there is an infinite number of 1/J-functions
which have this common characteristic of being solutions to the
Laplace equation. The value of 1/J varies, in general, from point to
point in a flow and the Laplace equation sets a limitation on the way
it may varyt.
t If ordinates with magnitudes r/1 be erected normal to the x-y plane for each
point x.,y, in a two-dimensional irrotational flow pattern, the tops of the ordinates
define a curved r/J-surface. The radii of curvature of this r/J-surface in the x andy
directions at any point are, approximately,
1 1
R,- o•rfJ and Rg- o•rfJ
ox• oy 1
·
and , smce o•rfJ
ox• + o•rfJ 0 R R h ' h ·1• urf: ' h ..
0_,1 = , "- - ,, t at 1s, t e 't'-s ace at any pomt as a positive
curvature in one direction and an equal negative curvature in the other, after the
style of a horse-saddle.
23
It will be shown in Section LISe (ii) that only one pattern of

irrotational flow results from a given set of boundary conditions.
Hence only one lft-function satisfies both the Laplace equation and
the boundary requirements of a particular flow pattern. This
characteristic of lft in irrotational flow forms the basis of several
relatively simple methods of determining the pattern of flow once
the form of the boundaries is known. These methods are dealt with
in Chapter 3.
Examples of stream functions which will be developed in the
following pages for some elemerhary two-dimensional steady flow
patterns, are:
(i) Uniform flow with a velocity U from left to right, parallel to
the x-axis ... .o/ = Uy
(ii) Radial flow to a point outlet at the origin, the flow rate
being Q
Q8
.... lft = - 277
(iii) Flow past a cylinder of radius, a, at the origin, of a fluid of
infinite extent whose undisturbed velocity is U
.... lft = uy(1-~)
X +y
Elaunple
1.3. Determine the stream function for parallel flow with a velocity V,
inclined at an angle octo the x-axis (Fig. 1.18).
Figure 1.18---Parallel flow inclined at an

angle ex to the x-axis
Solution.-By definition
a.p = u- Vcosot
cry
.. .p- JiJrcosot+A(x)
24
VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Also a.p- - v - - Vsincx

ax
•• t/s = - Vxsin ex+j 8 (y)
Hence .p - Vy cos ex- Vx sin ex+ A where A is a constant.
If the value of .p for the streamline passing through the origin is zero,
then A= 0 and
.p = V(ycoscx-xsincx) = '4)1-vx
The streamline equation is .p - C
i.e•. V(ycoscx-xsincx) - C
or
c
y- xtancx+ Vcoscx
which is a straight-line equation in the standard form,y- mx+ b.
For flow parallel to the x-axis, ex- 0 and .p = Vy. Then u = :; - + V;
v- - ~~ = 0 and the flow from left to right between the origin and any
streamline, .Pu aty- y 1 is Q- t/11 - JY1, which is self-evident for this simple
case.
1.10 Velocity potential functions

The stream function for a two-dimensional flow pattern, when
equated in turn to each member of a sequence of constants, yields the
equations of the streamlines of the pattern. A useful, complementary
function of a similar nature, for irrotational flow only, is the Velocity
Potential Function, cfo, which is also a function of x, y and t. When
equated in turn to each member of a sequence of constants it yields
the equations of a family of velocity potential lines, each of which
crosses the streamlines at right angles. The streamlines and potential
lines form a mesh, or grid of lines, all intersections being at right
angles. An important difference between cfo- and tfo-functions lies in
the fact that c/J-functiolis exist only for irrotational flows, as will be
seen below, while tfo-functions are not restricted to irrotational flows.
The velocity potential function is defined as a function of x,y and t
such that, when differentiated with respect to distance in any
particular direction, it yields the velocity in that direction. Hence,
for any direction s, in which the velocity is v8
aq,
os = v 8
•... (1.18)
so that the velocity potential c/J increases in the direction of flow.

25
For the x- andy-directions, therefore,

()~
U=-
OX
} .... (l.I9)
()~
v =-
oy
As one consequence of this definition, lines of constant ~-value
can be shown to be perpendicular to lines of constant rfi-value at all
points, that is, ~-lines intersect rfi-lines normally. At any particular
instant,~ is a function only of x andy, even though, over an interval
Figure 1.19-Streamlines and equi-

poten tiallilies
of time, it varies also with t in unsteady flow. At any instant ~ is

constant along any ~-line
d~ = 0ox~ dx+ 0oy~ dy = 0
along a ~-line. Substitution from Eq. 1.19 for~: and~; yields the
relationship
udx+vdy = 0
along a ~-line whence
u
v
The slope of the ~-line at any point is seen to be equal to the negative
reciprocal of the slope (~) of the r/J-line at that point, that is, the line
26
of constant ,P-value intersects the streamline at the point at right

angles (Fig. 1.19).
The second consequence of the definition of ,P follows from substi-
•
tution r Uand"th
10r · · equation
Vm e COntinuity OU oy
· OX+ OV = 0, W hih"ld
C fle S
o2,P o2,P
ox2 + oy2 = 0
showing that the ,P-function, like the ~/~-function for irrotational flow,
is a solution of the Laplace equation.
:;
Finally, upon substitution for u and v in the irrotational flow
equation (Eq. 1.11), ~=- = 0, it is seen that
o2,P o2,P
---=0 .... (1.20)
oxoy oxoy
which shows that ,P satisfies the conditions for irrotational flow, or,
in other words, the existence of a velocity potential implies that flow
is irrotational. It can be shown that the converse is truo, that is, that
the condition of irrotationality implies the existence of'a velocity
potential. On the other hand, stream functions are not restricted to
irrotational flow.
The interrelationship of ,p, .p and the velocity components u and v
at any point (x, y) in the cartesian co-ordinate system can be sum-
marized in the two equationst
I
o,P o.p
u =- = -·
ox oy
.... (1.21)
o,P o.p
v=- = -OX
oy
If v is zero, ~; = 0, that is ,P depends only on x. Also ~~ = 0, that is,

.p depends only on y, so that
d,P d.fo
U=-=-
dx dy
t Some authors prefer to use an alternative sign convention according to which
a.p otf> or/J otf>
u= - - - --· v= +-- - - and3r/J- -3Q.
oy ox' ox oy
27
In terms of natural co-ordinates s and n, where s is the distance measured

in the direction of flow along a streamline, and n is the distance
measured across the flow along an equipotential line, the velocity V
at a point will be directed wholly along the streamline and
v= d,P = dl/J .... (1.22)

ds dn
Use will be made ofthis relationship in the discussion of flow nets in
the next section.
In many cases of flow it is more convenient to work with the polar
Figure 1.20-The relationship of

streamfunction to velocity in two-
dimensional flow-polar co-ordinates
co-ordinates, rand 8, than with x andy. From Fig. 1.20 it is evident

that, for any point C (r, fJ)
X= rcos8; y = rsin8; r = y(x2+y2); 8 =tan+~
X
.
If the stream functiOn has the values 1/J.4 at A (r- Sr
2", 8- 38)
2 and
lfB at B(r+i' fJ+ s:). the difference in the 1/J-values, dl/J = 1/Js-!f.-t,
equals the rate of flow from left to right across the line AB, as a
consequence of the definition of 1/J. This flow rate can be considered
as the total of two flow rates, that in the outward radial direction,
with the velocity v, and that in the clockwise circumferential or
tangential direction with the velocity, - vo. The radial flow rate is
(radial velocity) x (width DE), that is v,d(r8) or v,rdO; and the tan-
gential flow rate is (tangential velocity) x (width FB), that is, - vodr.
do/ = v,rdfJ-vodr .... (1.23)
28
At any instant ifl is a function of rand 8, therefore
.... (1.24)
From a comparison of Eqs. 1.23 and 1.24 it is clear that,
.... (1.25)
For the potential function, it follows from the definition of cp that

oc/J oc/J 1 or/J
v, = or' V(J = o(r(}) = r o(} .... (1.26)
The polar co-ordinate equations corresponding to Eq. 1.21 are

therefore
oc/J 1 oifl
v =- = -- .... (1.27a)
r or roO
1 or/J oifl
V(J = -- = -- .... (1.27b)
r o8 or
The equivalence of the cartesian and polar co-ordinate forms,
including the signs, can be seen for any point G on the x-axis, where
dx = dr, dy = rd8, u = v, and v = V(J.
Stream functions and velocity potential functions are frequently
expressed in polar co-ordinates. For example, for the pattern of flow
past a cylinder of radius, a, of a fluid of infinite extent whose undis-
turbed velocity is U,
ifl = u~ ( 1 -x2+y2
a2 -)
- = Ursine( I-::) or u(r- ~)sinO
and
cp= ux(l+~)
X +y
Urcose( 1 +~) or u(r+~) cosO
Exa~nples
1.4. Given the function r/J = xy, determine the flow pattern. Show that
the flow is irrotational and determine the </>-function.
29
Solution.-The equation of the streamlines is .p - C or xy - C, which

equation represents a family of rectangular hyperbolae. Considering the
first quadrant only, the pattern represents flow at a 90° corner (Fig. 1.16).
The pattern of the first and second quadrants together represents flow
towards a flat plate, or stagnation flow (Fig. 1.21).
y
----~~~~~--~~~--X
Figure 1.21-Fiow towards a flat plate
Since ~- au - a• .p + a• .p - 0 the flow is irrotational and therefore a

ax ay ax• ay•
~-function will exist for the pattern.
a; a.p
--u---%
ax ay
.. ., - ixl+ft{y) .... (a)
Also
a~ a.p
ay- v- -ax- -y
.. r/>- -!y•+J.(x) .... (b)
The value .p- i(x'-y 1 ) +a constant, satisfies both (a) and (b). The lines
~ - constant plot as a family of rectangular hyperbolae orthogonal to the
lines .p - constant. These rf>-lines are represented by the broken lines in
Fig.1.21.
1.5. Show that the two-dimensional irrotational flow stream function
rp = u(r- ~) sin 8 represents the pattern of steady flow in the x-direction,
past a cylinder of radius a, of an infinite fluid whose undisturbed velocity
is U. Determine the potential function and find the distribution of velocity
on the boundary of the cylinder.
Solution.-(a) The Pattern-For the streamline .p- 0, either 8- 0 or 11,
that is, this streamline coincides with the x-axis; or r- a, that is, the streamline
is a circle of radius a, with its centre the origin (Fig.1.22). The other stream-
lines plot as shown. Streamlines inside the circle can have no influence on
the pattern outside the circle and this circle can be regarded therefore as the
solid boundary of a cylinder of radius a, lying acroSs the flow.
30
(b) The Potential Function-The !/>-function is found by integration of the

velocity functions determined from the r/s-functions
o!fo
ar - v,- rIar/so9
- u(1- ~) cos 9
•. "'- u(r+~) cos9+ft(9) .... (a)
Also r104>o9- v,- -or

arts
--u( + ~) 1 sin 9
.. "'- u(r+ ~) cos9+J.(r) •••• (b)
'
Figure 1.22-Irrotational flow past a
circular cylinder
Comparison of the two values for 4> indicates that 4>- u(r+ ~) cos9+C
is the required function, the additive term being a constant which does not
affect the pattern of the !/>-lines.
(c). Veloci~ Distribution-The components of velocity, v, and v8 for any
point in the flow are as determined above. At very large distances from the
cylinder, afr approaches zero and
v,~Ucos9, v 8 ~- Usin9
.. v- v(v~+v:>~u
On the cylinder boundary, which is a streamline,
v,- 0 and r- a
•• v8 - -2Usin9
31
the negative sign resulting from the sign convention for eand v8 ( - ve clock-
wise). Denoting the velocity at the boundary by V',
V' = - v8 for 0< 0< 1T
V' = 2Usin0
at 0 = 0, 1r, the stagnation points,
2
I 1T
and Vmax = 2U at 0 -
1.6. In the two-dimensional contraction in Fig. l.lb, if the upstream

width is 8ft. and the downstream width is 4ft., estimate roughly the change
in velocity potential between cross-sections 10 ft. upstream and downstream
of the mid-section for a flow of 16 ft. 3 /sec. per foot of depth.
Solution.-With the one-dimensional approximation, u = ~'

8</> = u 8x approximately
Taking u as 3ft. per sec., the average of the upstream and downstream
velocities, and 8x as 20 ft., the distance between the two cross-sections, the
required difference in velocity potential is approximately 8</> = 3 x 20 = 60ft. 2
per second.
1.11 Flow nets

It has been shown that a two-dimensional flow pattern can be
represented visually by a scale drawing of certain streamlines chosen
so as to divide the flow into a number of channels conveying equal
flow rates, 8Q. Since 8Q = 8!f;, the change in if from one streamline to
the next, it is clear that 8lf; is constant throughout the pattern. If the
lateral spacing of the streamlines in the region of a point is 8n, then
the velocity at that point is approximately
v = 8Q = 8!f; .... (1.28)

8n 8n
which is in accord with Eq. 1.22. Since 8Q is constant, the velocity
is inversely proportional to 8n, the lateral spacing of the streamline
throughout the flow pattern.
If the flow is irrotational the pattern can be represented with equal
precision by means of selected lines of constant potential, chosen so
that the change, 8if>, from one equipotential line to the next is con-
stant. From Eq. 1.22, it follows that, at any point
v = 84> .... (1.29)

8s
32
FLOW NETS
approximately, where 8s is the spacing of the equipotential lines, s

being measured along the streamline passing through the point.
If the family of streamlines and the family of equipotential lines
are both represented on the one figure, the resulting network of
lines is called a flow net and, in the region of any selected point, the
velocity is given approximately by both Eqs. 1.28 and 1.29
.•.. (1.30)
If, as is usual, the <fo-lines and ,P-lines are selected so that 8<fo equals
8,P, it follows from Eq. 1.30 that, in the neighbourhood of any point,
8n equals 8s, that is the ,P-line spacing equals the <fo-line spacing.
Since the <fo-lines and ,P-lines intersect each other at right angles,
the resulting pattern is a grid of almost square quadrilaterals,
slightly distorted in curved flow but approaching the form of true
squares as the number of ,P-lines is increased. (Figs. 1.19, 3.1,
3.2, 3.3.)
Some characteristics of conventional flow nets can be enumerated
as follows:-
(i) Flow nets are based upon the assumption ofirrotational flow.
It is not necessary that the flow be steady.
(ii) There is only one possible pattern of flow for a given set of
boundary conditions and the flow net, if correctly prepared, will
represent this pattern.
(iii) The <fo-lines intersect the ,P-lines, including fixed boundaries,
normally.
(iv) The unit figures of the resulting grid approximate to squares;
having equal median lines and 90° angles (except at stagnation points
and points of theoretically infinite velocity).
(v) In regions of uniform flow the squares are of equal size. In
diverging flow they increase, and in converging flow they decrease
in size in the direction of flow, the spacing of the <fo- and ,P-lines being
equal and inversely proportional to the velocity at any point.
(vi) The sizes of the squares decrease towards the insides of curves,
(Fig. 1.23) that is, with decrease of radius of the streamlines in
curved flow, since, in irrotational flow around a curved path, the
product of velocity and radius is constant (see Section 4.3).
Vr = constant
The principal value of the flow net concept lies in the fact that it is
the basis of an extremely simple, trial-and-error graphical method
of determining the flow pattern for any given set of boundary
conditions. This method is dealt with in detail in Chapter 3.
Figure 1.23---Irrotational flow

in a curved path. Vr- constant
1.12 Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

Fluid motion can be treated mathematically by either of two
approaches, both of which are due to Euler. The first, known as the
Lagrange or 'historical' approach, deals with the positions, velocities
and accelerations of individual particles, the co-ordinates, x,y and z,
of a particle being variables which are functions of the initial position
of the particle and of time. The second, known as the Euler approach,
is the one adopted in the present treatment. In this method, x,y and
z define a general point in space and they do not vary with time.
Consideration is given to the velocities and accelerations of particles
as they pass through the general point rather than to the variations of
the velocities and accelerations of particles as they follow their various
paths.
If u, v and w are, in order, the components of velocity in the x-, y-
and z-directions at the point (x,y, z) at time t, then u, v and ware
functions of position (x,y, z) and time (t). For a particular value of
t, they define the motion at all points in the fluid; and for a particular
point, (x,y, z), they are simply functions of time, providing a history
of the velocity variations at the point. Except where otherwise
stated, it is assumed that u, v and w are finite and continuous functions
0 x, y an
f d z and that th elr . d . . au av aw
space envatlves, ax, ax, ax ... are
ever-yWhere finite. First, the components of acceleration at a point
34
EULER'S EQ.UATIONS OF MOTION FOR A NON-VISCOUS FLUID
are considered and then Newton's second law of motion, incorporat-

ing these components of acceleration, is applied to a fluid mass.
A particle at the point (x,y, z) at timet, will move, in the time 8t,
a distance ax = u8t in the x-direction, ay = vat in the y-direction
and az = wat in the z-direction. The change, au, in the particle's
u-component of velocity will be the sum total of the convectional
changes, due to the changes ax, ay and az in position (see Fig. 1.24),
z
'J"'\\'J
u+ff6x+/f6y+J:iz
(x+ox,.r+8 y, z+liz J
Figure 1.24---Acceleration. Convectional components of the change in velocity

in the .¥·direction of a fluid particle as it moves from P1 toP1 in the interval 8t.
There is, in addition, the local component, :~ 81
and the local change, due to change with the passage of time 8t,
at the point x,y, z. Mathematically,
u = A(x,y, z, t)
au au au au
au = -at+-ax+-
at ax ay ay+-az
az
au au auax auay auaz
at = at+ axat + ayat + azat
If at be considered to approach zero, the total acceleration in the
x-direction is obtained
du au au au au
-
dt = -+u-+v-+w-
at ax ay az .... (1.3la)
35
Simifarly, the total accelerations in they- and z-directions, respec-

tively, are
dv ov ov ov ov
- = - +u-+v -+w- .... (1.3lbf
dt ot ox oy oz
dw ow ow ow ow
- = -+u-+v-+w- .... (l.3lc)
dt ot ox oy oz
In these equations, the first terms on the right-hand sides are
known as 'local' accelerations, since they arise from changes in
velocity with time at the point x,y, z; and the remaining terms are
known as 'convectional' acceleration since they arise from changes
of velocity with change of position. In steady Bow, that is, flow in
which velocities and accelerations do not vary with time, the local
acceleration is zero but fluid particles will possess convective accelera-
tions if the flow is non-uniform, as in flow in a converging passage.
In uniform flow, that is, flow in which the velocities and accelerations
do not vary with position, the convective acceleration is zero but the
fluid particles will possess local acceleration if the flow is unsteady, as
in flow with an increasing discharge.
Applications of Newton's second law of motion in the three
co-ordinate directions yield the equations known as Euler's Equations
of motion for a non-viscous fluid. Let p be the pressure and p the
density at the centre point P(x,y, z), of the element whose dimen-
sions are Sx, Sy, Sz (Fig. 1.25); and let X, Y and Z be the components
of body force per unit mass in the x,;y, z, directions at the time t.
Since force-per-unit-mass is dimensionally an acceleration and since,
in hydraulic engineering, the only common body force is the weight
force, X, Y and Z can be regarded as the components of g. The
product of the mass of the element and its total acceleration in the
x-direction must equal the sum of the components of force acting on
the element in that direction.
pSxSySz :~ = pSxSySzX + (P- ~~~) SySz- (P+ ~Sx) SySz 2

du = ou + u ou + v ou + w ou = X_ ~ op .... (1.32a)
dt ot ox oy oz pox
Similarly
.... (1.32b)
dw ow ow ow ow 1 op
- = -+u-+v-+w- = Z--- .... (l.32c)
dt ot ox oy oz poz
36
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
These are the Euler equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid.

Each term has the dimensions of force per unit mass, or acceleration,
and the total acceleration in a given direction is seen to be equal to
the sum of the gravitational component and the component due to
the existence of a pressure gradient in that direction.
Integration of these equations between the limits represented by
any two points, (x1,y1 , z1 ,) and (x 2,y2 , z2), in the flow might be
expected to yield (force-per-unit-mass) x (distance) terms represent-
ing the energy changes which would be involved in the movement of
unit mass of fluid from one point to the other. In fact, it is possible
X
6 W =,o6xfJy& zg
Figure 1.25-Equation of motion. Forces acting in the x-direction
on an element of fluid in three-dimensional non-viscous flow
to integrate the equations to produce this general result, provided that

the flow is irrotational. The integrations yield the well-known
equation of Bernoulli.
1.13 The Bernoulli equation

In the Euler equations the gravity force components X, Y, and Z
are expressible in terms of a 'gravity force potential'. This is a
mathematical device which is analogous to the velocity potential, for
it is a function of x, y and z such that, when differentiated with
respect to distance in any given direction it yields minus the com-
ponent of gravity force per unit mass in that direction.
If the direction vertically upward, that is, opposite to the direction
of gravity, is represented by the h-axis, then the potential energy or
force potential, with respect to some selected datum level, of unit
37
mass at a height h above datum, is

n= +gh .... (1.33)
The force per unit mass in the positive h-direction is the negative
derivative with respect to h of the force potential
on
- - = -g
oh
Similarly the forces per unit mass, X, Y and Z, in the x-, y- and
z-directions taken in order are
.... (1.34)
Also
u=oq,, v = -,
oq,
OX oy
Substitution of these relationships and those of Eq. 1.13, which
represent the conditions for flow to be irrotational, into the Euler
equations yields
o2 q, +uo"+vov+wow = _on_~op
ox ot ox ox ox ox P ox
o q, ou ov ow.
2 on 1 op
-+u-+v-+w-
oyot oy oy oy = -
oy- -P oy
--
o q, ou ov OW
2 on 1 op
--+u-+v-+w-
ozot oz oz oz = -----
oz p oz
If p be considered constant, integration with respect to x,y and z
respectively, yields the following equations:
i(uz+vz+w2) + ~q, +n+e = F1(y, z, t)

ut p
i(ull+vz+w2) + ~q, +n+e = F11 (z, x, t)

ut p
i(ull+vll+w2) + ~q, +n+.e = F 3 (x,y, t)

ut p
The left-hand sides of these equations are identical, the first term
equalling i VJI, where Vis the velocity whose components are u, v and
38
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
w. The right-hand sides of the equations must therefore be equal, and,

since they do not each contain x,y and z, they must be independent
of x, y and z, being either functions of time or constants. For the
three identical equations therefore, one equation can be written
.... (1.35)
whkh is the Bernoulli equation for the unsteady, irrotational flow of

a non-viscous, incompressible fluid.
For steady flow, t. disappears from the equation and, with gh
substituted for 0, the Bernoulli equation for steady irrotational flow
is obtained.
JT2 p JT2 p
-+-+gh = C or -+-+h = H .... (1.36)
2 p 2g y
where His a constant throughout the region of irrotational flow.
If consideration is restricted to the movement of a particle along
its streamline in steady flow, a simple form of the Euler equation
results and it can be integrated along the streamline without the
requirement of irrotationality. If s is the distance co-ordinate,
measured along the streamline, Vis the particle velocity at the time t,
and S is the component of gravity in the instantaneous direction of
motion (Fig. 1.26), then
V =f(s, t)
SV = ov ov
-St+-Ss
ot os
sv oV oVSs
Yt = ae+ os &
dV _ ov vov
dt - ot + os
Application of Newton's second law yields
ov+ vov = s-~ op .... (1.37)

ot os Pos
At points where the streamline is curved, the particle will experience
a pressure gradient and an acceleration normal to the direction of
motion. If the inward normal direction, in the plane of curvature is
represented by n, and if the component of gravity in this direction is
39
N, the total acceleration will consist of the local acceleration °;"

and the convective acceleration V2 (centripetal acceleration). The
r
equation of motion for the n direction becomes
oVn + V2 = N _! op .... (1.38)

ot r pon
an equation which establishes the variation of pressure with radius
in curved flow.
6W=p6A6sg
Figure 1.26-Equation of Itlotion. Forces
acting in the direction of motion on an
element of fluid· in three-dimensional non-
viscous flow
Integration of Eq. 1.37 with respect to s, the distance measured

along the pathline, is possible in steady flow, for which the pathline
.
lS a strea
ml'me and av.1s zero.
at
Substitution of - ~~ for S gives
vav +an+~ ap = 0
as as Pas
and integration with respect to s, without the restriction that flow
be irrotational, results in the equation,
!V2+gh+e = C' or .... (1.39)

p
40
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
which is the restricted form of the Bernoulli equation, relating to

points on any one streamline in steady flow of a non-viscous incom-
pressible fluid.
The terms of the Bernoulli equation, 2V2, !!_ and h, have the dimen-
g y
sions of energy per unit weight of fluid, for example, foot pounds per
pound weight or, simply, feet. In fact, :; is the kinetic energy per
pound and his the gravitational potential energy per pound referred
to some datum level. The pressure term, does not represent, in
1!._
y
itself, a pressure energy content per unit weight of fluid. (The fluid
under consideration being incompressible, the concept of elastic
strain-energy due to compression is not involved.) However, the
difference pB- pA , between the pressure terms on each side of the
y y
Bernoulli equation expressed in the form
does represent the energy expended by pressure forces in moving

unit weight of fluid from point A to point B.
The three terms are known as the velocity head, the pressure head
and the elevation head, respectively, and their sum, H or H' is the
total head. It is evident that, in steady non-viscous flow, the total
head, H', is constant along a streamline and that if, in addition, the
flow is irrotational, the total head, H, is constant throughout the
flow.
1.14 Velocity and pressure distributions

Distributions of velocity can be represented either by means of a
series of individual arrows, the length of each representing the
velocity at its rear tip, or by means of velocity distribution curves.
The arrow lengths and curve ordinates may indicate either absolute
velocities or velocities relative to a reference velocity, which is
usually selected in a region of uniform flow (Figs. 1.9, 1.10). The
use of relative velocities yields a dimensionless velocity diagram,
readily applicable to various rates of flow and various scales of
magnitude.
Distributions of pressure in steady irrotational flow are determined
41
from the velocity distributions through application of the Bernoulli

Equation, the elevation term being written henceforth as ~.
V2 P vg Po
-+-+~
2gy
= -+-+~o
2gy
=H •... (1.40)
In this equation the first three terms refer to any point in the flow
and those with the subscript to an arbitrary reference point.
If gravity effects are absent, as in a pattern offlow in a horizontal
plane, the elevation head (~) terms disappear. Multiplication by y
removes the gravity terms y and g to yield the pressure-velocity
relationship
lpVll+P = lpfl+Po .... (1.4la)
P =Po+lp(fl-V2) =Po+lpfl[t-(~)] .... (1.4lb)
:. ~;t; or ~t: = 1- (~r .... (1.4lc)

Since ; equals~, the ratio of the spacing of the streamlines
0
which can be readily determined from the flow pattern, Eq. 1.4lb
enables the pressure at any point to be determined in terms of the
reference quantities Po and V0 • Eq. 1.4lc provides a dimensionless
relationship, which is conveniently plotted by subtracting ( ~) 2 from
unity, and which is independent of the extent of the flow and the
absolute magnitudes of the velocities and pressures. At stagnation
points, Vis zero, hence !~to equals unity and the stagnation pressure
is
Pst = Po+lpV: .... (1.42)
Esam.ple
1.7. The velocity at the boundary of a cylinder immersed in a fluid was
shown (Example 1.5) to be
V'- 2Usin8
where U is the undisturbed velocity of the fluid and 8 is measured from the
direction of flow. If~e pressure in the undisturbed flow isp 0 , determine the
pressure distribution around the cylinder, the location of the stagnation
points; and the stagnation pressure.
42
Solution.-The pressure pat any point on the boundary is given by Eq. l.4lc
P-P
- -0
ipU 2
= (V')
1- -
U
2
~ l-4sm
• 28
.... (a)
whence
.... (b)
The distribution is plotted non-dimensionally, in termsofp- Po, in Fig.l.27.

ipU2
From Eq. (a) it is evident that the stagnation points, where V' is zero, are
at 8- 0 and 8- 1r and that, at these points,~- ~0 equals unity.
~pU
!E..
1hpU2
=-3
___ ........
Figure 1.27-Irrotational flow past a circular

cylinder. Distribution of pressure on the cylinder
The points on the boundary where the pressure is the same as that of the
undisturbed flow are obtained by setting p equal to Po· It follows that
l-4sin2 8 equals zero, so that sinO- ±!and therefore 8-30°, 150°,
210° and 330°.
The minimum pressure occurs where 1- 4sin 2 8 has its minimum value,
that is, where 8 = 90° and 270°, and, at these points, it follows from Eq. (a)
P-Po
that !pU 2 - - 3.
In Fig. 1.28 are shown the distributions of pressure along the

boundary and the centre-line of a two-dimensional contraction in a
horizontal plane. Of interest are the locations of points of maximum
pressure, at the stagnation point S, and of minimum pressure, at X
on the curved boundary outside the region of uniform low pressure
43
and high velocity. The x- andy-components of the thrust on the

curved portion of the boundary can be determined from the areas
of the subsidiary pressure diagrams, in which the pressure magnitudes
are plotted undiminished on the respective projections of the curved
boundary. Total thrusts obtained from such pressure distribution
curves frequently can be checked by application of the impulse-
momentum equation in a one-dimensional analysis.
If gravity effects are present, as in flow in a vertical plane, the
elevation term (z) of the Bernoulli equation must be taken into
Figure 1.28-Distribution of pressure along' the boundary and the centre-line

of a two-dimensional contraction
account. If the flow is enclosed and has no free surface, it is con-

venient to combine the pressure and elevation head terms to form
the piezometric head, h, where
h = .e+z
y
The piezometric head at a point in the flow is the height above the
datum to which a fluid would rise in an open pressure tube, or piezo-
meter, inserted at that point (Fig. 1.29). The substitution of h in the
Bernoulli equation yields
.... (1.43a)
.... (1.43b)
It is apparent from the similarity of Eqs. 1.4lc and 1.43b that a

dimensionless pressure distribution curve for flow in a horizontal
plane would equally well serve as a piezometric head distribution
curve for flow with similar closed boundaries in a vertical plane. The
flow pattern in both cases is determined solely by the boundary form
and the only effect of gravity is to increase the pressure linearly along
the downward vertical.
Stagnation
tube
Figure 1.29-Variation of velocity head and piezometric head in a two·

dimensional contraction {after Rouse)
Steady flow with a free surface is essentially a gravity flow and,

since the pressure along the free surface is constant with the value
zero (gauge pressure), the free surface velocity will vary in accordance
with the Bernoulli equation with the pressure terms omitted.
V2 v~
-+z = ___!i+zo
2g 2g
= H .... (1.44a)
where V0 and Zo refer to a free surface reference point and H is the

total head, which is constant in irrotational flow. The free surface
velocity at any poirit such as on a jet or weir nappe is therefore
V = y'2g(H- z) .... (1.44b)
45
Within the jet or nappe, the pressures will not be zero and therefore
Eq. 1.44 will not apply, unless the streamlines are straight and
parallel (Fig. 1.30).
Datum
Figure 1.30---Distributions of velocity and pressure in
flow over a sharp-crested weir
1.15 Energy considerations

(a) Energy Equationfor Non-viscous Fluids
At a point in the flow where the velocity is V, the kinetic energy of
an element of fluid, of dimensions Sx, Sy, Sz, is one half the product
of the mass and the square of the vel~city
ST = ipV2 SxSySz
and the total kinetic energy in the fluid is
T = t I I I pV dxdydz
2 •... (1.45)
If the potential energy per unit mass at the point is .0 = gh, the total
potential energy in the fluid is
'I
v =II I p.Odxdydz .... (1.46)

From the Euler equations and Eqs. 1.45 and 1.46, it can be shown
that, for incompressible fluids
~ (T + V) = I Ip(lu+mv+nw) dS .... (1.47)
The first term of this equation represents the time rate of change
of the kinetic plus potential energies; the second, since (lu+mv+nw)
is the velocity of the boundary normal to itself in the direction of the
46
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
fluid, equals JfPVndS and represents the rate at which the pressure
forces pdS exerted from without are doing work on the fluid. Hence
the total increase in kinetic plus potential energy in an incompressible
non-viscous fluid equals the work done by the pressures on its surface.
This statement is valid for both rotational and irrotational flow.
(b) Kinetic Energy in I"otational Flow
A general theorem, due to Green, t has several useful applications
in irrotational flow theory. It is expressed in the equation
JJ(lP+mQ+nR) dS = - JJJ(~: + ~; + ~~) dxdydz .... (1.48)

in which P, Q and R are any finite single-valued differentiable
functions in a connectedt region completely bounded by one or
more closed surfaces, S, of which 8S is an element; and l, m, n are the
direction cosines of the normal to the 8S, drawn inwards. For
example, P, Q and R may be the x-,y- and ;:-components of velocity
or of momentum, or they may represent, in order, the products
rpu, rpv, and rpw, in a fluid contained within a closed spherical or other
surface; or in the space between two closed surfaces, one of which
lies inside the other. The surfaces are not necessarily solid boundaries.
If P, Q and R are velocity components, the equation states that
the rate of flow into an enclosed region equals minus the rate of
expansion, i.e. the rate of contraction of the fluid in the region.
A useful expression for the kinetic energy can be obtained if
P, Q and R are defined as
p= rpu = rp ~:;
where rp is the velocity potential. The velocity along the inward
normal, n, to an element of surface is§ Vn = ~: and it equals the sum
of the components of u, v and w in the n-direction
aq, aq, aq, aq,
- = 1-+m-+n-
on OX oy oz
t See Appendix A (i).
~ A region of space is said to be • connected' if it is possible to pass from any point
to any other point in the region without leaving the region. A connected region is
said to be 'simply' connected if all possible closed curves within the region can be
contracted to zero without leaving the region. Examples are the interior of a sphere,
the region exterior to a sphere or between two concentric spheres. A connected
region which does not conform to this definition, for example, the region between
two concentric cylinders of infinite length, is said to be •multiply connected'.
§ The use of n to represent distance along the normal and also one of the direction
cosines fortunately does not lead to confusion.
47
Similarly the sum of the components of P, Q and R along the inward

normal is lP + mQ + nR
lP+mQ+nR = l~ 0ox~ +m~ 0oy~ +~ 0oz~

= ~ (ta~ +m a~ +n a~)
ox oy oz
.1. 0~
= 't' on .....
(1 50)
which enables P, Q and R to be eliminated from the left-hand side

of Green's equation.
In Eq. 1.49, differentiation of the product~~~ yields
oP = (o~)~ +~ o2~
ox OX ox2
and similar expressions result for ~; and ~:
By addition
oP + aQ
ox oy +oR
oz = (o~)
2
ox + (o~)
2
oy. + (o~)
2
oz +~V ~
2
= u2+v2+w2+~V2~
= VZ+~V~~ .... (1.51)

Eq. 1.51 enables P, Q and R to be eliminated from the right-hand
side of Green's equation, which now becomes after multiplication
throughout by -~
-~I I~~: dS = ; III VZdxdydz+; III ~V2~dxdydz

In irrotational flow, V 2 ~ is zero, hence the last term disappears.
The second term is the total kinetic energy, T, (Eq. 1.45), and hence
T = --2 PII ~-dS0~

on .... (1.52)
which expresses the total kinetic energy of a flow in terms of con-

ditions over its surface. Eq. 1.52 can be shown to hold for an infinite
48
DETERMINATION OF FLOW PATTERNS
fluid at rest at infinity with an internal solid boundary, such as a

moving solid body.
(c) Irrotational Flow Theorems
Kinetic energy considerations lead to several important con-
clusions regarding irrotational flow.
(i) Irrotational motion is impossible if all qf the boundaries are solid and
at rest-Since the velocity normal to the boundary, ~:. must be zero
over the whole solid boundary surface, the total kinetic energy, T,
must be zero by virtue ofEq. 1.52, and hence the velocity, V, must be
everywhere zero. It can also be shown that, in an infinite fluid at
rest at infinity, if the interior boundary is at rest, irrotational motion
is impossible.
(ii) The pattern qf irrotationaljlow which satisfies the Laplace equation
and prescribed boundary conditions is unique, that is, there can be no more
than one such pattern-Suppose cf>t and c/>2 both satisfy V2 cf> = 0 and the
boundary conditions. Since the Laplace equation is_ a linear, homo-
geneous, differential equation, the sum or difference of any two
solutions to it is also a solution. Hence c/> 3 = c/>1 -c/>2 is a solution. The
velocity normal to the surface at any point must be the same for each
pattern, hence
and therefore
ocf>a = o(cf>t-cf>s) = ocf>t_ocf>s = 0
on on on on
c/> 3 = constant
that is, cf>t and c/>2 can differ only by a constant amount. The patterns
of flow given by cf>t and c/>2 are therefore identical.
In a similar manner it can be shown that the pattern ofirrotational
flow of a fluid at rest at infinity is uniquely determined by the motion
of the interior solid boundaries.
1.16 Determination of :ftow patterns

The problem of determining a particular pattern of irrotational
flow amounts, in mathematical terms, to finding a stream function,
or a potential function, which satisfies both the Laplace equation
49
and the boundary conditions of the flow in question. These boundary

conditions relate to the form and nature of the boundaries, including
those across which the fluid flows. For example, in steady flow, solid
boundaries must be streamlines and free surface boundaries must
be streamlines at constant pressure. The inflow and outflow boun-
daries frequently can be located, for convenience, along lines of
constant velocity potential.
Only in a limited number of simple cases is it possible to proceed
directly to find cf> or if; by analytical means from the Laplace equation
and the prescribed boundary conditions. For this reason various
indirect approaches have been devised, including graphical, numeri-
cal and experimental methods. On the analytical side, mathe-
maticians have investigated numerous functions which satisfy the
Laplace equation in order to determine the boundary conditions
which they satisfy. In this regard it should be noted that any appro-
priate streamline in a pattern can be regarded as a solid boundary.
A number offunctions have thereby been discovered which represent
simple standard patterns, and some other more complex patterns
can be considered as combinations of some of these standard patterns.
The various procedures for determining the patterns of flow for
given boundary conditions are presented following Chapter 2. In
order of treatment the methods described for two-dimensional flow
are:
(i) Graphi.cal flow nets, numerical analysis and experimental
analogies (Chapter 3).
(ii) Superposition of standard patterns (Chapter 4).
(iii) Conformal transformations (Chapters 5 and 6).
Three-dimensional flow is treated in Chapter 7.
REFERENCES
(1) LAMB, H., Hydrodynamics, Cambridge, 1932.
(2) STREETER, V., Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1948.
(3) RousE, H., Elementary Mechanics qf Fluids, Wiley, 1946.
(4) MILNE-THOMSON, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Macmillan, 1955.
Problems
1.1. If A is the cross-sectional area of a stream filament, estaBlish the
equation of continuity in the form
ata (pA) +asa (pAV) - 0
where s is measured along the filament in the direction of flow and Vis the
speed.
50
PROBLEMS
1.2. Develop from first principles the polar form of the equation of
continuity for two-dimensional incompressible flow
iJ(v,r) + iJvB - O
ar ao
p.cos8 .
If, in a particular flow, v, - -- - , determme the value of vB and find
r1
the magnitude of the resulting velocity.
Ans. vB ~ _p.sin8. V- ~
r1 ' r1
1.3. A sphere of radius r moves with the steady velocity components

U, V and W through an initially stationary fluid. If t be measured from the
instant the sphere was at the origin, show that the equation of its surface is
F- (x-Ut) 1 +(y-Vt) 2 +(z-Wt) 1 -r2 - 0
and establish the boundary condition equation
(u-U)(x-Ut)+(v-V)(y-Vt) +(w-W)(z-Wt)- 0
1.4. Show that the variable ellipsoid

x•
a1 k1 t' + kt•
(yb + Clz
1
1 1)
- 1
is a possible form of boundary surface of a liquid at time t. Determine the

velocity components u, v and w for fluid particles on the boundary surface
and show that the requirements of continuity are satisfied.
Ans. u- ~ •. v- -~· w- z
t t' t
1.5. Show that

(a) .p- 30y represents uniform flow, with a velocity of 30 ft.fsec. parallel
to the x-axis, in the positive x-direction.
(b) .p - - 40x represents uniform flow with a velocity of 40 ft./sec. parallel
to they-axis in the positivey-direction.
(c) .p- 17 ·3y- lOx represents uniform flow with a velocity of 20 ft.fsec.
at an angle of 30° to the x-axis.
(d) .p- - 5x1 represents flow parallel to they-axis with a velocity which
varies linearly with distance from they-axis.
Show that all of these flows are possible cases of fluid flow and that all but
the last are possible cases ofirrotational flow.
1.6. In a parallel, two-dimensional flow in the positive x-direction, the

velocity varies linearly from zero aty- 0 to 100 ft.fsec. aty- 4. Determine
51
the expression for .p and plot the streamlines at intervals of .di/J- 25 ft. 1 fsec.
Is the flow irrotational?
1.7. Determine the velocity potential functions for cases (a), (b) and
(c) .of Problem 1.5. For case (d) show that lines orthogonal to the streamlines
can be drawn, determine the general equation for them and show that they
are not equipotential lines.
Ans. </>- 30x; </> ~ 40y; </> ~ l7·3x+ lOy;y- const.
1.8. Draw the stream pattern for radially outward flow from the origin
into the upper half of the x-y plane. Show at least sixteen flow channels.
From the relative spacing of the streamlines plot non-dimensionally the
distribution of the vertical components of the velocities on the lines y - one
inch,y- two inches and on they-axis. Take the velocity at a radius of one
inch as the reference velocity.
1.9. In a two-dimensional rotational vortex v, - 0, v9 - wr. Show that

the vorticity, C, as determined from Eq. l.lO, is constant throughout the
flow and equal to 2w.
l.lO. Show that, for two-dimensional flow with vorticity, C,

a~ .p
- + - - _,
a~ .p
ox 2 oy 2
Calculate the vorticity for the flow .p -.12 ·5y2 (Problem 1.6).
Ans. - -25 sec.-1
l.ll. (a) Plot to a scale of one inch to one foot the portion lying in the
first quadrant of the flow pattern .p = !xy showing the streamlines .p- l, 2,
3, 4 and 5, (with .p = 0·5 shown in broken line). By measurement of
streamline spacings, determine and plot the distribution of the u- and
v-components of the velocity along the line x - 2 ft.; and the distributions
of the velocity, V, along the lines x = y, the x-axis and along the arc r- 3ft.
(b) Establish the above velocity distributions analytically.
Ans. u- zx - l ft.fsec.; v - - !y ft./sec.; V-

r
2ft.jsec.
X
V- u- 2 ft.jsec.; lVI - l! ft./sec.
1.12. The stream function 1/J= u(r-~)sinO represents the pattern of

steady How of an infinite fluid in the x-direction past a cylinder of radius a
at the origin, the fluid velocity at infinity being U.
52
PROBLEMS
(a) Determine the velocity distributions in non-dimensional form along

the x- andy-axes and on the cylinder boundary.
(b) At what distances in terms of the cylinder radius from the origin along
the x- andy-axes are the velocities within 1 per cent of the undisturbed
velocity, U?
(c) Show these non-dimensional distributions on a scale-drawing of the
cylinder and axes.
u a2 u a 2 V'
Ans (a) v - 0 - ~ 1 - - · v - 0 - ~ 1 + - · - - 2 sin II
. 'U ~· 'U ~· U
(b) x- ± lOa,y- ±lOa.
1.13. If, in the flow pattern of Problem 1.12, U- 10 ft.fsec. and a- 2 feet,
plot to a scale of one foot to an inch the portion of the flow above the x-axis
in the region - 8< x< 0 showing the streamlines .p = 0 to .p- 40 ft. 2 fsec. at
intervals of .d .p - 10 ft. 2{sec.
In the same region, show cf>-lines with intervals of .dcf>- 10 ft. 2fsec., the
cf>-line along they-axis being taken as cf>- 0. Observe that the resulting flow
net possesses the characteristics listed in Section 1.11.
1.14. Show that, with gravity as the body force, the Euler equations can
be written as three equations of the form
du 1 iJ
- - ---(p+yh)
dt piJx
Write down the corresponding equation in natural co-ordinates and thence
deduce that in steady, uniform flow of a non-viscous fluid the sum of the
elevation and pressure heads is constant throughout the flow.
1.15. (i) The pattern of flow in the x-y plane which is radially outwards
from the origin and symmetrical in all directions is known as a source.
Taking the velocity and pressure at unit radius as reference values show on
a non-dimensional plot the distribution of velocity and pressure along a
radial line.
(ii) If the streamline pattern consists of concentric circles with centre
the origin and with the tangential velocity inversely proportional to the
radius the pattern is that of an irrotational vortex at the origin. Show that
the distributions of pressure, and of velocity magnitudes, are the same as
for the source.
1.16. (i) For the two-dimensional flow pattern shown, plot in non-
dimensional form on an enlarged sketch the distributions of pressure along
3 53
AB and CDE. Use the values of pressure and velocity in the narrow sections
as reference values.
(ii) If the total water flow rate is 48 ft.ajsec./ft. depth normal to the paper
and the pressure at B is atmospheric, determine from the pressure diagram
.
~
.c.
-.
i5
'i
i:z:i 1'
the maximum and minimum pressures in lb.Jft. 1 and the horizontal thrust
on the boundary FDE. Compare this value of the thrust with that obtained
by use of the momentum equation.
Ans. Pmax.- 2675lb.Jft. 2 ; Pmin.- 1800 lb./ft. 1 ; 4765 lb.
54
2
FLOW OF A REAL FLUID
2.1 The effects of viscosity
DIFFERENCES in the behaviour of a real fluid from that of the ideal
fluid of classical hydrodynamics arise primarily from the existence in
the real fluid of the property of viscosity. Other distinguishing
features of real fluids, such as their surface tension and their capacity
to vaporize, result in marked differences in behaviour from that of an
ideal fluid in certain circumstances, but the effects of viscosity are
present to a greater or lesser degree in all cases of fluid flow and it is
these effects which are the objects of study in the present chapter.
Viscosity results in the development of shearing stresses within a
fluid wherever there is relative motion of adjacent fluid masses, the
magnitude of the shear stress in one-directional flow being given by
Eq. l.l.
du
T=fk-
dy
These shearing stresses can be regarded as internal surface forces acting
tangentially over the surfaces of elemental fluid masses, in addition
to the gravity body forces and the surface forces due to the existence
of pressure gradients, which are included in the Euler equations of
motion. The effects of the viscous forces depend upon their magni-
tudes compared with those of the other forces and with the inertia,
or resistance to acceleration, of the fluid masses. This latter resistance
and the gravity force component, both of which are proportional to
the mass of an element, are commonly regarded as inertial forces.
The characteristics of real fluid flow depend upon the relative
magnitudes of the viscous and the inertial forces. The term laminar,
or viscous, flow refers to the state of flow in which viscous shear
forces are of a magnitude comparable with or greater than those of
the inertial forces. Turbulent flow refers to the distinctly different
state of flow in which viscous forces are relatively small and the
resulting viscous effects are quite different from those in laminar flow.
Laminar flow is characterized by a smoothness of motion such as is
noticeable in slowly flowing treacle, and a dye injected into such
a flow traces out a slender streakline without spreading laterally.
Turbulent flow, on the other hand, exhibits a rapid lateral mixing
motion of the fluid elements in addition to the basic motion of flow
55
and a dye injected into such a flow is rapidly diffused laterally by the
mechanism of turbulent mixing.
A fluid moving at a low velocity may be in the laminar state,
whereas at a higher velocity, under otherwise identical conditions,
it may be turbulent. As the velocity in laminar flow is increased and
the magnitudes of the inertial forces become comparable with those
of the viscous forces, the flow develops instability and eventually the
fluctuating secondary motion of turbulence is established. The
alternative conditions of laminar and turbulent flow in a pipe, with
the well-known Reynolds criterion for the transition from one
state to the other, provide an example of this peculiar feature of
fluid behaviour. The differences in the characteristics of the two
states of flow are very marked, particularly in the region of the flow
boundaries-so marked, indeed, that the two states of flow require
completely different methods of analysis. Whilst laminar flow is
rotational, the mean motion of non-diverging turbulent flow is well
approximated by irrotational flow, except in regions very close to
solid boundaries where viscous effects are appreciable.
2.2 Laminar ftow
The laminar motion of a fluid satisfies the equation of continuity
and the boundary condition equations developed in the last chapter,
but, owing to the effects of viscosity, there is the additional boundary
condition, based upon experimental evidence, that the velocity of
the fluid at a solid boundary, relative to that boundary, is zero. This
is the condition of 'no slip at the bmmdary' to which reference has
already been made. Owing to the existence of viscous shear, there
are tangential components of stress at a point on the boundary, in
addition to the normal stress. Within the fluid, the normal stresses
at a point are not the same on all planes and, also, the Euler equations
of motion, which take no account of viscosity, are not applicable
without modification.
The variation in the normal stress at a point with orientation of
the plane on which it acts can be illustrated from a consideration of
the normal stresses Px• py and Prx and the shear stresses Tx, Ty and Trx
acting upon a triangular fluid element in two-dimensional flow
(Fig. 2.1). Application ofNewton's second law yields the relationship
for motion in the x-direction.
Pxa-Prx csin IX+ ipabg sinfJ +7'x b -Trx c cos IX = ipabax
:. Px-Prx+lpbgsinfJ+T)-Trx ~ = lpbax
a a
As a and b approach zero, this equation approaches the form
Px-Prx+ (Tx-Trx) cotcx = 0 .... (2.1)
56
LAMINAR FLOW
A similar form of equation results from the relationship for motion

in they-direction and it is evident that the normal stresses at a point
are not the same on all planes. In fact, it can be shown that, in three-
dimensional viscous flow, there are six independent stress components
(three normal and three shear) required to determine completely
y
X
Figure 2.1-Nonnal and tangential forces acting
on an element of fluid in two-dimensional flow
of a viscous fluid
the state of stress at a point. The' pressure at a point' in viscous flow is

defined as, the arithmetic mean of the three normal stresses p"'' py and pz
P = l(px+Py+Pz)
The Euler equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid can be
modified by the inclusion of terms representing the additional
internal force components due to the fluid viscosity. The complete
derivation of the modified equations is a lengthy one, and for the
present purpose it is sufficient merely to indicate the nature of the
viscous effects on the motion of a fluid particle. Fig. 2.2 shows a small
element in an incompressible viscous flow in the x-direction. The
element is subject to viscous shear stresses owing to the existence of
a velocity gradient~ across the flow. The shear stresses parallel to
the x-axis are
=
au
JL- and
T
oy
If the area of the shear face of the element is S, the net force on the
element is
a2u
S3T = JL-S3y
ay2
a2u
=v3m-
ay2
where v = 1!:, the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and 3m = pS3y is the
p
mass of the element.
y
....__--:0+-------- X
Figure 2.2-Shear stresses acting in the direction of flow in two-
dimensional parallel viscous flow
Hence the viscous force per unit mass due to the velocity gradient
ay IS. Vaay2u,
au I h l .h l . d' au au au
n t e genera case, Wlt ve OCity gra Ients ax> ~ > az >
2
the total viscous force per unit mass acting in the x-direction, can be
shown to be
( a2 2u+ a2 2u+ a2 u) or vV 2 u
V
ax oy oz2
Inclusion of this term in the first Euler equation (Eq. 1.32a) yields
the viscous flow equation
~=X-~ ap +vV2u .... (2.2a)
dt pox
and in a similar way, the remaining Euler equations become
dv I ap
- = Y---+vV2v .... (2.2b)
dt p oy
dw = z -~ ap +vV2w .... (2.2c)

dt poz
58
LAMINAR FLOW
These are the Navier-Stokes equations for the motion of a viscous

fluid. The body forces, X, Y and Z can be written in terms of the
gravity force potential, n = gh, as X = -:X (gh)' y = - ~ (gh) and
Z = - :./gh) and the above equations become
du 1 a
- - - (p+yh) +vV' 2u .... (2.3a)
dt pox
dv 1a
dt= - - - (p+yh) +vV' 2v .... (2.3b)
pay
dw 1a
dt = - - - (p+yh) +vV' 2w .... (2.3c)
poz
Owing primarily to the fact that the Navier-Stokes equations are
non-linear, no general exact solution is obtainable from them.
However, it is possible to obtain exact solutions to certain cases of
flow for which some of the terms of the equations are zero and their
omission makes integration possible. In addition, 'approximate
solutions are obtainable for other cases of flow in which some terms,
though not equal to zero, are negligibly small in comparison with
others.
For an example of an exact solution, we consider the particular
class of flows, known as 'parallel' flows, in which all particles move in
. .
th e one d 1rect10n, say t h ex-d"1rect10n.
. s·1nce v = w = 0, ~
av = az = 0 ow
and therefore, from the continuity equation, ~; = 0, that is, u does
not vary with x.
u= J(y, ;;., t)' v = 0, w= 0
In Eq. 2.3 band c, the first and third terms are each zero and therefore
a a
~(p+yh) = az(P+yh) = o
and the only remaining equation, Eq. 2.3a, becomes
atau _!p dx
~ (p+yh) +v(o2u + o2u)
oy2 oz2
59
If xis measured horizontally! (yh) is zero and the equation reduces

to
which is a linear differential equation for u. A simple case of parallel

viscous flow is that of steady two-dimensional flow between fixed
parallel plates, spaced a distance 2b apart (Fig. 1.2b). In the above
equation, u = f(y) only, so that
ou = 0 ?!! = 0 and therefore

ae • oz
with u = 0 for y = ± b. As ~~ is constant, the solution is
which yields a parabolic velocity profile.

Known exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations include the
following cases of flow (see Fig. 2.3):
(i) Steady and unsteady parallel flows
between parallel walls, both fixed;
between parallel walls, one fixed and one moving in its
own plane, with or without a positive or negative pressure
gradient (Couette flow);
within a closed conduit of any arbitrary cross-section;
on one side of a rotating plate;
between concentric rotating cylinders.
(ii) Steady flows
between rotating plates;
between convergent and divergent plates;
plane and axially symmetric flows normally to a plate
(stagnation flows);
flow in a laminar jet of circular cross section.
60
LAMINAR FLOW
(iii) Unsteady flows

adjacent to a suddenly accelerated plane wall;
adjacent to a plate oscillating in its own plane;
dissipation of an initially irrotational vortex tube by
viscous shear.
Approximate solutions fall into two categories depending upon the
relative magnitudes of inertial forces and viscous forces in the flow.
Since inertial forces are proportional to the square of the velocity
and viscous forces are proportional to its first power, it is evident that
viscous forces can be dominant only when the velocity is very small.
{a) {b) {c)
35:pmUoov_'__.~-~-
usuallyon one side only
{d) {e) {f)

Figure 2.3-Two-dimensional viscous flows with exact solutions. (a), (b) and (c)
plane Couette flows-lower boundary fixed, upper boundary moving (see Fig. 1.2),
(d) stagnation flow, (e) flow in a converging channel, (f) flow in a diverging channel
The Reynolds number R = Vl, where lis some characteristic length,

v
represents the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces, and
the criterion for slow, creeping motions, in which inertial forces are
negligibly small, is a low Reynolds number of the order of magnitude
R<l.
For creeping motions, the Navier-Stokes equations, with the
inertial terms omitted, reduce to three equations of the form
op (o u o u o u)
2 2 2
OX = 1-' ox + oy + oz
2 2 2
3• 61
Solutions obtained on the basis of this approximation include those

for:
(i) steady flow past a sphere. The pattern shown in Fig. 2.4 is
based upon the solution of Stokes and is valid for R = VD < 0·1,
v
the drag force being F = 37TftVD. Oseen, taking inertial terms partly
into account, obtained a solution which agrees with experimental
results up toR= 5;
(ii) lubrication in a bearing. Oil is swept into a slightly tapering
channel formed by the bearing surfaces. The channel is of such
Figure 2. 4-Viscous flow past a sphere.

Distribution of x-component of
velocity-Stokes's approximation
small width that, despite the high velocities involved, the Reynolds
number is sufficiently low for viscous forces to predominate. The
large pressures which are developed keep the bearing surfaces
effectively apart;
(iii) flow past an obstacle between two parallel plates set a
small distance apart (Hele-Shaw flow). The pattern of flow past
the obstacle is almost identical with that of irrotational flow past
the same form (Fie. 3.20).
The other limiting approximation is that for laminar flow of fluids
of very small viscosit)', or, in more general terms, for flow at high
Reynolds numbers, Prandtl, in 1904, showed how, by consideration
of relative magnitudes of their terms, the Navier-Stokes equations
could be simplified to yield approximate solutions for laminar flow
at high Reynolds numbers past stationary boundaries. For steady
62
TURBULENT FLOW AND THE BOUNDARY LAYER
two-dimensional flow along a plane boundary extending in the

x-direction, his modified equations for the flow in the laminar flow
layer near the boundary are
ou ou lop o2 u
u-+v-
ox oy = ---+v-
pox oyz
ou+ov=O
ox oy
with the boundary conditions that at y = 0, u = 0 and v = 0 and at
y = oo, u = U(x) (see Fig. 2.5).
Integration of these equations is beyond the scope of this chapter,
but a brief description of the nature of the boundary layer theory
which has developed from Prandtl's concept is presented in the
following section.
Figure 2.5-Boundary layer flow

along a wall (Schlichting)
2.3 Turbulent flow and the boundary layer

Turbulent flow, with its rapid and more or less random fluctuations
in velocity, is essentially an unsteady motion. A streamline picture
incorporating these fluctuations would be an extremely complex,
everchanging pattern oflittle practical value.
A meaningful pattern of flow can be obtained if the streamlines
are based, not upon the instantaneous velocity, but upon the temporal
mean velocity over a short period, at each point. Provided that the
period is considerably greater than that of the average fluctuation,
the mean velocity at a point truly represents the primary motion,
since the temporal mean value of the secondary fluctuating velocity
in any direction is zero. The streamlines, being tangential to the
mean velocity vectors, are smooth curves, varying in form with time
only if the primary motion is unsteady. Reference to turbulent flow
patterns should henceforth be taken to mean pattern~ based on the
average velocity at each point.
63
No exact method of analysis exists for the determination of turbu-

lent patterns of flow. However, the concept of the Boundary Layer
greatly clarified ideas on the influence of viscosity on flow at high
Reynolds numbers and provided the basis for an approximate
analysis of turbulent flow.
When fluids of low viscosity, such as air and water, flow along a
plane wall, the fluid at the wall is stationary and that near the wall
is retarded, but, at a very small distance from the wall, the fluid
velocity is practically equal to that of the main body of flow. The
thin layer in which the velocity gradient is appreciable is known as
the 'boundary layer'.
Outside this boundary layer, steep velocity gradients do not occur
and since the viscosity is small, its effects on the flow are almost neg-
ligible. The outside mean flow pattern, being determined primarily
y y
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6-Fiow of a fluid with (1) high viscosity, (2) low
viscosity, and (3) zero viscosity past plane and curved
boundaries
by the boundary form, is practically the same as that of irrotational

flow (Fig. 2.6). In the Boundary Layer Theory it is assumed that
the effects of viscosity are confined to the boundary layer and that
the remainder of the flow can be regarded as in viscid, so far as the
mean pattern of flow is concerned. With this assumption it has
been possible to develop an approximate theory relating to the flow
pattern within the boundary layer and to supplement the theory with
experimentally determined constants.
The simplest example is that of flow past a stationary thin flat
plate set parallel to the flow. The plate has a sharpened leading edge
so that the approaching fluid does not suffer any sudden lateral
deflection (Fig. 2.7). The fluid elements in contact with the plate
are stationary since there is no boundary slip, and as other elements
pass the leading edge close to the plate, they are retarded by viscous
action. The further they travel the more their velocity decreases,
64
TURBULENT FLOVV AND THE BOUNDARY LAYER
and the more they, in turn, retard by viscous drag, the faster moving
elements outside them. It is evident that the vvidth, S, of the region
of retarded flovv must increase with distance downstream of the
(b)
Laminar Transition TISI:lulent
u
(c)
Figure 2.7-Velocity distributions in flow past a flat plate. (a) Laminar
boundary layer, (b) turbulent boundary layer, (c) part laminar-part
turbulent boundary layer
leading edge. This region is the boundary layer and the flow in it,
as described above, is laminar, even though the approach flow is
turbulent.
In a region some distance along the plate the laminar flow becomes
unstable and turbulence develops vvithin the boundary layer.
65
Normally, the location of this region of transition from a laminar to

a turbulent boundary layer is defined approximately by a value of
Ux
the Reynolds number, R =-of between 2x 10 6 and 106 , where U
v
is the velocity in the undisturbed stream and xis the distance measured
downstream from the leading edge. It is possible, however, to pro-
duce a turbulent boundary layer throughout the length of the plate
by roughening the leading edge or by otherwise disturbing the
approaching flow. These characteristics of the boundary layer are
indicated in Fig. 2.7, where, for purposes of clarity, the width of the
layer is greatly exaggerated.
The division between the boundary layer and the outer flow region
is not a sharp one but rather a transition zone. The thickness, a, of
the boundary layer is frequently defined as the distance from the
boundary to the point at which the actual velocity is within I per cent
of that for irrotational flow past the boundary. For the laminar
boundary layer in flow along a flat plate (Fig. 2.7a), the thickness is
given by the expression, derived analytically by Blasius and confirmed
by experiment,
81am. 5 5
.... (2.4)
x ~ J(~x) = Rlts
For a wholly turbulent boundary layer (Fig. 2.7b), the thickness,
based upon the assumption that the lJoundary is smooth and that
the velocity distribution across a normal to it is of the form u = ky1' 7 ,
is given by
8turb. 0•38 ( ) .... (2.5)
--;--- ~ Rlt6 R < 107
Another measure of the boundary layer is the 'displacement

thickness', 8*, which is the distance by which the external flow is
effectively displaced outwards, as a consequence of the decrease in
velocity in the boundary layer. The decrease in flow rate in the width
8y (Fig. 2.8) due to viscous retardation is ( U- u) 8y, where U is the
velocity which would exist if the flow were irrotational. The total
co
'loss' offlow is f (U-u)dy.
y-0
Displacement of the boundary a distance a• into irrotational flow
would result in a loss of flow of U8*. Hence, if
co
U8* = J (U-u)dy
J'-0
66
TURBULENT FLOVV AND THE BOUNDARY LAYER
the displacement thickness is
f (1-;)
00
3* dy .... (2.6)
Y=O
The value of 3* is approximately one-third that of 3 for laminar
boundary layers and one-eighth for turbulent boundary layers.
For turbulent flow along a plane wall, or a wall with a radius of
curvature vvhich is ~e compared with the boundary layer thickness,
there is practically nb variation in pressure across the boundary
layer. Since, in such flows, the boundary layer is extremely thin, and
the flow outside it is very closely approximated by irrotational flow,
u
;.,.I-----"'------+1
Figure 2.8-Boundary layer displacement thickness
the pressure distribution along the boundary is substantially identical with that
of irrotational.flow past the same boundary. It is this important fact which
enables the pressure distributions along boundaries in many cases
of turbulent flovv to be calculated by application of the irrotational
flovv theory.
ExaD1ple
2.1. A flat plate is immersed, parallel to the direction of flow, in water at
70°F, flowing at 8 ft./sec. Estimate the length of the laminar section of the
boundary layer, and the boundary layer thickness, at distances of one inch,
one foot and ten feet from the leading edge.
Solution.-Assuming that the boundary layer transition value of R is
Ux
- - 5x 101
v
67
and taking v as I · 06 x 10-1 ft. 1/sec.
x -
5 X 105 X 1·06 X w-a - 0 · 66 ft. to the transition
8
At one inch from the leading edge, the boundary layer is laminar so that
its thickness is
:.
5x
81111 - J~x - i2 5 (1·06 x 12)1/1
101 x 8
.
- 0·0017 ft. or 0·02 mch
At one foot from the leading edge, the boundary layer is turbulent and,
assuming that its thickness is the same as that of a wholly turbulent boundary
layer,
Ux 8x 101
R - - - - - - 7·55xl06
v 1·06
0·38x 0·38
.. 81 ~ R 116 - 15 - 0·025 ft. or 0·30 inch
Atx- lOft. R- 7·55 x 101

0•38 X }0 ,
.. 810 - 23 . 8 - 0·16 ft. or 1·9 mch
2.4 Velocities in the boundary layer

In a laminar boundary layer, the <:urve of velocity distribution
normal to the wall is very nearly a parabola with its vertex aty = 8
(Fig. 2.7a).
(U-u) oc (8-y) 2 approximately .. .. (2.7)
It is apparent that 8 increases with the distance, x, from the leading
edge and that the velocity gradient, ~;. and hence the shear stress at
the wall decreases with the increase in x.
In a turbulent boundary layer, the velocity distribution curve
conforms closely to a logarithmic curve, except in the extremely
thin region adjacent to the wall. If the wall roughness projections
are sufficiently small, a very thin film of laminar flow, known as the
laminar sublayer, completely covers them and separates the turbulent
boundary layer flow from the wall (Fig. 2.9a). The resistance to
flow arises from the viscous shear stresses associated with the steep
velocity gradient across this laminar sublayer and the flow is said
to be 'smooth-wall turbulent'. The thickness, 8', of the laminar film
68
VELOCITIES IN 1·HE BOUNDARY LAYER
decreases if the external velocity is increased and, if the roughness

projections are not completely submerged by the sublayer, its
effectiveness in transmitting shear stress is reduced. Resistance to
flow then depends partly upon viscous shear stresses and partly upon
the form drag of the turbulent flow past the projections. With a
sufficiently high external velocity, the resistance becomes wholly
dependent upon the form drag effect and independent of the laminar
sublayer and the flow is classed as 'rough-wall turbulent'.
The parabolic velocity distribution across the thin laminar sub-
layer in smooth-wall turbulent flow is almost linear (Fig. 2.9) and the
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9-The boundary layer in turbulent flow. (a) Smooth wall turbulent flow,
(b) rough wall turbulent flow
shear stress is assumed to be constant. For the sublayer, therefore,

if u is the velocity at a distance y from the wall,
T ftdU U
- = -- ~ v- (constant)
p pdy y
u v'(-rfp)y
v'(-rfp) = v
u
or .... (2.8)
v* v
where v*, written for the sake of brevity in place of v'(-rfp), is called
the 'shear velocity', simply because it involves shear stress and has
the dimensions of velocity. Eq. 2.8 merely expresses, in terms of
-r and p, the assumed linear relationship between u andy in a non-
dimensional form which can be conveniently compared with the
69
logarithmic relationships (Eq. 2.9, 2.10) for the flow outside the
sublayer.
The general equation for turbulent boundary layer flow, both
the smooth-wall and the rough-wall types, is
u y
- =
5·75log- .... (2.9)
v* y'
wherey' is the value ofy for which u would be zero according to this
relationship. In fact, Eq. 2.9 applies only in the region well beyond
y'. Special forms ofEq. 2.9 have been developed for smooth-wall and
rough-wall turbulent flows by elimination ofy'.
For smooth-wall turbulent flow, y' is found to be dependent on
v* and v and, upon its elimination, Eq. 2.9 takes the form
.!:_ = 5·75logv*y +5·5 .... (2.10)

v* v
which is the velocity distribution in the boundary layer outside the
laminar sublayer. The value of y which satisfies both Eq. 2.8 and
2.10 is obviously the nominal value of the laminar sublayer thickness,
15'. It is
S' = 11·6v .... (2.11)
v*
although in fact, there is a zone of transition between the two regions
offlow (Fig. 2.9a).
For rough-wall turbulent flow,y' is round to be determined solely
by the effective height, k, of the roughness projections and, with the
elimination ofy', Eq. 2.9 becomes
_!!_ = 5·75log~+8·5 .... (2.12)

v* k
Equations 2.10 and 2.12 are the Karman-Prandtl equations for
velocity distribution in turbulent flow past smooth and rough
boundaries. They are based upon a theory of turbulence due to
Prandtl and known as the 'mixing length' theory. Their numerical
constants were determined by experiments in pipes and the equations
are applied, sometimes with slight modifications to the constants,
both to flow past flat surfaces and to pipe flow.
Exa~nple
2.2. Water at 70°F flows past a smooth plane surface. Near a point on
the surface several feet from the leading edge the velocities at! inch and!
inch from the wall are 6 · 0 and 6 · 5 ft.jsec. respectively. Assuming that the
70
BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION
boundary layer is turbulent determiney', v* and 8' and estimate the velocity
one inch from the wall .
. Solution.-Substitution in Eq. ~.9 of the known u andy values yields two
equations with the two unknowns, v* andy'. Division of one equation by the
other eliminates v*
- 6 ' 5 - 1·083
6·0
whence y' - 6 x 10-• in.

u 6·5
111 - 0 · 288 ft.Jsec.
:. v* - 5·751og (~,5) - 5·75log ( 6 ~~~- 5)
11·6v 11·6 x 1·06
a' - ~ - 0 . 288 x 105 - 0·00043 ft. or 0·0051 in.
The velocity one inch from the wall is, from Eq. 2.10,
0·288 X 101) ,
u1 - 0·288x5·751og ( 1 . 06 x 12 +0·288x5·5- 7·1ft.Jsec.
2.5 Boundary layer separation

The foregoing comments on the characteristics of boundary layer
flow presuppose a zero pressure gradient along the boundary outside
the boundary layer and the absence of' separation', a phenomenon
of major importance in the determination of patterns of flow. The
term 'separation of the boundary layer' implies a departure of the
boundary layer from the boundary (Fig. 2.10).
The growth in thickness of the boundary layer with distance along
a wall results from the continuous retardation of the fluid elements
due to boundary shear. If, owing to the shape of the flow boundaries,
the streamlines are converging in the direction of flow, the convective
acceleration effects tend to offset the effects of boundary shear in
retarding the fluid elements, thereby opposing the growth in the
thickness of the boundary layer. In other words, the negative pressure
gradient associated with convective acceleration tends to limit the
growth of the boundary layer.
If, on the other hand, the boundary form is such that the stream-
lines diverge, there will be a positive, or adverse, pressure gradient
in addition to the boundary shear acting to retard the flow near the
wall. The effect is evident in the series of velocity distributions shown
71
in Fig. 2.10. The flow near the wall is continually retarded until, at
S, its velocity is zero. To the right of S, the fluid motion is in the
reverse direction and the oncoming fluid has moved away from the
boundary. Once such separation occurs, the pressure distribution
becomes modified and the line of separation moves upstream to a
position of equilibrium.
In Fig. 2.10, the pattern is essentially that of separation of a
laminar boundary layer. In the case of a turbulent boundary layer,
the mixing action of turbulence delays separation by carrying some of
the slow-moving fluid away from the boundary and bringing in fluid
of higher kinetic energy content to replace it. The general effect is
Figure 2.10-Boundary layer separation
to delay separation by moving the point of separation downstream

or, if the deceleration is sufficiently gradual, to maintain flow without
separation. For example, tests in divergent channels show no sign
of separation until the included half-angle exceeds 4°.
Separation results in the development of a region of low pressure
on the downstream side of an immersed body thereby introducing
'form' drag to augment the surface resistance or 'skin friction' drag
(Fig. 2.11). Streamlining is simply an attempt to minimize this form
drag by providing a boundary which permits gradual divergence of
the flow with little separation. Its effectiveness is indicated in
Fig. 2.12 which shows patterns of two-dimensional flow past bluff,
circular and streamlined forms.
A sharp divergence of the boundary away from the flow results in
immediate separation, such as occurs in flow past a flat plate set
normal to the flow, and in jet flow through a sharp orifice. The form
of the surface of separation depends, amongst other factors, upon
whether the flow is submerged in fluid of its own density, such as a
jet of air in air, or in a fluid of much lower density, such as a jet of
72
BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION
waterinair (Fig. 2.13). In the latter case, theeffectofthesurrounding

fluid is negligible and irrotational flow analysis frequently yields a
good approximation to the form of the surface of separation. The
1
, ..... -- .....
'-lrrotational
1 \ flow
\ : Flow with a
turbulent boundary
/ layer R= ~0 : 6·7x10 5
u- •,
\
Figure 2.11-Pressure distribution in turbulent flow

past a circular cylinder
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2.12-Separation and boundary form. (a) Bluff body, (b) cylinder, laminar
boundary layer, (c) cylinder, turbulent boundary layer, (d) streamlined profile
former case is less susceptible to analysis owing to the complex

motion of diffusion by turbulent mixing and is more satisfactorily
determined by experiment. In either event, the effects of separation
73
behind a bluffbody result in a flow pattern distinctly different from

that of non-separating, irrotational flow, not only in the region of
separation but also upstream and to the sides of the body (Fig. 2.12a).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.13--Free and submerged jets
2.6 The Bernoulll equation

The general form of the Bernoulli equation (Eq. 1.36) is based
upon the assumption of steady, irrotational flow of a non-viscous
fluid. The restricted form (Eq. 1.39), relating to points on the one
streamline, is applicable only to steady, non-viscous flow.
Real fluid flow is never irrotational, even though the mean pattern
of turbulent flow outside the boundary layer in converging flow
resembles the pattern ofirrotational flow. The viscous shear stresses,
both in laminar flow and in the rapidly fluctuating masses of turbulent
flow, result in the continuous convers.ion of the fluid's energy into
heat, so that the Bernoulli equations are not strictly applicable to
real fluid flow.
In the one-dimensional method of analysis, use is made of a modified
form of the Bernoulli equations in which some allowance is made for
the energy dissipated through viscous action. Mean values of the
Bernoulli equation terms are ascribed to all fluid particles on a plane
section normal to the general direction of flow. For precise calcu-
lations the kinetic energy term can be modified by the factor, a; to
allow for the variation of velocity across the plane. An additional
term, h1 , can be added to the side of the equation referring to the
downstream section to represent the energy dissipated by viscous
effects, or 'fluid friction'.
v~ PI v~ P2
2 +-+zl
a~-
g y
= 2g +-+z2+h
a2- 1 .... (2.13)
y
In most instances, the refinement of correcting the kinetic energy
terms is not warranted. Over short distances, in turbulent flow
without separation, the energy dissipation term is frequently small
74
FLOW PATTERN ANALYSIS
in comparison with the remaining terms and can be justifiably

omitted. The Bernoulli equation in such cases is therefore applicable
as a most useful approximation.
No general method is available for estimating the energy dissipated
in the flow between two points in two-dimensional flow but upon the
assumption that such losses are relatively small over short distances
outside of the boundary layer, the general Bernoulli equation is
applied in two-dimensional flow analysis.
2. 7 Flow pattern analysis
From a consideration of the characteristics of real fluid flow,
important conclusions regarding the determination of patterns of
flow can be drawn.
(i) Wholly laminar flow patterns can be determined in a limited
number of cases, either exactly or approximately, by means of the
viscous flow equations.
(ii) Turbulent flow patterns, with either laminar or turbulent
boundary layers, are amenable to approximate solution by means of
irrotational flow analysis provided that the flow is not diverging.
The method is applicable owing to the existence of bo"\lndary layers
of relatively small thickness, and to the absence of appreciable
pressure changes across those layers. As an approximation, the thin
boundary layer is ignored and the temporal mean pattern of turbu-
lent flow is treated as irrotational flow.
In diverging flow, the unknown form of the surface of separation
prevents the use of irrotational flow methods. (A method of analysing
two-dimensional flow with separation and the formation of a free
surface, such as a free jet, is treated in Chapter 6.)
The remaining chapters are devoted to irrotational flow analysis.
Attention will be directed primarily to two-dimensional flow, for
which there are several methods of approach. The general case of
three-dimensional flow does not yield readily to analysis and we shall
consider only the special case of axially symmetric three-dimensional
flow, in the penultimate chapter of the book.
A number of the cases considered involve diverging flows and are
not, therefore, satisfactory approximations to turbulent flows. They
are included for the sake of continuity of presentation and may, in
some instances, be of value in percolation studies, where the question
of separation in diverging flow does not arise. Cases of purely
academic interest with little practical significance are not dwelt upon.
REFERENCES
(1) RousE, H., 'Fundamental Principles of Flow', Chapter 1 of Engineering
Hydraulics, Wiley, 1950.
75
(2) SCHUCHTING, H., Boundary Layer Theory, Pergamon, 1955.

(3) RICHARDSON, E. G., Dynamics of
&al Fluids, Arnold, 1950.
(4) PRANDTL, L., Essentials of Fluid Dynamics, Blackie, 1952.
(5) GoLDSTEIN, S. (Ed.), Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics, Oxford, 1938.
Proble~ns
2.1. What is the 'boundary layer'? Why is the concept of use in certain
fluid flow problems? Give two definitions for boundary layer thickness.
Show, by means of sketches, a comparison of the distributions of velocity in
each of the following cases of two-dimensional flow:
(i) irrotational, laminar and turbulent flows adjacent to a smooth plane
boundary set parallel to the flow direction.
(ii) irrotational, laminar and turbulent flows past an elliptical section
with its major axis parallel to the flow direction. (Assume that separation
effects are negligible.)
2.2. For flow past a flat plate 10 feet long, set parallel to the flow, plot on
one diagram, the limits of the boundary layers for the following cases of air
flow:
(i) approach velocity 1 ft./sec., wholly laminar boundary layer.
(ii) approach velocity 100 ft./sec., wholly turbulent boundary layer.
(iii) approach velocity 100 ft.jsec. with a transition from laminar to
turbulent boundary layer at R- 5 x 106•
Take Yair- 1·6 X w-a ft. 2fsec. and plot 8 to full scale and X to fo full scale.
For calculations of 8, 3 values will suffice for each of cases (i) and (ii) and 5 or
6 values for case (iii).
76
3
GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS, NUMERICAL
ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL
ANALOGIES
IN order to determine the pattern of irrotational flow for a given set
of boundary conditions it is necessary to find the solution of the
Laplace equation in 1/J or cp which satisfies those boundary conditions.
Mathematical solutions have been found for a number of relatively
simple flow patterns by the inverse procedure of investigating known
solutions of the Laplace equation and determining the boundary
conditions which these solutions can be considered to satisfy. The
mathematical approach has the advantage of the generality with
regard to the application of its solutions, against which must be set
the disadvantage of mathematical complexity in all hu,t the simplest
of cases.
There are several alternative methods of approach which are
readily applicable to individual cases of two-dimensional irro-
tational flows, regardless of the complexity of the boundary forms.
These methods yield only particular solutions and they are approxi-
mate but their precision can be carried almost to any degree required
and they are quite adequate for most practical purposes. In the
present chapter, consideration is given to three approximate methods
of approach, the graphical, the numerical and the experimental
analogy methods. Attention is directed primarily to the graphical
and numerical methods, which require no special equipment for
their application.
3.1 Graphical flow nets

( 1) Principle
The flow net, as described in Section 1.11 consists of a family of
streamlines and a family of velocity potential lines drawn to represent
a pattern of two-dimensional irrotational flow. At any point
v - oQ - or/; - Ocp
-on.- on- OS
where on and Ss are, respectively, the streamline and equipotential
77
FLOW NETS, ANALYSIS AND ANALOGIES
line spacings. If the constant intervals St/J and Scp are made equal,
Sn equals Ss in all parts of the flow net, which then appears as a net-
work of units which are very nearly squaers. In each unit the median
lines are equal and the angles are right angles, for the equipotential
lines intersect the streamlines, including the boundaries at 90°
(Fig. 1.19).
These characteristics enable a flow net to be constructed by means
of trial-and-error sketching of squares upon a diagram representing
the known boundaries of flow. Despite the inaccuracies and errors
due to personal bias which are inherent in most graphical methods,
different operators usually obtain surprisingly good agreement in
analyses based on this method, even when they adopt different
numbers of streamlines in their flow patterns.
(2) Method of Construction

The graphical procedure for the construction of a flow net (Fig. 3.1)
is as follows:
(i) Decide upon the number of streamlines required to yield the
necessary details with the desired precision. Additional lines can be
Uniform
flow
Figure 3.1-Construction of a flow net
drawn later in portions of the net to improve local accuracy if this is

desired. Sketch the streamlines in regions where the velocity distri-
butions are evident, such as in parallel or radial flow, well away from
changes in boundary alignment.
(ii) Sketch lightly the remaining portions of the streamlines with
smooth curves. The spacing should decrease with decrease of radius
on curves, since, in irrotational flow around a curved path (free vortex
flow), the product of velocity and radius is constant (see Fig. 1.23).
(iii) Sketch the potential lines. Since these should fulfil the two
conditions of intersecting all streamlines, including the boundaries
78
GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS
normally, and forming squares with the streamlines, it will be found

necessary to adjust the initial streamline locations from time to time.
The process is a trial-and-error one, in which the operator improves
with practice, 'thinking in two-dimensions' as he sketches. The
diagonals of the 'squares' should form smooth curves which intersect
each other normally and this fact can be used to check the accuracy
of the net. (Fig. 3.2). At the stagnation points the occurrence of
five-sided units results from the practical impossibility of obtaining
an infinite spacing of streamlines in the region. The first potential
lines sketched in should be those adjacent to a stagnation point. They
can then be spaced nearly equally about the stagnation point, a
feature which enhances the appearance of the net (Fig. 3.1).
Total head line
Figure 3.2-Flow net for flow over a weir
(iv) Free surfaces, such as those of jets and weir nappes, must be
located by trial such that, when the net is drawn, the velocity along
the free surface is in accord with the boundary conditions of the
problem. Thus, for those jet profiles which are assumed to be un-
affected by gravity the spacing of the potential lines along the free
surface should be constant, indicating a constant surface velocity,
corresponding to a constant surface pressure. The velocity will not
be constant across the jet unless the streamlines are parallel. For jet
profiles and weir nappes which are appreciably affected by gravity,
the spacing of the potential lines along the free surface should be
such that the velocity head at any surface point equals the distance
of the point below the total head line (Fig. 3.2).
v= v(2gh ) = &~>
" 8s
where & is the cJ>-line spacing at the free surface and h" is the velocity
79
head, equal to H-z (Eq. 1.44b)

ocfo = y(2g) y'(hv) OS .... (3.la)
n
c?n-c?o = y(2g)!: [ y(h") os] .... (3.lb)
0
Since Or? is constant, the product y'(hv)os should be constant for all
points on the free surfaces (Eq. 3.la); the total change in rP from
some arbitrary origin to any point on the free surface should be as
indicated by Eq. 3.lb.
(v) Pressure distributions for flow without gravitational effects
Figure 3.3--Flow net and pressure distribution for flow under a sluice
gate (after Rouse)
can be plotted effectively in terms of (p-p 0 ) or, non-dimensionally,

~ -:~ (Fig. 1.28); for flow with gravitational effects but without a
zP o
free surface, the piezometric head, h = !!_ + ;:;, or the non-dimensional
y
term, ~:-/~0 is generally appropriate (Fig. 1.29); and for gravity flow
0 g
with a free surface, the pressure head, 1!_, is a convenient variable for
y
plotting purposes. Fig. 3.3 will repay study in this regard.
(vi) A tendency to separate is indicated where the velocity at a
boundary reaches a maximum and thereafter decreases in the
direction of flow. Such a local deceleration may occur even when the
flow, in general, is accelerating (Fig. 3.1). Should separation occur
as a result of local deceleration, the resulting pattern of flow differs
from tllat indicated by the flow net, and the flow net procedure is
inapplicable in the region of the flow affected by the separation.
80
GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS
Example
3.1. For the two-dimensional flow under a gate (Fig. 3.3), if h0 - 8 ft.
and b - 2 · 5 ft. determine the flow rate, the pressure distributions on the
floor and gate, and the total thrust on the gate per foot width by means of a
flow net analysis. Check the thrust estimate by means of the impulse
momentum equation.
Solution.-The free surface profiles are sketched in and a flow net is drawn.
The downstream profile is checked by testing for constancy of (hv)8s. v
Trus check requires a fairly large drawing for effective results. After necessary
adjustments the final net is drawn.
hl 1·5
From measurement, Cc ~ b - 2 . 5 - 0·60
Assuming zero energy loss through the gate

va va
ho + --.! - ht + ___].
2g 2g
va va
.. 8+_!1- 1·5+-1 .... (a)
2g 2g
Also
vl ho 8 .... (b)
V0 - h;. - 1·5
va
V1 - 20 · 83 ft./sec., V0 - 3 · 91 ft.jsec., 2; - 0 · 24 ft.
:. TotalheadH- 8·24ft.
Discharge per ft. width q - V0 h0 - 3 · 91 x 8 - 31 · 25 ft. 2}sec.
q
:. cd - b1/(2gho) - 0·55
Thrust, F', from the area of the pressure diagram= 925lb.
By impulse-momentum
Qp(V~- Vo) - Fo-Ft-F'
:. F' - 912 lb.
which is in fair agreement with the flow net figure.
A qualitative idea of simple flow pattern combinations can fre-
quently be made by sketching streamlines so as to satisfy known
boundary conditions. The flow net technique can then be used to
refine the pattern.
For example, suppose that the pattern of flow is required for the
condition shown in Fig. 3.4a. Clearly, the stream channels termina-
ting at B will be the left-hand half of those originating at A. The
balance will move to the right, where, at a large distance they will
approach the pattern of radial flow from the origin. The resulting
streamlines are sketched in Fig. 3.4b.
81
(b)
Figure 3.4-Streamlines located approximately by inspection.
(3) Seepage Flow Nets
The Darcy Law for steady flow at low rates through a granular
non-cohesive material (Fig. 3.5a) is
dh
Q = -KA ds .... (3.2a)
dh
or V= - K - ...• (3.2b)
ds
where Q = the flow rate
A = the gross area of flow path
~~ = the piezometric gradient along the flow path
K = a transmission constant, which depends upon the
permeability of the material and the specific weight and
viscosity of the fluid
V = ~, the mean velocity, based upon the gross area. (It is

not the velocity in the pores.)
Figure 3.5a-Flow through porous material

82
GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS
This equation is found to hold for values of R = Vd up to unity,

v
where dis the average grain diameter.
Equation 3.3b meets the requirements of potential flow for, if
cp = - Kh, V = - K ~~ = ~, even though the flow within the pores
is essentially viscous and hence rotational. Flow net methods are
therefore applicable, and lines of constant piezometric head are lines
of constant potential.
(i) Confined flow-For flow between and in contact with solid
boundaries, through a material which is isotropic as regards perme-
ability, the flow net configuration is determined solely by the form
of the confining boundaries. For example, in the case of percolation
under a dam through a porous layer which overlies an impervious
layer, the flow pattern is independent of the upstream and down-
stream water levels. The difference, H, in these levels merely deter-
mines the scale of the flow (Fig. 3.5b). Since Srp is constant between
AH=~= 1~
Figure 3.5b-Percolation under a concrete dam
adjacent rp-lines, the total drop in piezometric head, H, is divided

along any flow line into equal increments, LJH, so that, with n unit
squares in each channel of the flow net, the decrease in piezometric
head, or uplift pressure head, along the base of the dam follows from
the values of the piezometric head at the points of intersection of the
rp-lines with the base.
The effectiveness of cut-off walls and sheet-piling in various
locations and of upstream and downstream aprons, in reducing
uplift pressures can be readily investigated by means of flow nets.
Each of these devices lengthens the seepage paths, cut-offs producing
83
a vertical drop in the piezometric gradient and aprons decreasing its

slope (Fig. 3.6). Points ofhigh velocity at the downstream end of the
net, where' piping' may occur, can be identified readily and remedial
proposals studied on flow nets.
Figure 3.6-Effects of aprons and cut-offs on uplift pressure distribution

on the base of a dam. (a) Upstream apron, (b) downstream apron,
(c) cut-off near the heel, (d) "cut-off near the toe
The rate of flow through a unit square of one channel, per foot
length of dam (Fig. 3.5b) is
dh
q = -KAds
= K8nHfn
8s
= K !!_since the length, 8s, equals the
n
channel width 8n
Form channels, each carrying an equal flow, q, the total flow Q is mq
m
Q=K-H •.•. (3.3)
n
So far as the discharge is concerned the flow net merely determines
the ratio~ . In its construction, the number ofchannels m is arbitrarily
n
84
GRAPHICAL FLOW NETS
selected, 4, 5 or 6 channels being usually satisfactory. The number of

squares per channel varies with the number of channels but the total
flow determinations for different values of m generally agree with
each other surprisingly well.
The construction of the flow net proceeds upstream and down-
stream from trial locations of the portions of the streamlines in the
narrowest region of the flow path.
Figure 3.7-Flow net for anisotropic material (Kn= 9Kv). The

horizontal scale is reduced by the factor v'(Kv/Kn) =-!and a
normal flow net is drawn (a). The corresponding net can then
be plotted on the undistorted plan (b) if desired. The effective
value of K for discharge calculations is v' K H K v = 3K v
ExaDlple
3.2. If, in Fig. 3.5b, H = 32 ft. and K - 2 · 0 ft. per day, estimate the rate
of seepage per foot width of dam.
Solution.-
m 4
Q = K nH = 2 x I5 x 32 = 17 ft. 3 fdayjft. width
Ifthenetisdrawn withm = 5channe1s, nisfound to be 19,givingQ = 16·8;

with m = 6, n = 22, andQ = 17·4.
The average permeability of natural sandy soils in a horizontal

direction may be from 2 to l 0 times the value for the vertical direction.
A modification in the flow net construction to allow for this directional
4 85
J(:;),
property involves drawing the structure with the horizontal dimen-
sions reduced by the factor where K v and Kn are the
transmission constants in the vertical and horizontal directions
respectively. A flow net is drawn for the distorted boundary (Fig. 3.7)
and the discharge is computed on the basis of Eq. 3.3 with
K = y'(KnKv)· The effect of this procedure is to reduce the number
of squares per channel, n, and so to increase the calculated flow rate.
There is no need to replot the net to a natural scale.
Figure 3.8-Flow net for a simple earth dam. The seepage line is located approxi-
mately by construction of the parabola ACF withE as focus, and passing through
the point A; and sketching in the transitions at Band D
Another example of confined flow through a porous medium is the

flow into an artesian well. If the well screen is open to the full depth
in an extensive aquifer of uniform thickness and permeability, the
flow is two-dimensional in the plane of the aquifer. A graphical flow
net can be drawn upon the assumption that, away from the well,
the flow is parallel. Simpler procedures are the graphical and
analytical methods of combining parallel flow and flow to or from
a point, described in Section 4.8, the resulting pattern being similar
to that shown in Fig. 4.12, with the directions of flow reversed.
The flow net for a field of artesian wells can be sketched so as to
agree with the measured rates of pumping and with observed piezo-
metric elevations in the wells, contours of equal piezometric height
being adopted as lines of equal velocity potential.
(ii) Uncorifinedjlow-In the case of seepage through an earth dam,
the upper surface of the flow, known as the line of saturation or phreatic
line, is at atmospheric pressure and the flow is called 'unconfined'.
The phreatic line is a streamline whose intersections with potential
lines are equally spaced, vertically, by the decrement LlH = !!_ •
n
This line must be located initially by trial, an empirical rule for its
86
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
location, due to Casagrande, providing the designer with a good

approximate location (Fig. 3.8). The upstream face of the dam
becomes a line of constant potential but the downstream face is
neither a streamline nor a potential line. The flow rate is determined
from the net in accordance with Eq. 3.3.
Unconfined flow to a well is flow with a free surface which is
drawn down in the vicinity of the well. Such non-uniform, three-
dimensional patterns cannot be represented by normal two-dimen-
sional flow nets but approximate theoretical methods have been
developed to deal with them. t
3.2 Nwnerical analysis

Numerical methods of integration, based upon the calculus of
finite differences, can be used to determine patterns of flow in cases
which, because of the complexity of their boundary forms, cannot be
solved by ordinary analytical methods. The general approach
(b)
Figure 3.9--Definition of the numerical form of Laplace equation.
(a) Symmetrical cross, (b) asymmetrical cross
requires the assumption of a network of values of if;, or tfo, and these

values are systematically adjusted so as to satisfy the Laplace Equation
and the boundary conditions. The method yields only particular
solutions, but it is simple both in principle and in practice and it is
readily adaptable to machine computation.
Consider a square mesh of side, a, superimposed in the x-y plane
upon a pattern of flow and let the values of if; at the intersections
1, 2, 3 and 4, be if;l> if;2, if; 3, and if;, respectively (Fig. 3.9a). It is a
characteristic of the Laplace equation that, provided the mesh is
sufficiently fine, the value 1/;0 at 0 will be almost equal to the numerical
t See reference 4 at the end of this chapter for a summary of these developments.
87
average of,P11 ,P2, ,P 3, and ,P, as the following reasoning shows. Assum-
ing that the variation of,P between adjacent intersections of the mesh
can be taken as linear with little error, then, for the points A and B
o,P I = lf1- !fo oif; I

ox B_- !fo -!fa
ox A a ' --a-
and, for the point 0,
Similarly
.... (3.4)
Since o2ifl + o2ifl = V2!f = o

ox 2 oy 2
then, if the values o/1> if;2, if; 3 ••• are correct

lf1 +!f2+!fa+if;, -4% = 0 .... (3.5)
lfo = H!f1 +!f2 +J/la +,P,) .... (3.6)

With the approximate values adopted for ,P, Eq. 3.6 will not be
satisfied and the object of the subsequent operations is so to adjust
the ¢;-values that the equation is satisfied throughout the grid. Of
the various methods of effecting the adjustments, the one to be
described is recommended as the simplest. Moreover, it is rapid,
self-checking and readily programmed for the digital computer.
As in the case of the graphical method and all other methods of
solution, sufficient information must be available concerning all
boundaries, including inflow and outflow boundaries. In steady
flow, solid boundaries are streamlines and free surface boundaries
are streamlines of constant pressure. Inflow and outflow boundaries
may be lines across which the velocity is constant, as in regions of
uniform or radial flow; or they may be lines of symmetry extending
across the flow pattern. Usually they are equipotential lines. For
patterns of flow of infinite extent with solid interior boundaries, such
as that of flow past a cylinder, external boundaries for the purposes
of analysis can be located along streamlines and or equipotential lines
88
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
selected sufficiently far from the interior boundaries as to be practically

unaffected by them.
The procedure is described with reference to the example shown
in Fig. 3.1 0, which is the pattern of irrotational flow past a cylinder
placed midway between parallel walls. Owing to symmetry, only
one quarter of the pattern needs to be considered (Fig. 3.11). The
inflow boundary is located along a straight line AE normal to the
direction of flow, in a region where the velocity distribution is judged
to be practically uniform. At the outflow boundary, BC, the velocity
is not uniform since the streamlines are curved and the velocity varies
inversely as the radius. However, across this line of symmetry, the
tangents to all streamlines are parallel to the boundary AB and there
Figure 3.10-Irrotational flow past a cylinder

placed midway between parallel walls
is zero acceleration in the direction of flow. The other boundaries,

AB and EDC are streamlines. These, then, are the boundary
conditions of the problem. The steps in the procedure are as follows:
(i) Upon a scale drawing of the known boundaries, allot arbitrary
values of if; to the boundary streamlines. In the example, the longi-
tudinal centre-line and cylinder boundary are taken as if; = 0 and
the plane wall as if;= 100 (Fig. 3.11).
(ii) Superimpose on the drawing a rectangular grid of equal
squares. This grid is not, of course, a flow net. At each grid inter-
section, or 'node point', enter an estimate of the value of if; at that
point. Along the boundaries, the !/;-values must be in accord with
the known values. Accurate estimating of the interior !/;-values is
not essential but it does reduce the number of adjusting operations.
Roughly sketched streamlines assist in the estimation of the interior
values.
In the example, the !/;-values vary uniformly from 0 to 100 across
the inflow boundary, EA. Along outflow boundary BC, the distri-
bution of tfi-values is not uniform but it is known from considerations
89
of symmetry that the rfo-value distributions are identical along the

adjacent grid-lines PQ and P'Q'. The three sketched streamlines
1/J = 75, 1/J =50 and 1/J = 25 provide a rough guide to the estimation
of interior 1/J-values.
(iii) At each node point, cross out the assumed 1/J-value and enter
above it the average of the four nearest surrounding values in
accordance with Eq. 3.6. This operation may be called 'relaxing a
node'. t Nodes can be relaxed in any order, a simple, systematic
A p'
r~~~~~~~~DD~~~DD~~~~~~~~~lOO
72
74_ ~- ~-
24- Signifi~ didthat

I, Jrelaxation
I not alter the
, value
E
0
D
----+
Figure 3.11-Flow past a cylinder between parallel walls by numerical analysis.
Coarse grid relaxation. The long dash lines show the estimated positions of
three streamlines, and from these, initial numerical values at the node points
were obtained. The short dash lines are based upon 90° corner flow
method being to proceed from left to right along each of the hori-
zontal grid-lines in turn, as has been done in the example. In order
that the nodes on boundary BC might be relaxed, the adjustments on
the line PQ are entered also at corresponding nodes on the mirror
image line, P'Q'.
(iv) A node may have one or two of the arms of its cross shorter
than the normal grid spacing, owing to the proximity of a boundary,
and the rfo-values at the ends of the shorter arms will have a greater
than normal influence on the central 1/J-value. Allowance for such
asymmetry can be made by the use, in place ofEq. 3.6, of the weighted
formula, Eq. 3. 7, which is developed with reference to Fig. 3.9b. The
normal node spacing being a, and the short legs being ,\1 a and ~a
t The term 'relaxing' is used here for convenience. The process described is
really iteration or successive approximation. 'Relaxation' is now widely understood
to involve the determination of the residuals, or errors, at each node and the
distribution among adjacent nodes of those errors, the larger ones usually receiving
priority of attention.
90
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
respectively, a development similar to that ofEq. 3.6, incorporating

the approximations
HI +.:\1) ~ t(l +~) ~ 1
yields
if! _ if!J.:\1 +o/2/~ +if! a+if!, .... (3.7)
0 - 1/.:\1 + lf.:\2+2
1000
827 778
849 W& 811 797 784 'tee- (784 )
~ 840 -8* ~ -'f9S- 'ffl!j- ~ ('1&S)
679 652 618 585 555 555
699 $-t V5V -6Zt -5l!'r -56e" 544
'
-700- -i30- -666- -6r5- 59& -5* -5-*
553 522 479 423 359 309 291 309
-s5Jr -5%-+ <raf lrrr %-4 :Je5- ~ ~
-sse- -55 f.4.ge. -4% %& ~ -r'f5- (a+&'
415 315 228 124 ·t
irtT 376 ~ 2-3-;3 +a 33
<oM- 3-7-Q. -3-Z& ~ B& -2-9- 0
289
~ 245
169
+74- 50 k70\i=ic
0)t--
'""""
300- 'l:lrl- -1%- -w 2 '
~-.!_
179 137 63
**
t-TT- +.19-
-18& fr5- -3
0
84
-&5- 58 9 :4=.!_
-00- ~ 2
0
~,Z=l
0 t 0 0 10
-
Figure 3.12-Numerical analysis. Portion of the calculation sheet
for the fine grid relaxation of the pattern of Fig. 3.11. The large
figures are those obtained from the coarse grid analysis
For example, the node R (Fig. 3.11) has one short arm for which
= ! and therefore, in Eq. 3. 7, .:\2 = 1 and
.:\1
o/o = 4ifot +o/2+o/a +if!,

7
This formula is used for each relaxation at the point, R.
(v) Since the !fo-value of a node is involved in the calculation of
the ifo-values of the four nodes nearest to it, each relaxation affects
the four surrounding nodes. It is necessary, therefore, to carry the
91
relaxing process through the grid several times until the adjustments
due to relaxing become insignificant. The if-values will then be
substantially correct except in the neighbourhood of singular points
and in regions where the variation of velocity with distance is rapid
and the assumption of a linear variation of if between node points
introduces appreciable error. In the example (Fig. 3.11) three sets
of relaxations brought the if-values into equilibrium. If all interior
if-values had been taken initially as zero, eight sets of relaxations
would have been required to produce the same result, so that time is
saved if approximate estimates of the if-values at node points can be
made at the start.
600
544
400
0
0 ---+
Figure 3.13--Numerical analysis. Portion of the final flow pattern obtained by
interpolation from the fine grid figures
(vi) The precision of the procedure can be increased if the

boundaries are redrawn and a finer grid is superimposed over all or
portion of the flow. Use is made of the if-values determined in the
coarse grid, and if-values for intermediate nodes are interpolated.
The if-values can be expressed to three significant figures instead of
the two figures used in the coarse grid and the relaxing process is
carried through the fine grid until equilibrium is reached (Fig. 3.12).
(vii) Finally the streamlines are drawn on the basis of the adjusted
if-values and the stream pattern is established (Fig. 3.13).
92
EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGIES
Modifications to the numerical process have been devised for the

treatment of stagnation points. It is also possible to use the semi-
graphical method of plotting a series of streamlines determined from
an analytical solution of a simple stagnation flow which corresponds
approximately with local conditions. For example, in the neighbour-
hood of the point D in Fig. 3.11, streamlines for 90° corner flow
(Fig. 1.16) can be lightly sketched and used as a guide for the graphical
interpolation of additional rp-lines. Alternatively, the graphical
flow net procedure can be used in the region of the stagnation point.
The methods of numerical analysis have been successfully applied
to numerous problems in two-dimensional flow, including flows past
immersed bodies, free efflux and weir flows, cavitation flows (in
conjunction with measured pressures) and percolation. It is also
applicable to three-dimensional axi-symmetric flows (see Section
7.10).
3.3 Experimental analogies
(i) Membrane Analogy
A thin elastic membrane, such as a rubber sheet or a soap film,
can be stretched over a suitably shaped frame so as to form a
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.14-Forces acting on an elemerrt of a membrane
three-dimensional surface whose contours, in plan view, correspond

closely to the streamlines of a flow pattern.
The equation of the membrane surface (Fig. 3.14a) can be written
f(x,y, z) = 0 or z = f(x,y). At each point on the surface, the internal
elastic or surface tension forces and any present external forces are
in equilibrium. It is assumed that the membrane is so thin that its
rigidity is negligible and that gravity forces need not be considered;
further, the internal stress, a, is assumed to be everywhere !ind in all
directions constant and deflections are assumed to be so small that
secondary stresses due to them need not be considered.
For a small element ABCD of the surface, with plan dimensions
4* 93
8x, 8y (Fig. 3.14 b and c), the magnitude of the vertical component
of the internal force acting across the side AB is
V = u8ysina:
oz
~ u8yox
provided that the angle a: is small. The magnitude of the vertical

component acting on the side CD is V + ~~8x, so that the net up-
ward force on the sides AB and CD is
av oz
2
ox 8x ~ u ox2 8x8y
Similarly, the net upward force on the sides BC and DA is found
to be
av oz
2
ay 8y ~ u oy2 8x8y
If there is an excess pressure, LJp, acting on the underside of the

membrane, then, for the vertical equilibrium of the element
o2 z o2 z
u axz 8x8y+u ayz 8x8y+LJp8x8y = 0
.... (3.8)
a Poisson equation.
The Navier-Stokes equations for steady, viscous flow in the
z-direction, in a conduit of any arbitrary constant cross-section take
the form
azw o2 w 1 dp
- 2+ -2 = - - (constant)
ox oy p.dz
the value of the velocity, w, being zero at all points on the conduit
boundary. A membrane stretched across a plane former having
the shape of the conduit boundary, and extended by an excess
internal pressure LJp such that, to some scale
LJp = _'!_dP
p.dz
will form a surface whose contours or lines of constant height, z,
correspond to isovels, or lines of constant velocity, w, on the conduit
cross-section.
94
If Jp is zero, Eq. 3.8 becomes

o2 z o2 z ... (3.9)
ox2 + oy2 = 0
a Laplace equation, in which z may be considered analogous either
to 1/J or to q, in irrotational flow. Whereas in the viscous flow analogy
described above, the membrane is stretched across the flow path, in
the two-dimensional irrotational flow analogy it is stretched so that
its plan projection lies in the plane of the flow. For example, if z be
assumed to represent 1/J to some scale, a parallel stream flow pattern
would result from the use of a plane membrane surface of constant
width extending in the direction of the flow but inclined in a direction
normal to that of the flow. The contours, or lines of equal z value,
would be parallel lines in the direction of the flow, equally spaced in
plan.
---t=::.:.----!
--~
---~
L----------J
-------::===
-----/-
-----
.......--
(a) (b)
Figure 3.15-Use of membrane analogy to determine the flow pattern in a
symmetrical contraction
The membrane surface need not lie in one plane and Fig. 3.15
provides a simple example of a non-planar membrane used to
determine the irrotational flow pattern in a symmetrical contraction.
It is necessary to know beforehand the conditions around the
boundaries. For example, in Fig. 3.15 it is known that 1/J is constant
along the side boundary and along the centre-line and that it varies
uniformly across the flow in regions of uniform flow.
The patterns of flow past an immersed body are obtainable by
the methods indicated in Figs. 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18. In Fig. 3.16, the
outer boundary represents th~ regions of uniform flow, the membrane
is attached around the inner body at a constant height and the
resulting contours yield the symmetrical pattern of flow past a
cylinder. In Fig. 3.17, the contours yield the pattern of circulatory
flow around a cylinder. Fig. 3.18, in which the membrane is attached
95
to the inner body at a level above the mid-height of the outer boun-
dary, shows the pattern of flow past a body with circulation (see
Fig. 4.14).
Figure 3.16-Flow past Figure 3.1 7-Circulatory Figure 3.18-Flow past a

a cylinder-membrane flow around a cylinder- cylinder with circulation-
analogy (Betz) membrane analogy membrane analogy
(Betz) (Betz)
In the case of rubber membranes, the contours can be located by

means of a movable point gauge. With soap films, illumination by
means of horizontal light planes makes the contour lines visible. It
is sometimes more convenient to measure the soap film surface slopes,
by means of the reflection of light rays, than to measure heights, for
the velocity at a point is directly related to the surface slope since
u = ~t oc ~~. Accurate slope determinations are possible with refined
methods such as stereoscopic photography.
(2) The Electrical Analogy

The flow of an electric current in a two-dimensional conductor is
analogous to irrotational flow. The electrical potential V is the
counterpart of 4> and the components Ex and Ey of the field strength
vector E are the counterparts of u and v respectively. The relevant
equations in electric field theory are
a2 v a2 v .... (3.10)
ax2 + ay2 = 0
av av
Ex = ax ' Ey = ay .... (3.11)
A sheet of conducting material or a shallow bath of electrolyte

is shaped so that its boundary is similar to that of the flow pattern to
be investigated. If a voltage drop is established along the conductor
between the flow entrance and exit boundaries, a potential pattern
96
geometrically similar to that in the fluid is set up. A voltmeter or

potentiometer probe is used to locate lines of constant potential. If
the voltage drop is established across the flow, between the limits
representing solid boundaries, the probe can be used to locate a set
oflines orthogonal to the first set, that is, streamlines (Fig. 3.19).
This method has been extended to axially symmetrical three-
dimensional flow problems.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.19-Electrical analogy. Diagrammatic arrangements for the location of
equipotential lines and streamlines in flow past a cylinder ina channel (see Fig. 3.12)
(3) The Viscous Flow Analogy

In viscous flow between horizontal parallel plates a small distance
apart, the velocity distribution across the gap is parabolic. For
small 'creeping' velocities, the mean velocity across the gap in any
region is very nearly proportional to the pressure gradient so that,
approximately
ap ap
u = -k- v = -k- .... (3.12)
ox' oy
Substitution of these values in the continuity equation
ou +~ = 0
ax ay
()2p ()2p
gives ox2 + oy2 = 0 .... (3.13)
the pressure being thus analogous to the velocity potential of irro-

tational flow. Hele-Shaw first demonstrated the application of this
97
method to the determination of irrotational flow patterns. A trans-

parent fluid is made to flow slowly between two parallel sheets of
glass spaced a small distance apart. Dye, fed in continuously at
regular intervals across the inflow boundary, traces out streamlines
for any boundary form or immersed object placed between the plates
(Fig. 3.20). There is a slight discrepancy in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the boundaries, where the distance from the boundaries
is of the same order as the plate spacing. A decrease in plate spacing
reduces the discrepancy.
Figure 3.20-Hele-Shaw pattern

of flow past a cylinder (compare
with Fig. 1.22)
REFERENCES
(1) RousE, H. 'Fundamental Principles of Flow', Chapter 1 of Engineering

Hydraulics, Wiley, 1950.
(2) jACOB, C. E. 'Flow of Ground Water', Chapter 5 of Engineering Hydraulics,
Wiley, 1950.
(3) CASAGRANDE, A. 'Seepage Through Dams',]. New Engl. Wat. Wks Ass. 51,
(1937), p. 139.
(4) FERRJS,j. G. 'Ground Water', Chapter 7 of Hydrology by Wisler and Brater,
Wiley, 1949.
(5) BETZ, A. Konforme Abbildung, Springer-Verlag, 1948.
(6) HUBBARD, P. G. 'Use of the Electrical Analogy in Fluid Mechanics Research',
Rev. Sci. Instrum. Vol. 20, No. 11, 1949.
For further study of numerical methods applied to fluid flow problems the reader
is referred to-
(i) Symposium 'Construction and Application of Conformal Maps', National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Dept. of Commerce (1952).
(ii) McNoWN, Hsu, and Ym, 'Applications of the Relaxation Technique in
Fluid Flow', Trans. A.S.C.E., 120, 1955, p. 650.
(iii) Southwell, R. V ., Sir, Relaxation Methods in Engineering Science, Oxford, 1959.
Problem.s
3.1. Draw the boundaries shown in Fig. 3.1 so that the width of the narrow
section is at least 3 inches and the overall length at least 15 inches. Draw a
flo~ net and, from measurements of the sizes of the squares, plot non-
dimensionally the distribution of pressure along each of the fixed boundaries.
98
PROBLEMS
3.2. Draw on an enlarged sketch a flow net for the two-dimensional bend
shown. Plot the velocity distributions along the boundaries non-dimen-

sionally and indicate any possible point or points of separation.
3.3. Draw the flow net for two-dimensional flow in the converging channel
past the circular cylinder shown in the figure. Show a non-dimensional

plot of the pressure distribution around the cylinder.
3.4. Construct a flow net for flow out of a narrow slot in the side of a
channel (Fig. 6./b). Plot the distribution of pressure along the opposite
wall in the vicinity of the slot.
3.5. Construct a flow net for two-dimensional flow under a sluice gate
if the upstream depth is 20 ft. and the gate opening is 5 ft. Use 5 flow channels
and locate the downstream free surface by trial. Determine the coefficients
of contraction and discharge, the pressure distributions on the gate and the
floor and the total pressure force per foot width on the gate. Check your
answer by means of the momentum equation (see Fig. 3.3).
99
3.6. The figure shows a section of sheetpiling in a permeable foundation.
•--
:!---
~
' //
If K ~ 2 X w-a cm.fsec. determine the rate of seepage per foot length of

sheetpiling in gallons per day.
Ans. 212 gai.Jday per ft. length
3.7. From flow nets with five channels drawn on enlarged sketches of this
dam, determine the quantity of seepage per day per foot length of dam and
the distribution of uplift pressure on the base
(i) for a homogeneous isotropic permeable stratum with K- 2 ·0 ft.Jday,
without the cut-off wall;
(ii) for the same foundation, with the cut-off wall;
(iii) for a foundation in which Kn- 8 and Kv- 2 ft.fday, without the
cut-off wall.
3".8. Determine the flow pattern of Problem 3.2 by numerical methods.

100
PROBLEMS
3.9. Determine by numerical analysis the flow pattern for confined flow
without separation past an inclined fiat plate. (The coarse grid size should
be~ and the fine grid size for the region in the vicinity of the plate, should be
a
16. Because of symmetry only the upper half of the pattern needs to be
considered.)
3.10. Determine the flow pattern for flow of an infinite fluid past a
cylinder by numerical methods.
3.11. (i) For steady, parallel, viscous flow through a tube of any cross-
sectional form
iJ2w iJ2w 1 dp
- + -2= - -
iJx2 iJy ~-tdz
~~ being a constant other than zero. Explain in detail how numerical

methods can be used to establish the velocity distribution across the tube.
(ii) A liquid of kinematic viscosity 0·001 ft. 2fsec. flows in a steady,1aminar
state through a long uniform conduit of rectangular cross-section 4 in. by 2 in.
If the head loss is 1·56 ft. ofliquid per 100ft., establish an expression for w
or use in a numerical analysis with a !-inch grid. Determine the velocity
distribution pattern and thence estimate the rate of flow.
= !(w1 + w2 + w3 + w, + 0·22)
Ans. w0
Q- 0·037 ft. 8fsec.
101
4
STANDARD PATTERNS OF FLOW
THE methods of the previous chapter are extremely valuable for

determining patterns of flow, particularly as a great many boundary
forms are too complex for analytical treatment. From a pattern so
obtained, the distributions of velocity and pressure can be determined
from ratios of its linear dimensions. However, it is sometimes advan-
tageous, in the investigation of the characteristics of flow past par-
ticular classes of boundary, to obtain if possible general mathematical
expressions for the velocity and pressure distributions.
An elegant method of mathematical treatment of many such
two-dimensional flow patterns is the method of conformal trans-
formations, to be introduced in the next chapter. In another method,
the required pattern is developed by combining simple, standard
patterns and it is this approach which is the subject of the present
chapter. From first principles we establish the cp- and ,P-functions
for four elementary patterns of two-dimensional irrotational flow,
namely uniform flow, a source (and a sink), a vortex and a doublet.
Consideration is then given to some of the combinations which have
been found to yield patterns of practical interest:
( 1) A source and a sink
(2) A vortex pair
(3) A source and a vortex (spiral vortex)
(4) A source and uniform flow (flow past a half-body)
(5) A doublet and uniform flow (flow past a cylinder)
(6) A doublet, vortex and uniform flow (flow past a cylinder, with
circulation)
(7) A source and sink and uniform flow (flow past a Rankine
body).
This approach yields reliable quantitative solutions to a number of
problems and rapid qualitative solutions to many more in which the
flow pattern can be represented approximately by a combination of
standard patterns. Further, its mastery will assist in the under-
standing of the method of conformal transformations and in an
appreciation of its power and conciseness.
102
UNIFORM FLOW
4.1 UDif'orm flow

For uniform, or parallel, steady, irrotational flow with a velocity
V, inclined at an angle ex to the x-axis (Fig. 4.1)
u = Vcosex = o4> = o,P

ox oy
v = Vsinex = o4> = - o,P
oy ox
whence 4> = V(xcosex+ysinex)
= ux+fDI .... (4.la)

,P = V{ycosex-xsinex)
= uy-vx .... (4.1b)
•
The constants ofintegration have been omitted from these expres-
sions for 4> and ,P. Such constants do not affect the pattern or con-
figuration of the 4> and ,P lines and it is usual to omit them in a general
y
Figure 4.1-Uniform flow at an angle a:

to the x-axis
treatment. They can be evaluated, if required, provided the numeri-

cal value of 4> (or ,P) is known at some definite point in the flow
pattern.
In polar co-ordinates, Eqs. 4.1 become
4> = Vr(cos6cosex+sin6sinex) = Vrcos (6-ex) .... (4.2a)
,P = Vr(sin6cosex-cos6sinex) = Vrsin (6-ex) .... (4.2b)
The special cases of flow parallel to the x- or y-axes are obtained by
substitution of the appropriate values of ex.
103
4.2 Source
If the pattern of flow in the x-y plane is radially outward from a
point and symmetrical in all directions in the plane of reference, the
point is called a 'simple source'. (Fig. 4.2.) If the flow is radially
inwards the point is known as a 'sink'. Sources and sinks are con-
venient mathematical concepts with no exact counterparts in nature,
for the source involves continual creation of fluid at a point, the sink
involves continual annihilation, and the velocities in the region of
the points approach infinite values. However, a radial flow to an
outlet, such as an artesian well, may resemble the sink pattern,
except in the sink's central region of very high velocity. The chief
y
Figure 4.2-Source at the origin; r/J = ~ 8 = m8
value of the concept of sources and sinks lies in the fact that, in
combination with other simple patterns, they produce more complex
patterns which closely resemble flow patterns occurring in nature.
The strength of a source is defined as the total flow per unit of
time, Q; for a sink the strength is - Q. At any radius, r, from a source,
.
SinCe t h e tangentla"1 ve1. . zero, ;locf>
OCity, VB, IS oO ando!fl or are zero
(Eq. 1.27b), that is, c/> varies only with r; and 1/J, only with 0. From
Eq. 1.27a
Q de/> 1 di/J
v, = 27Tr = dr = ; dO
c/>
Q
= -lnr = mlnr .... (4.3a)
271"
1/J = !Le
271"
= mO .... (4.3b)
104
SOURCE
where m = g_ a constant for a given source. Use of this source

27r
constant avoids the recurrence of the factor 27T.
It will be observed from Eq. 4.3b that t/J is a cyclic function. In
order that it should be single-valued everywhere (except at the origin,
which is a singular point), it is necessary that (}be restricted to the
range 0 to 27T. This can be achieved by the insertion of an imaginary
barrier, extending from the origin along the positive x-axis. The
barrier is not an obstacle to the flow but merely a device for converting
the doubly connected region to a simply connected one (see Appendix
Fig. A5(b)). On the upper face of the barrier t/J=O and on its lower
face, t/J = 27T.
'f1 =me'
Figure 4.3-Source at point P(x1,y1)
Lines of constant cp are concentric circles centred on the source and

lines of constant t/J are lines of constant (}, that is, radii. It will be
noted that the outward flow between any two radii t/11 and t/J2, whose
directions are (}1 and (}2 respectively, is
dQ = v,rd(} =;:1 dt/J

d(}rd(} = dt/J
a relationship between Qand t/J which was established in Eq. 1.16.

In cartesian co-ordinates,
cp = mlny'(x 2 +y2) = imln(x 2 +y 2) .... (4.4a)
t/J = mtan-1 -2' .... (4.4b)

X
lOS
and
v = v sin(} = my = ~
' r2 x2+y2
For the source at P(xuy1) in Fig. 4.3
,P :;= mlnr' = lmln [(x-x1) 2+ (y-y1) 2] .... (4.5a)
.p = m(}' = mtan-tY-Yt .... (4.5b)

x-x1
For a sink, which is simply a negative source, the ,P and 1/J values
are as given in Eq. 4.5, preceded by a negative sign.
4.3 Irrotational vortex

A flow pattern in which the streamlines are concentric circles is
known as a circular vortex. If the fluid particles rotate as they
revolve around the vortex centre, as they do in a rotating cup of
water, the vortex is said to be rotational or 'forced'. If the particles
do not rotate, the vortex is irrotational or 'free' and it is this type
which is now considered. Natural occurrences which approach the
condition of irrotational vortex, are the vortex which forms as a
container is drained through an orifice in its base and the air vortex
known as the tropical hurricane or 'tornado.
Figure 4.4-Flow in a
curved path
In the computation of the velocity distribution in an irrotational

vortex use is made of the facts that the pressure due to centrifugal
effects varies radially and the Bernoulli equation is applicable across
the_streamlines, that is, radially. In Fig. 4.4 the centripetal accelera-
tion (vffr) of the element of fluid equals the net pressure force acting
106
IRROTATIONAL VORTEX
radially inwards divided by the mass. If the mean cross-sectional

area of the element in the plane normal to the radius is dA
Force dpdA dpg v:
Mass = 2:' dA dr = y dr = r
g
:'!
dp = dr .... (4.6)
y gr
Bernoulli's equation for flow in a horizontal plane is
p V2
-y +-
2g = constant
dp V(JdV(J
-= .... (4.7)
y g
From Eqs. 4.6 and 4. 7
~ dr+ V(JdV(J = 0
gr g
V(Jdr+rdv(J = 0
i.e. V(J r = C (constant) .... (4.8)
The strength, K, of the vortex is defined as K = 2TTver = 27TC and
it is taken conventionally as positive for anticlockwise flow. Since
there is no radial flow, v, = ~~ = ~ ~~ = 0 and

1 dcfo do/
V(J = -- = - -
r dB dr
K
cfo = V(J r8 = 27T 8 .... (4.9a)
K
o/ = -fv(Jdr = -I~dr
27Tr
= --lnr
27T
.... (4.9b)
The pattern resembles that of a source with the cfo- and t/J-lines
interchanged (Fig. 4.5a). As with t/J in the source pattern, cfo for the
irrotational vortex is a cyclic function which must be made single-
valued by means of a barrier along the positive x-axis. On the upper
face of the barrier cfo=O; on its lower face, cfo=K.
In the theoretical irrotational vortex, the relationship V(Jr = C
results in V(J approaching infinity as r approaches zero. In vortices
of real fluids owing to the effects of viscosity, a narrow central
107
filament of fluid rotates almost as a solid core and the velocity, vo,
increases linearly with radius from a value of zero at the axis to the
outer regions of this core, where there is a transition from the rota-
tional to the irrotational velocity distribution (Fig. 4.5b). This is the
Rankine combined vortex and it is a closer approximation than the
simple irrotational vortex to the motion of air in tornadoes and behind
wing tips and of water at drain holes and behind the tips of propellers.
I
I
A
lI _ - - - - ·X
r!Transition region
Rotational Irrotalional
'< 1
flow flow
\
I I
Kl I
~ = 21t () :: c () I
jl =-::r lnr,-C ln r
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5-(a) Irrotational vortex at the origin, (b) irrotational vortex with a
rotational vortex core (schematic)
It is appropriate here to introduce the idea of circulation, F

(gamma), which is a mathematical concept of importance in the
theory of aerofoils, fans, pumps and turbines. Circulation is defined
as the line integral of the velocity vector around a closed curve
within the fluid. The line integral, L, of the velocity vector between
two points A and B (Fig. 4.6a) is the integral of the product of the
line element, ds, and the component, V cosoc, of velocity in the
direction of ds.
B
LAB= J Vcosocds
A
If the curve is a closed curve (Fig. 4.6b) the line integral is called the
circulation,
r = ~ Vcosocds .... (4.10)
108
IRROTATIONAL VORTEX
r
the dimensions of being ft. 2fsec. It should be noted that it is not
necessary that individual fluid elements traverse the circuit. For
example, in Fig. 4.6b, if the flow is steady, the paths of the fluid
elements coincide with the streamlines. On the other hand, if the
circuit selected is a streamline, for example the circles in Fig. 4.5a,
the fluid elements do traverse the circuit.
B
L =J Vcosads f Vcosocds
A
(a)
Figure 4.6-Line integral of velocity, and circulation
The circulation calculated around a streamline of an irrotational

vortex is a measure of the intensity of the vortex. It is
r = V(Jfds = 21TTV(J = 27TC = K .... (4.11)
which is independent of r. Hence the circulation around all stream-

lines of the vortex is constant and equal to the strength of the
vortex.
The vortex centre, or axis, is a singular point and it is shown in
Appendix A(ii) that the circulation about any curve enclosing the
axis and no other singular point equals the vortex strength; and that
the circulation around any closed curve which does not enclose the
axis or any other singular point must be zero. The path ABCD
(Fig. 4.5a) consisting of arcs and radial lines is one such curve for
which it is apparent that the circulation is zero, for
rABCD = LAu+Luc+Lco+LoA
= VATAoc+0-VoTooc-0
=0
since vr is a constant for the irrotational vortex.
109
The circulation about an elemental surface of area SS is shown in

Appendix A(ii) to be
sr = ( ox
ou- ou)
oy
ss
whence dT = ou -~ = {
ds ox oy
where {is the vorticity as defined by Eq. 1.10. In Chapter 1 it was
seen that the vorticity at a point is twice the mean angular velocity,
w, of a small element of fluid surrounding the point. From the above
it is evident that the vorticity is also equal to the circulation around
an elemental surface divided by the area of the surface. The com-
ponent vorticity in a given direction equals the circulation around an
elemental surface normal to the direction divided by the area of the
surface.
A more detailed treatment of vortex motion is given in Chapter 8.
4.4 Doublet
In order to produce the pattern of a doublet, a source and a sink
of numerically equal strengths, Q, (Fig. 4.7 a and b) are considered
to approach one another under such conditions that, as the distance,
Ss, between them approaches zero their strengths increase in such a
manner that the product ~ Ss, or mSs, tends towards a particular
finite value, 1-'· The final result is a doublet of strength I-'• with its
axis in the direction of Ss, reckoned positive from sink to source.
(Fig. 4.7c). The pattern is that of flow issuing from a point, moving
initially in the positive direction of the axis, spreading out to flow
in the reverse direction and finally returning to the point. This
pattern has no exact counterpart ip nature, but the unsteady pattern
of flow produced by a cylinder moving through an otherwise station-
ary fluid corresponds to that portion of a doublet pattern which lies
outside the cylinder boundary (Fig. 4.13b). Moreover, the combina-
tion of a doublet with uniform flow yields the pattern of steady flow
past a cylinder (Fig. 4.13a).
Use will be made, in the following derivation of the doublet
cp- and 1/J-functions, of the approximation In (1 +x);:::: x, if x is
very much less than unity. This follows from the fact that
2
ex= 1 +x+ ~! + ... ;: : 1 +x if x~ 1. Since for any point Pin Fig. 4.7b,
110
DOUBLET
y
t
1( X
1/J = m InC!
rz
(a) J6 =·m (62·61 )
/
/
I
I
I
'\
I \
I
X
I
\ I
I
/
/
; : f-C~8
; = -# s~n 8
(c)
Figure 4.7-(a) and (b) Source-sink combination, (c) doublet at the origin
111
rPsource = mlnr1 and rPsink = -mlnr2 , their sum is

,P = mlnr1 -mlnr2
= mln(l+~)
Sr
~ m-
r2
As SO approaches zero, mSs approaches JL and therefore ,P approaches

JLCOS8
r
ifJ = m81 -m82 = m(81 -82)
Sn mSssinO
~- m- = -
r2 rs
As Ss approaches zero, mSs approaches JL and therefore ifJ approaches
_JLsin8.
r
Hence the functions for the doublet are
tP = JLCOS8 = ~ .... (4.12a)

r x2+y2
ifJ = _JLS~n8 = _ )~y 2 .... (4.12b)
The curves ,P = constant have rfcos 8 constant, that is they are circles
tangent to they-axis (Fig. 4.8a). The curves ifJ =constant have
r/sin8 constant. They are therefore circles tangent to the x-axis
(Fig. 4.8b). The velocity components at any point in a doublet
pattern are
1 oifl 11- cos o
v, = T"ao = --r
JLSin8
VB= -----;2
GRAPHICAL ADDITION OF PATTERNS
and the absolute value of the velocity at the point is therefore
.... (4.13)
The magnitude of the velocity is seen to be constant on any circle

centred on the doublet.
y
y
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8-Doublet, (a) equipotential line, (b) streamline
4.5 Graphical addition of patterns

If two or more flow patterns be combined by superposition, the
value of ,P at any point other than a singular point is simply the
algebraic sum of the ,P-values of the component patterns at that
point, for ,Pis a scalar function of position, at any particular instant.*
Since each component ,P is a solution to the Laplace equation their
sum, or difference, is also a solution. A line joining points which
have the same total ,P-value is a line of constant ,P-value, that is, a
streamline, in the combined system.
In the upper half ofFig. 4.9, the component streamlines of a source
and a sink of equal strength are shown in broken lines. The ,P-value
is written at the extremity of each line, those for the source increasing
with (} (,P1 = m81) and those for the sink, decreasing (,P2 = -mO.,.).
At any point of intersection of a ,P1-line and a ,P2-line, the total
t/J-value is ,P = ,P1 +I/J2• For example, at the intersection of ,P1 = 7
and 1/Ja = 5, ,P = 7 +5 = 12. The line joining those intersections for
which ,P = 12 is the outer circular streamline marked 12.
If the same ,P-interval is adopted for each of the component
diagrams, as it is in Fig. 4.9, the plotting procedure is simplified, for
the resulting streamlines pass through the diagonally opposite corners
• In mathematical terms, superposition is justifiable because the differential
equations for continuity and for zero rotation are linear.
113
of the quadrilaterals formed by the intersecting component stream-

lines. The increase Stfot> in the step from one o/1-line to the next, is
offset by the equal decrease Stfo2 in the step from one o/2-line to the
next, so that the sum, o/1+o/2, remains constant.
Other examples of the graphical method of addition of streamline
patterns are shown in Figs. 4.11, 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14. The addition
of potential-line patterns is effected in a similar manner, examples
being illustrated in the lower half of Fig. 4.9 and in Fig. 4.11.
Equipotentia I
lines
Figure 4.9-Source-sink combination, graphical construction of streamlines and

equipotential lines
4.6 Source and sink

If a source and a sink of equal magnitude m are spaced apart a
distance 2a on the x-axis, symmetrically about the origin (Fig. 4.7a
and b) then, for any point P
tP = tP1 +o/2 = m81 -m82
t/1 = -m(82 -81 ) •••• (4.14a)
Hence, for a streamline, (82 - 81 ) is constant, that is the locus of
Pis a circular arc. Streamlines are therefore circles with AB as a
common chord (Figs. 4.7a, 4.9). It can be shown that their radii
are given by a cosec ~ and their centres are ( 0, -a cot~) ·
114
SOURCE AND SINK
Also cp = cf>t +cp2 = mlnr1 -mlnr2
cp =min!:! .... (4.14b)

ra
Equipotential lines are circles whose radii can be shown to be equal
to acosech~, with centres at ( acoth~, 0).
Examples of physical patterns resembling that of the source-sink
combination are the unsteady pattern of flow produced by the
motion of an elongated body through an initially stationary fluid
(Fig. 4.15a); and the steady pattern of percolation to a pumped
well from a 'recharge' well. In the latter case, water is pumped from
a well continuously, for use, for example, as cooling water in an
industrial plant and then returned to the ground through a neigh-
bouring well, to recharge the ground water supply. In a confined
aquifer, the recharge well resembles the source and the pumped well
the sink. However, the amount of recirculation and the pattern of
flow may be affected by lack of uniformity of the aquifer or by a
superimposed general movement of ground water in the region of
the wells.
4.7 Vortex pair
Two vortices of equal magnitude, K, but opposite sign, that is with
opposite directions of rotation, constitute a vortex pair.
Just as the vortex pattern is identical with that of a source with
the cp- and 1/J-lines interchanged, a similar interchange yields the
pattern for a vortex pair from that of the source and sink
(Section 4.6) and, from Eq. 4.9, it follows that
K
cp = 27T (81 -82) •••• (4.15a)
1/J = - K ln!:! .... (4.15b)

27T r2
Fig. 4.10a shows the instantaneous pattern of flow for a vortex
pair as seen~by a stationary observer. Since each vortex is affected
by the movement of the fluid due to the other, each vortex axis will
move in a direction perpendicular to the line joining their centres,
the velocity of each centre being
K
V=-
27Td
as shown in Chapter 8.
115
The steady pattern as seen by an observer moving with the speed

of the vortex centres is shown in Fig. 4.10b. It is interesting to note
that the fluid within the closed streamline travels with the vortex
pair whilst the outside fluid does not. The steady pattern can be
la)
(b)
Figure 4.10-Vortex pair, (a) unsteady
K
- In r 1
pattern, cp = 2-K (8 1 - O)
1 , 1/J = - 2
,.1
1T 1T
(b) steady pattern
regarded as that of flow past a solid body with the shape of the closed
streamline. This form, known as a Kelvin oval, is fixed by the strength
and spacing of the vortices, which together determine the stream
velocity, V, required to produce the steady pattern.
If the vortices are brought together in such a manner that the
product of their strength and spacing approaches a finite value, a
doublet results, as when a source-sink pair is united. The Kelvin oval
then becomes a circular cylinder.
The central dividing streamline in Fig. 4.10a can be regarded as
a solid boundary without affecting the pattern on either side. It is
116
SOURCE AND VORTEX (sPIRAL VORTEX)
evident, therefore, that one vortex adjacent to a wall will move

parallel to the wall just as though the wall were removed and a
'mirror image' vortex existed.
4.8 Source and vortex (spiral vortex)

The combination of a source and a vortex produces the pattern of
outward spiral flow shown in Fig. 4.11, for which
K
if> = mlnr+ 277 B .... (4.16a)
K
if = mB- 277 In r .... (4.16b)
o/t = m8- .K. lnr

2-rr
Figure 4.11-Spiral flow pattern resulting from
the combination of a source and a vortex;
K K
cp = mlnr + Z1r II, ,P =mil- :5rlnr
For a streamline if = C, a constant

mB-C
lnr = K/ 277
mB-C 21rm8
r =e K/2"' = C1 e / ( .... (4.17)
which is the equation of an equiangular spiral. The streamlines and
equipdtential lines can be constructed by drawing smooth curves
through the diagonally opposite corners of the squares of the flow
5 117
net of a source or vortex (Fig. 4.11). The change in 1/J (or cp) due to
radial movement will be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
to that due to tangential movement so that the diagonal curves will
be lines of constant 1/J (or cf>).
4.9 Source and uniform flow (flow past a hall-body)

The combination of a source (m), placed for convenience at the
origin, and uniform flow (U) yields the pattern of Fig. 4.12. The
central streamline in the approaching uniform flow divides at S
and the two branches enclose the whole of the flow from the source.
'ft =Ursin fJ+ m(}

Figure 4.12-Pattern of flow past a half-body
These branch lines can be regarded together as the solid boundary

of a round-nosed body such as an island or bridge pier, which
extends downstream to a distance large compared with its width.
The upper half of the pattern might be regarded as a plan of the flow
adjacent to a side-contraction in a wide channel; or, in elevation, as
flow of water over a rising bed or of wind up a hillside. In each case,
stagnation occurs in theory at S but, in fact, the central streamline
may separate a small distance upstream, with the result that two
stagnation vortices are formed nearS, as sketched in Fig. 4.12. Any
streamline can be regarded as a solid boundary and the velocity
and pressure distributions along it can be determined analytically.
(i) Addition of the component 1/J-function yields
1/J = Ursin8+m8 .... (4.18)
118
SOURCE AND UNIFORM FLOW (FLOW PAST A HALF-BODY)
(ii) The equation of the half-body profile is that of the ,P-line

passing through the stagnation point S, which is the only point,
apart from infinity, where the velocity is known initially. At S, V = 0
for here the uniform flow velocity is nullified by the source velocity
which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to it at this
point. Therefore, at S (r8 , 77)
V= U-_2_ = U-~ = 0
2m8 r8
'• = v· which fixes the position of s.
Also, at S, 0 = 7T and sinO= sin?T = 0
,P = U .;sin 7T + m1T
=-
Q stnce
. Q
m =-
2 27T
The equation of the ifs-line through S is therefore
,P = Ursin0+.2_0 =
27T 2
q
Q(?T-0) m(?T-0)
or r = 27TUsinO = UsinO · · · · (4 · 19)
which is the equation of the half-body profile.
(iii) The half-width of the body at any point (r', 0') is therefore
h = r'sinO' = Q(7T-O') .... (4.20)
27TU
and the limiting value, as 0' -+ 0 is
hmu. = !Q
U .... (4.21)
At this width, the velocity of the flow from the source is equal to
that of the uniform flow, as might be expected (Fig. 4.12).
(iv) The velocity at any. point Pin the flow is the vector sum of the
velocities of the two component patterns. Hence
m
u = u1 +Ut = U+-cosO
r
v = v1 + v2 = 0 +~sin 0
r
m2 2mU
V2 = u2 +v 2 = U2 +-2 +--cosO .... (4.22)
· r r
119
If the pressure at infinity, where the velocity is U, is Po and the

pressure at any point P is p,
P-Po = 1- V22 = _!!!(~2+2cos8) .... (4.23)
ipU2 U U Ur r
(v) On the half-body surface, from Eq. 4.19
m rsin8
fj = 7T-8
p-p0 _rsin(J( sin8 + 2cos(J)
ipU2 = 77-(J r (1r-8) r
- sin()
- - (sin()
- - + 2 cos ()) .... (4.24)
7T-8 7T-8
The pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 4.12. At the stagnation
pointS, V = 0 in Eq. 4.23 and hence~;/;: equals unity. To locate
T the point where the pressure equals p0 , we equate p to Po in Eq. 4.24
and solve for 8, to obtain ()T~ 113·3°.
4.10 Doublet and uniform flow (flow past a cylinder)

Addition of the t/J-function for a doublet at the origin with its axis
in the negative x-direction and the t/J-function for uniform flow in
the positive x-direction yields
,_,sin() .
ifi = ---+Ursm8
r
u(r- t,) sin()
or ifi = u(r-~) sin() .... (4.25)
where .... (4.26)
This has been shown to be the stream function for flow in the
x-direction past a cylinder of radius a, of an infinite fluid whose un-
disturbed velocity is U. (See Example 1.5 in Section 1.10.)
Fig. 4.13a indicates the manner in which the velocity at any point
in the flow is obtained from the vectorial addition of the velocities
of the component patterns. The final steady pattern is that seen by
an observer at rest relative to the cylinder. The unsteady pattern
of a cylinder moving through an otherwise stationary fluid, as seen
120
DOUBLET AND UNIFORM FLOW (FLOW PAST A CYLINDER)
by an observer at rest, is obtained by superimposing upon the steady

pattern a uniform velocity of - U. Since this nullifies the + U
component of the steady pattern, the resulting stream pattern is
simply that of the portion of the doublet lying outside the cylinder
(Fig. 4.13b).
ljJ:.- .l.f!! 2sin 6 =- f' sin 6

(b)
Figure 4.13-Irrotational flow past a cylinder, (a) steady pattern (b) unsteady pattern
It is appropriate here to consider what is known as the virtual mas.s_

of a solid moving through a fluid. The total kinetic energy of the"
solid, and of the fluid set in motion by it, can be regarded as the
kinetic energy of a solid of the same dimensions, but of increased
mass, the increase being known as the 'virtual mass'.
For the cylinder moving with a velocity, U, through a fluid,
initially at rest, the fluid velocity at any point has the magnitude, as
seen from Eq. 4.13, of
.... (4.27)
at the instant the centre of the cylinder is at the origin; and the fluid
at infinity is seen to be still at rest.
The total kinetic energy of the fluid per unit length of cylinder is
I !V dM
QO
T' = 2
I lP V2 21TT dr
QO
=a
121
f~
00
T' = prra4 lJ2
= iprra2 lj2
i.e. T' = iM'U2 . ... (4.28)
where M' = prra 2, the mass offluid with a volume equal to the cylinder
volume.
The total kinetic energy of the fluid and cylinder is
T = i(M+M') U2
In irrotational flow in which the velocity potential is everywhere
single valued, no motion of the fluid is possible if the fluid is at rest
at infinity, the interior boundaries are at rest and there are no
singularities. Hence if the body is brought to rest, the whole body of
fluid will also come to rest at the same instant. The work expended
in stopping the body will be equal therefore to the total kinetic energy
of the body and the fluid, T. ·
Similarly, in accelerating or retarding the cylinder, since the work
done equals the change in total kinetic energy, the effective mass to
be considered is the actual mass plus the virtual mass, and the
additional resistance to accelerative forces is
F' = M'pu
dt
In the case of a real fluid, the irrotational flow conditions do not
apply absolutely and there is a time lag between the change in
velocity of the body and the attaining of the new equilibrium motion
by the fluid. Nevertheless, the virtual mass effect is a physical fact.
It is an important factor to be allowed for in the moving and docking
of ships.
4.11 Doublet, vorte:.: aud uniform flow (flow past a cylinder,

with drculadon)
The theory of circulation about immersed bodies provides a
mathematical explanation for the occurrence of lateral 'lift' forces
such as those which occur in the cases of the airfoil and the spinning
ball in flight. We consider first the elementary case of circulation
around a cylinder, which is the basis of a method of analysis of airfoil
flow to be presented in Chapter 5.
The pattern of flow from left to right past a cylinder of radius a
122
DOUBLET, VORTEX AND UNIFORM FLOW
(uniform flow plus doublet) with the addition of a clockwise irro-

tational vortex is represented by the composite stream function
• JLSinO K
,P = UrsmO-----lnr
r 27T
or 1/J=U(r-~)sinO-Klnr
r 27T
.... (4.29)
in which K equals the circulation, T, and has a negative value.

Fig. 4.14 shows diagrammatically the component patterns and the
possible forms of the resulting pattern. The effect of the circulatory
flow is to increase the velocity of flow on one side of the cylinder and
to decrease it on the other. From Bernoulli's theorem it is apparent
that the pressure in the high velocity region is diminished and, in
the low velocity region, it is increased, so that a lateral 'lift' force
acts on the cylinder.
(a)
y
A
y
~
8
~ IKI< t.nau
~
IKI =t.RaU IKI>t.Jt'aU
(b) (c) (d)
Figure 4.14--lrrotational flow past a cylinder with circulation;
r/1- u(r- ~) sin8- ~lnr (K = r is negative)
For a quantitative determination of the lift, we establish the

velocity distribution and thence the pressure distribution around the
cylinder surface.
The velocity on the cylinder is wholly tangential and, since
ve = - ~~ = - u( I + ~) sin 0+ 2:
123
the value of ve positive anticlockwise on the cylinder is
V = -2UsinB+~ .... (4.30)

21Ta
At stagnation points V = 0
• D K
smv = 41TaU (K negative)
Hence there will be two, one or no stagnation points on the surface

corresponding to IKI being respectively less than, equal to, or
greater than 41TaU. In the last case the point of stagnation moves
out into the flow (Figs. 4.14 b, c and d).
The pressure at infinity being taken as zero for simplicity, the
pressure at any point on the cylinder is
p = }pU2[1-(;rJ
= tpU2[1-( -2sinB+ 2!urJ

=
1
2P
U2[1- 4 sm. 28 + 4KsinB K2 ]
2?TaU 4?T2a2 U2 .... (4.31)
The resulting pressure force in the x-direction (see Fig. 4.14c) is
-I pacosBdB
21T
X=
0
which equals zero, from considerations of symmetry of the flow

patterns. In they-direction, the lift force is
-I pasinBdB
21T
Y =
I sinBdB = I sin BdB = 0

21T 217
Since 3
0 0
only the third term in the brackets in the expression for p is effective
in the integration, which yields
f
2~r
Y = _p~K sin2BdB = -pUK

0
If Uis positive and K negative (clockwise), Y is positive. Since the

component vortex strength K equals the circulation r around the
124
DOUBLET, VORTEX AND UNIFORM FLOW
cylinder, then (with the negative sign omitted in accordance with

usual practice)
Y = pUT per unit length of cylinder .... (4.32)
This cross force, which is known as the Magnus effect, is inde-
pendent of the cylinder size. In fact, Kutta and Joukowski each
showed that the force is independent of the shape of the body, and in
theory, is always equal to the product of the density, the circulation
and the velocity, per foot length, in accordance with Eq. 4.32.
In a real fluid, surface resistance and separation effects produce a
finite drag force X. For the development of the cross force, Y, a
circulatory flow of fluid in the region of the cylinder wall can be
produced by rotation of the cylinder, which drags the fluid in
contact around with it. The resulting local circulatory motion,
superimposed upon the translatory flow past the cylinder, develops
regions of high and low velocity on the opposite sides of the cylinder
and a lift force results. This is one explanation of the lateral deflection
during flight of tennis and golf balls which have a spin. In addition,
the occurrence of early separation on the low velocity side and late
separation on the high velocity side of the ball, results _in an unsym-
metrical wake, which may produce an appreciable lateral. force.
The coefficient oflift CL is defined by the equation
Y = C£!pU2A .... (4.33)
where Y = the lift force and A = the area of the projection of the
object on a plane normal to the flow direction. (In the case of aero-
foils, the projection is conventionally taken on the plane of the chord.)
For a cylinder of unit length and diameter D, Eq. 4.33 becomes
y = CLipU2 D
y
CL = tpU2D .... (4.34)
For potential flow, Y =pUT and
CL = pUT = _£__ = TTDVe = 27TVe .... (4.35)

lpU2 D tUD tUD U
where V6 is the circulation velocity at the cylinder surface.
From tests carried out on a cylinder rotating in a fluid with a
surface velocity Vo, the values of CL based on measured values of Y
(Eq. 4.34) are much lower than those computed for irrotational flow
(Eq. 4.35), and it appears that the local circulation induced by
surface drag is only half as effective as the constant circulation of
5* 125
irrotational flow. The maximum lift occurs, in practice, when Vs

is about 4U.
Even in the case of flow past a non-rotating cylinder, the growth
and development of the alternate vortices of a vortex trail can be
considered to produce short period alternations of circulation around
the· cylinder. These result in alternating lateral forces such as those
which cause a taut wire to 'sing' in a breeze. A non-circular profile
such as a flat plate or an aerofoil, immersed so that the pattern
of flow along one side differs from that along the other side also
experiences a circulatory flow and a corresponding lift force. The
mechanism producing the circulation in these cases is described in
Section 5.10.
4.12 Source, sink aud uniform flow (flow past a 'Rankine'

body)
Flow past a cylinder (uniform flow and a doublet) can be regarded
as a special case of flow past a Rankine body, which is the pattern
resulting from the combination of a source and a sink in uniform
flow (Fig. 4.15b).
y
.,. m(~-~ t =m(B,- 6,) + Ur sin 6

(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4./~Flow past a Rankine body, (a) unsteady pattern, (h) steady pattern,
(c) body dimensions
126
SOURCE, SINK AND UNIFORM FLOW
The composite stream function is

.P = m01 - m02 + Ursin 0
oc 1/J=m~-~+~~(J .... (4.36a)
and the potential function is
cp = mlnr1 -mlnr2 +Urcos0
or cp = min 'i+ UrcosO .... ~4.36b)

'•
(i) Length
The spacing of the source and sink being 2a, the half-length, r,
of the body can be determined from consideration of the stagnation
pointS, for which r1 = r3 -a, r2 = r,+a. Since the velocity at any
point is the vector sum of the velocities of the component patterns,
the velocity at Sis
m m
V= U--+- = 0
rl r2
U-m(-1 -- 1 ) = 0
r,-a r3 +a
.... (4.37)
(ii) Profile
At S, since 81 = 01 = 1r, .p = 0, that is, the x-axis and the profile
through S constitute the streamline .p = 0. The profile equation is
therefore
.P = m(81 -02) + UrsinO = 0
m(02 - 01 )
or .... (4.38)
r= UsinO
(iii) Width
7T
For the point P' (Fig. 4.15c), 01 =ex, 02 = 7T-ex, 8 = 2
m
h = U (n-2ex)
1r • Uh
ex=---
2 2m
But II = a tan ex
127
so that the solution of the equation

Uh
h = acot- .... (4.39)
2m
is the value of the half-width, h.
A line doublet, which is a uniform distribution of doublets along a
line, corresponds to a source at one end of the line and a sink at the
other. Hence a Rankine body is produced by uniform flow parallel
to a line doublet.
The patterns of flow past a half-body (uniform flow past a source,
with the sink at x = + oo) and past a circular cylinder (uniform flow
past a source coincident with a sink) are evidently special cases of
Rankine body flows.
4.13 Method of itnages

(i) Source and a rigid boundary
The pattern resulting from a combination of two sources of equal
strength includes one straight streamline midway between them and
perpendicular to the line joining them. Two equal sinks, or two
vortices of equal strength and opposite sign and two cylinders
aligned across the flow also produce this line of symmetry. Since it
is a streamline, it can be considered to be a boundary wall with the
part of the pattern on one side removed, without the remainder of the
pattern being affected.
This suggests a method of obtaining the pattern of flow for a single
source, sink, doublet or cylinder located near a plane boundary.
An image of equal strength and appropriate sign is considered to exist,
symmetrically placed on the other side of the boundary, the boundary
is removed and the combined flow pattern is analysed. Figure 4.10a
shows the case of a vortex and its image in they-axis.
In Fig. 4.16a, the pattern of flow to the right of the wall due to a
source A, is the same as that due to the source A and its image source
B with the wall removed. For each source there is a sink distributed
around a semi-circle of infinite radius.
In Fig. 4.16b, the source A is near a cylindrical wall of radius R.
The external pattern is found by removing the cylinder and super-
imposing the patterns due to source A, the sink A' now distributed
around a circle of infinite radius"' the image source B and the image
sink B', which has moved from infinity to the centre of curvature of
the wall. The image source B is at the inverse point of A in the circle,
that is, at a radius b such that ab = R 2 •
128
METHOD OF IMAGES
That this combination of singularities does in fact, yield one

streamline with the dimensions of the circular cylinder follows from
the demonstration that ifJ for any point P on the circle is a constant .
....
,'11'
~
Q:)
.lC
c
...
<II
~
"'
(a)
y
~
X ~
~~--------~~~--~~+-~~~--~~~
-lr:
.f:
Cl)
(b)
Figure 4.16-Method of images, (a) source near a plane boundary, (b) source near
a cylindrical boundary.
In Fig. 4.16b, the triangles OPB and OAP are similar since the
angle 0 is common and
OB OP
OP = OA (because OB. OA OP 2)
:. lX = {3
For any point P on the circle
ifJ = m(81 +8 2 -83 ) = m(81 +oc) = m(81 +{3) = mrr (constant)

129
This streamline can be replaced by a solid boundary and hence the

external pattern is verified.
(ii) Well near a boundary
A practical example of sink flow adjacent to a wall is the case of
percolation to a well near a vertical, impervious boundary. Figure
4.16a with the flow direction reversed represents the flow pattern
in a horizontal plane below the water table. The corresponding
sectional elevation in a vertical plane through the well, normal to
the boundary, is shown in Fig. 4.17a. Since the equipotential lines
-----... II
...... , II .,
"
'-1 " ~ .....
II
II
o
·;::. • • ••
·:.::·
L.."t:J • •
...
lm01ge weLLu ~c • • · • • Re01l well
E~ .0:: •.
-.a
Neg01tive I~ (a)
image welL-1 1',
___ .... ~'"' Irl ', ..
---
Stre01m Cones of depression:-
eill well
..
...
Re01l well
(b)
Figure 4.17-Method of images. Determination of water table for (a) a well near
an impervious vertical boundary, (b) a well near a stream or reservoir.
represent lines of equal piezometric head, as mentioned in Section

3.1, the decrease in potential in the direction of the well results in a
lowering of the water table or free surface of the ground water. The
effect of the impervious wall at any point is to reduce the potential
and hence the height of the water table from that due to the well
alone by an amount due to the effect of the image well at that point.
The effect of a river or reservoir boundary, that is, a source of
supply instead of an impervious wall, on the drawdown of a well can
be determined by the addition of an image source or negative sink
to the normal sink pattern. The boundary becomes an equipotential
line, along which the groundwater level is constant (Fig. 4.17b).
130
METHOD OF IMAGES
The plan of the pattern is represented by the right-hand portion of

Fig. 4.9.
(iii) Source between parallel planes

When two rigid boundaries are involved, an image in one will itself
have an image in the other; and this second image will have a third
image, in the first boundary, and so on. In fact there will be an
infinite series of images as when one places an object between two
parallel mirrors and looks into one of them. Figure 4.18 shows part
of the series of images to be considered in determining the flow
pattern of a source placed midway between two plane boundaries
Figure 4.18-Method images. Source midway between two parallel lines.
space l apart. The stream function can be expressed as a series, the

terms of which represent the contributions of the source and images.
y y-l y-2l
tPP = LmO = m ( tan-1 -+tan-1-+tan-1-- ...
X X X
+l
+tan-1Y--+tan- - - ... )
1y+2l . ... (4.40)
x- x
This case is treated from a different approach in Section 6.4 and the
flow pattern is similar to that shown for the sink in Fig. 6.8a.
131
(iv) Cylinder near a wall

The pattern of flow past a cylinder was seen in Section 4.10 to
result from the combination of a doublet and uniform flow. Flow in
the x-direction past a cylinder of radius a at (0, b) with the x axis a
solid boundary can be treated by the introduction of an image
cylinder at (0, -b) provided that b is more than twice a. This
limitation is necessary to ensure that the doublet itself (and, hence,
the cylinder) is not unduly distorted by the proximity of the wall, in
which case additional corrective images must be provided, as in the
case of the source in (iii) above.
If the x-axis is 1/J = 0, the stream function is readily found to
.... (4.41)
REFERENCES
(1) LAMs, H., Hydrodynmnics, Cambridge, 1932.

(2) STREETER, V. L., Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1948.
(3) PRANDTL, L., Fluid Dynamics, B1ackie, 1952.
(4) RousE, H., Elementary Mechanics of Fluids, Wiley, 1946.
Problezns
4.1. (a) If they-axis represents a plane wall and a two-dimensional source
is located at (a, 0), show that the stream function for the resulting pattern
IS
.1. -I 2xy
'1'-mtan
x8 -y1 -a1
(b) IfQ- 2wm equals 2·4 ft.3jsec. per ft. depth and a- 3 in., draw the
flow pattern by the graphical addition of a simple source and its mirror
image in they-axis. Adopt ,P-intervals of 0 · I ft. 8Jsec. Check the value of
.p at (6, 3) by means of the above stream function and show that, at large
distances from the origin, the pattern approaches that of a source, of strength
2Q at the origin.
4.2. A two-dimensional sink of strength Q is situated at the origin and a

source of strength 2Q is at (a, 0).
(a) Make a freehand sketch of the pattern of streamlines, with a.p- ~.
(Note that at large distances from the origin the pattern approaches that of
a source of strength Q at the origin.)
(b) Construct the flow pattern by means of graphical superposition.
(c) Establish the general expressions for .p and if>, and the particular
132
PROBLEMS
expressions for .p, <f. and V on the x-axis. Determine the location of the
stagnation point.
4.3. A sink A, ofstrengthQ, is at (-a, 0) and a source B, of equal strength

is at (a, 0).
(a) With uniform flow in the positive x-direction show that the location
of the stagnation points is given by
aU aU
and sketch the patterns of flow for the cases m < 2 and m > 2 ·
(b) Investigate the effect of a uniform flow in the negativey-direction on
the sink-source pattern.
4.4. A source of strength Q is situated at the origin in a uniform stream

with velocity U, parallel to the x-axis. Show that the half-body represented
by .p ~ l Q attains half its maximum thickness at its intersection with
they-axis.
If Q - 50 ft. afsec. foot depth and U- 150 ft./sec. calculate the maximum
thickness. Plot a graph of the velocity on the surface of the half-body against
8 (measured anticlockwise from the positive x-axis). Determine the maximum
velocity and the value of 8 at which it occurs.
Ans. 0 · 33 ft.; 189 ft./sec. at 8- 63°
4.5. A circular tank, full of water is 10 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. deep.
Water flows through the tank, entering through a vertical slot in the side
and leaving through a similar slot 90° around the side from the entry point.
If the volume rate of flow is 0·8ft. 3 fsec., make approximate estimates of the
detention times for the elements following the shortest and longest paths and
of the average detention time of the flow. Neglect all viscous effects.
4.6. A Kelvin oval is formed by two vortices, at (0, a) and (0, -a) respec-
tively, in a stream parallel to the x-axis. Find the axial dimensions of the
oval.
4. 7. Determine the distributions of velocity and pressure along a plane

wall represented by they-axis, at the instant an irrotational vortex ofstrength
K is at the point (a, 0). Take the pressure at infinity as zero.
133
4.8. (a) Establish the equation for the kinetic energy in a fluid due to a
moving cylinder (Eq. 4.28) by the application of the kinetic energy equation
(Eq. 1.52).
(b) An empty steel cylinder is 2 ft. in external diameter and its wall is
i in. thick. Find the ratio of the force per ft. length required to accelerate
the cylinder normal to its axis in a non-viscous fluid with the density of sea
water, to that required for the same acceleration in air.
Ans.2·6
4.9. A long circular cylinder lies in an air stream having a velocity of

200 ft.fsec. In addition there is a flow around the cylinder with a circulation
of -4350 ft. 1fsec. Neglecting all viscous and compressibility effects
determine:
(i) the maximum velocity due to the air stream alone,
(ii) the velocity at the cylinder surface due to the circulation alone,
(iii) the maximum velocity,
(iv) the location of the stagnation points,
(v) the maximum and minimum pressures,
(vi) the lift force per foot length of cylinder.
The density of the air is 0·00237 slugs per ft. 1 • The cylinder diameter is
4ft.
Ans. 400 ft.fsec., 347 ft./sec., 747 ft./sec., 240° and 300°,
47 ·4lb./ft. 1 , -612 lb./ft. 1 , 2060 lb.
4.10. For the pattern of flow in problem 4.9, plot to scale the pressure
distribution curve around the cylinder. Replot the pressure intensities on
the appropriate cylinder diameter as base; and, from the area of the resulting
curve, determine the lift force.
4.11. The form of a Rankine body can be defined by the ratio of its half-
width to its half-length. If U is the undisturbed stream velocity and V and
tJp refer to the point where the velocity is a maximum, plot curves to show
the variation of; and t:t. with the form of a Rankine body, in the range
extending from a fiat plate parallel to the flow to a circle.
4.12. Show that the pattern due to a two-dimensional sink at the origin
and sources at (0 · 5, 0) and (2, 0), all of strength 217, represents flow due to a
source near a cylinder.
Using angle measurements from a scale drawing, evaluate 1/J for a series of
points in the first and second quadrants and, by interpolation, draw the
·'· =
streamlines., Z' and 317
17
4.
4.13. Determine the pattern produced by a source of strength 417 at the
origin and a sink of strength 217 at (0, a).
134
PROBLEMS
4.14. The height of the cone of depression of a pumped well above its
level just outside the well can be expressed in the form h=A In r where r is
the distance from the well.
For a well at a particular pumping rate the value of h 200ft. from the well
is 13ft. and the effective radius of the cone of depression is 1,000 ft., beyond
which the water table can be regarded as horizontal.
(i) Plot to a conveniently distorted scale a diametral section showing the
trace of the water table between r= 5 and r= 200 and the horizontal
line representing the water table before pumping commences.
(ii) Develop the trace of the water table which would result, with the
same rate of pumping, if there were a plane, vertical impermeable
boundary 30 ft. from the well.
135
5
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-I
WE now consider a powerful analytical method of determining
two-dimensional patterns of irrotational flow. This approach
extends greatly the range of boundary forms which can be treated
and provides, for each pattern, a single expression embodying both
the stream function and the potential function. The method is
known as conformal transformation or conformal mapping and it requires
some knowledge of complex variable theory, elements of which are
introduced below.
5.1 Complex numbers

A number consisting of two distinct scalar parts, a and b, and
v
written in the form a+ ib, where i is -1, is called a complex number.
The first part, a, is said to be the real part and the second part, b, the
imaginary part of the number. The distinctive names of the parts, and
the use of i, may be regarded as devices for maintaining the separate
identities of the two parts in various mathematical operations. For
example, to add the two complex numbers 3+4i and 2-6i one
must add the real parts and imaginary parts separately to obtain the
answer 5-2i. However, a real part when multiplied by i becomes
imaginary so that some attention must be given to rules of operating
with complex numbers.
Complex numbers occur in the solution of some algebraic equa-
tions. For example the two roots of the quadratic equation
x2 -4x+ 13 = 0 are the complex numbers x = 2 ± 3i. We shall be
concerned here with the use of complex numbers in specifying the
location of points on planes. In the Argand diagram (Fig. 5.1) the
position of any point is specified by one variable, z, instead of the
two variables x andy of Cartesian geometry. We regard z as a
complex number whose real part is x and whose imaginary part is y.
This complex number, which really represents the position vector
.....
0 z, is therefore
.... (5.1)
The modulus, or absolute value, of z is the magnitude, Oz, of the
136
COMPLEX NUMBERS
position vector and it is designated by r, and sometimes by lzl.

Hence
.... (5.2)
The argument of z is the direction,(}, of the position vector measured
from the positive x-axis in an anticlockwise direction. It therefore
has the value
(J = tan-1 ~ .... (5.3)
X
and it is normally restricted to the range -7T < (J < 7T.

y
Z=rei6
Modulus
Argument
L-L-~x--~------~~x
Figure 5.1-Argand diagram
Alternative modes of expressing z result from the substitution of

polar co-ordinates (r, 8) in Eq. 5.1
z= rcos (J + irsin (J = r( cos (J + i sin 8)
and, since
x2 xs
ex= l+x+2!+31+···
18 - • ()2 i(J3
e - l+z8- 2 !- 3 ! + ...
= cos8+isin8
r(cos8+isin8) = rei8
The three forms for expressing z are thus
z = x+ry = r(cos8+isin8) = rei8 .... (5.4)
137
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-1
It follows that
;;;" = r"etn8 = r"(cosn8+isinn8) .... (5.5)
For two complex numbers to be equal there must be equality of
the real parts and also of the imaginary parts, that is, equality of
moduli and also of arguments. It is meaningless to state that one
complex number is greater than another. Such a statement can
only be made regarding corresponding parts of two complex numbers.
Esunple
5.1. If .t - x + !1 - 3 + 4i then
x - 3, y - 4, r - y(x 1 +yl) - 5
8 - tan- 1 ~ - tan-1 ~3 - 53° 04'

X
Also, .t- rell- 5eiB- 5(cos8+isin8)

and .t1 - r1 eiiB- 25e1 " - 25(cos28+isin28)
5.2 Operations with complex numbers

Various operations involving complex numbers are summarized
below. The student should understand the bases of these operations
and develop proficiency in their use.
(i) Addition and subtraction
If;;;= ;;;1 +<.a
x+!Y = X1 +!Y1 +xs+!Ys
= X1 +x2+i(y1 +Yt)
x = x1+x2, y = y 1+y2 .... (5.6a)
Hence the parallelogram rule for the addition of vectors applies
(Fig. 5.2).
Sixnilarly, if;;; = <.1- <.2
x+!Y = (x1-x2) +i(y1-Y2)
:. x = X1- x2, Y = Y1-Y2 .... (5.6b)
(ii) Multiplication and division
If;;;= ;;;1x <.a
.... (5.7)
The modulus of the product is r = r1r2and the argument is 8 = 81+8a.
Hence multiplying ;;;1 by ;;;2 'stretches' the modulus, r1, of ;;;1 by the
138
OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS
factor r1 and increases its argument by 02, that is, rotates it anti-
clockwise through an angle 02 (Fig. 5.3),
e.g.
Similarly if~=~
~2
r1 e/8, ri
r ei8 = - - = - eiC8,--8,>
rae'8• r2
r = ~, 0 = 01 -02 .... (5.8)

r2
y
y
z
Figure 5.2-Addition of complex Figure 5.3-Products of complex

numbers numbers
(iii) Powers
If~=~
r e/8 = '1. eln8.
r = ~~. 0 = n01 .... (5.9)
For example, if~~ = 3 + 4i and ~ = ~~' 2
~ = rel8 = (r1 e/8,)112 = 5112eiC8,/2)
4
r = y5, 0 = !01 = itan-1 3 = 26·5°
(iv) Multiplication by i
Since
ef(:rr/ 2) = cosTT/2+isinTT/2= i .... (5.10)
i can be regarded as the complex number, e1C11'1 2>, which has a
139
modulus of unity and argument of 77/2. Hence multiplication of a

complex number by i does not affect its modulus but increases its
argument by 77/2, that is, it rotates the line represented by the
complex number through the angle 77/2 in an anticlockwise direction
(Fig. 5.3).
For example, if ;:1 =a+ ib, 81 = tan-1 ~.
a
Multiplication by i yields
= -b+ia .... (5.11)
and 8 = tan-1 ( -i) = 81 +~

The modulus for both z and ;:1 is v(a 2 +b 2).
(v) Conjugate of a complex number

z
If z = x + ry, the conjugate of z is defined as = x- ry.
y
-iy
z
Figure 5.4-Conjugate of a complex number
The conjugate (Fig. 5.4) is sometimes useful in mathematical

operations. In combination with z it has the following properties:
(a) the product zz= (x+i;')(x-ry) = x2 +y 2 = r 2 (real)
.... (5.12a)
(b) the sum z+z = (x+ry) + (x-ry) = 2x (real) .... (5.12b)
z
(c) the difference z- = (x + ry)- (x- ry) = 2ry (imaginary)
.... (5.12c)
(vi) Logarithm of a complex number
Since z = reiB the logarithm of z to the base e is itself a complex
140
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
number whose real part is a logarithm and whose imaginary part is

an angle.
ln z = ln r etB = ln r + iO
= ! ln (x 2 +y2) +itan-1 ~ .... (5.13)

X
For example, if z = 4+3i, then r = 5, 8 = 0·64rad

and lnz= ln5+0·64i
5.3 Functions of a complex variable

If x andy are variables, the complex number z = x+V' is called a
complex variable. Suppose that another variable, w, is defined as,
say, w = z 2 or w = ln z, or w = cosh-1 z. Then w is said to be a function
ofthe complex variable z, that is, w = j(z), and w itself is a complex
variable with a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is
usually designated cf> and the imaginary part, .p, both cf> and .p being,
in general, functions of x andy. Hence
.... (5.14)
Exalnple
5.2. If w - <;2 evaluate r/> and .p in terms of x andy.
r/>+ i.p- (x+ ry) 2
- (x 2 - y 2 ) + i2xy
and, equating real quantities and then imaginary quantities,
.. r/> - ft(x,y) - xz-yz

.P - f 1 (x,y) - 2xy
Just as z = x + V' defines a point on a diagram which has x as abscissa

andy as ordinate, so w = cf> + iifi defines a point on another diagram
which has c/> as abscissa and .pas ordinate (Fig. 5.5). The two dia-
grams are referred to as the z-plane and the w-plane respectively.
For each point (x,y) on the z-plane, there will be a corresponding
point (c/>,t/J) on the w-plane, since the values of cf> and .p are each
determined by the values x andy.
Exalnple
5.3. In the above example, determine the point in the w-plane corres-
ponding to the point<:= x+ry- 1·67 + 0·89i in the <:-plane.
141
Since x- 1·67 andy- 0·89

w - tf> + i.p - (x1 - y 1) + i2xy
- (1·671 - 0·891) + i2 .1·67 .0·89
•. w-2+3i
The·corresponding point is therefore tf>- 2, .p- 3 on the w-p1ane, for the
functional relationship w - ;;;1• The corresponding points in the two planes
are shown in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6.
Similarly, for any line on the ;;;-plane, there will be a corresponding
line on the w-plane, changed in form in the 'transformation' from
+-~~--r-~-+--~·~5
4
s
2
1
--~--r-+-~~~r-~~0-
Figure 5.5--The w-plane, representing the

pattern of uniform flow fr~m left to right
the ;;;-plane to the w-plane. There is no question of geometrical

projection from one plane to the other. The relationship is simply
one of correspondence of points, a line being regarded as a series of
points. In the above example, since rp = 2-9, the line 2-9 = constant
which is a rectangular hyperbola on the ;;;-plane, corresponds on the
w-plane to the line rp = the same constant, which is a line parallel
to the cfo-axis. In fact, the family of hyperbolae, rp = 2xy = 1,2,3 ...
on the ;;;-plane, corresponds to the family of equally spaced lines
.p = 1,2,3 ... on thew-plane.
The family of lines tf> = x2 -y3 = constant on the ;;;-plane are
rectangular hyperbolae, orthogonal to the lines rp =constant; on
the w-plane, the corresponding family of lines, with the same equa-
tions, tf> = constant, are parallel to the rp-axis and hence again
orthogonal to the lines rp =constant (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6).
If rp be regarded as a stream function and t/> as the associated
velocity potential function, the pattern of rp-lines and cfo-lines on the
142
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
w-plane (Fig. 5.5) clearly represents uniform flow parallel to the

cp-axis in the positive cp-direction. On the z-plane (Fig. 5.6) the
corresponding ift- and cp-lines represent the pattern of irrotational
flow at a 90° corner as described in Section 1.9. For some function
other than w = z 2, the z-plane pattern will be different from that of
Fig. 5.6.
y
2
B
Figure 5.6-0ne quadrant of the z-plane,

resulting from the transformation z = w1 11
orw-z1
Whatever form the function w = f(z) may take, the pattern on thew-plane
is always that qfparalleljlowfrom left to right, as in Fig. 5.5; and the pattern
on the z-plane is always the physical pattern under investigation. The func-
tion w =f(z) may be regarded as transforming the z-plane pattern to the
uniform flow pattern ofthew-plane. Once the transformingfunction, w = f( z)
for a particular physical pattern, is known, its real part, cp =h.(x,y), equated
to a constant yields the equation qf the equipotential lines in the physical or
z-plane; and its imaginary part, ifi = h(x,y), equated to a constant, yields
the equation qf the streamlines in the z-plane. Each line has its own particular
constant.
A transformation w = f(z) expressed in its inverse form, z = f- 1 (w)
can be regarded as transforming the parallel flow of the w-plane to
the pattern of flow on the z-plane. Consideration of the inverse form
will frequently enable a visual concept of the z-plane pattern to be
obtained, through the use of polar co-ordinates. For example,
given the function w = z 2 the z-plane pattern is determined by
examination of the inverse form z = uf11 2• If z = ret8 and w = r1 etB,,
thenretB = rF 2 et<B,/ 2) and, equating moduli and arguments,
r = rF2, (}
=
(}1
2
so that this transformation can be pictured as forming the z-plane
143
pattern by 'folding' the upper half of the w-pattern clockwise about

the origin in such a manner that all polar angles, 01 , are halved; and
at the same time 'shrinking' it differentially so that all polar dis-
tances, r 10 are reduced to the square roots of their original values
(Figs. 5.5, 5.6). The streamline if= 0 (A 1 0 1B1 ) takes up the new
position A 0 Band the pattern on the z-plane is flow at a 90° corner,
if we consider the pattern of one quadrant only. (In fact, in the
complete z-plane pattern, each quadrant contains a corner flow
pattern.)
Of the infinite number of functions of the complex variable, many
provide transformations such as the corner flow pattern, which are
of practical interest to the hydraulic engineer.
5.4 Analytic functions
The condition that the transformed pattern of cf>-lines in the
z-plane does in fact represent a possible pattern of irrotational flow
is that the function c/> =J;.(x,y) satisfies the conditions of continuity
(Eq. 1.5) and irrotationality (Eq. 1.11) or, in other words, that
4> satisfies the Laplace equation which embodies these two condi-
tions. Similarly, the if lines will represent a possible irrotational flow
pattern if if satisfies the Laplace equation (Eq. 1.17).
It will be seen in this section that these limitations on c/> and if
restrict w to a class of function known in the theory of the complex
variable as analytic. The term 'function of a complex variable' is
conventionally restricted, in fact, to analytic functions. It may be
stated that a function w =J(z) may be analytic for all values of z,
or possibly for all but one or some finite number of values of z; that
is, for all points, or all but a finite number of points in the z-plane.
The exceptions are called singularities or singular points. Hence the
statement that function is analytic 'within a region' or domain
implies that there are no singular points in the area under con-
sideration.
A function, w = f( z), is said to be analytic within a region of the
z-plane only if, for each point in that region (that is for each value
of z):
(a) there is one and only one corresponding value of w and that
value is finite, and
(b) ~; is single-valued and neither zero nor infinite.
At singular points, where these conditions are not satisfied, the
transformation process is not applicable, although at a very small
distance from them it may be. In diagrams, singular points are
frequently encircled, to indicate the fact that they are isolated from
144
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
the transformation or mapping process. Examples of analytic

functions with singular points are-
(i) w = - 1- which is analytic except at z =a where w is infinite

z-a
(ii) w = ln z which is analytic except at z = 0, where w is infinite
(iii) w = z 2, which is analytic except at z = 0 where~; is zero.
From a practical viewpoint, singular points are generally points
of theoretically infinite or zero velocity on the physical plane. The
points ofinfinite velocity include the centres of sources, sinks, vortices,
and doublets, and sharp corners where boundaries are deflected
away from the flow. At these points in a real fluid, not only are
infinite velocities impossible but, with the necessarily high velocity
gradient involved, viscous effects become appreciable and significant
departures from the irrotational flow pattern, such as rotational
vortex flow or separation, result.
The points of zero velocity are stagnation points such as those
which occur where a streamline branches on the upstream face or
edge of a submerged body; where two streamlines unite, near the
downstream face or edge; or where, at a sharp corner, 'a boundary is
deflected into the flow. The pattern of stagnation flow is approached
in some cases of real fluid flow such as in the flow near the tip of a
pitot tube; whereas in others, such as in flow at a boundary corner,
separation may result in a noticeable departure from the irrotational
pattern.
It will now be demonstrated that a function which is analytic,
that is, one-valued with a one-valued derivative, does yield a possible
pattern of irrotational flow. Condition (a), that w = 4> + iifi should
have one value for a given value of z, results in 4> and ifi having only
one value at a point P in the z-plane. This is in accord with the
requirement that only one possible pattern of flow can exist for a
given set of boundary conditions.
Condition (b), that the derivative~; should have only one value
at any point Pin the z-plane, results, as will be now shown, in 4> and
ifi being solutions to the Laplace equation, which embodies the
conditions that the continuity equation is satisfied and that flow is
irrotational. Consider, again, the example of flow at a 90° corner
(Figs. 5.7 and 5.8). It can be seen that in the region of a point P on
the z-plane, a small change, Sz = Sx+iSy, in z corresponds to a
small change, Sw = S4> + iSifi, in w on the w-plane. These changes
have both magnitude and direction. The relationship between Sw
145
and 8z can be expressed in terms of the rate of change of w with z,

thus
dw = lim Sw = lim &fo+~Sr/J

dz Bz--+-0 Sz Bz--+-0 8x+t8y
Condition (b) requires that, at any point, ~; shall have only one
value, whatever the direction of Sz. It can be shown that it will
have only one value for all directions, provided that it has the one
w-plane
I
01
Figurt 5.7-The .c-plane for the trans- Figur1 5.8-The w-plane. The point
formation w- .c1 showing examples of P 1 corresponds to the point Pin Fig.
small changes 8.c in .c in the region of 5.7 and the changes 8w, 8w1 and 8w1,
a pointP in w correspond to the changes 8-c,
8.c1 and 8.c 1
value for any pair of directions at right angles to one another, for
example the x- andy-directions, at any point P (Fig. 5.7). Hence
condition (b) will be satisfied if~; has the same value, in the limit,
for Sz1 = Sx + iO = Sx as it has for Sz2 = 0 + i8y = i8y.
In the first case
dw . 8wl . 8wl ow ocp .or/J
d- = hm ~ = hm ~ = ~ = ~+t~ .... (5.15a)
Z ozl
Bz,--+-0 Bx--+-0 OX CJX CJX CJX
and, in the second case

dw . 8w2 • 8w2 ow =-:-1(ocp
= 1.,.~ .or/J)
d "'.. = lim ~ = hm ~
tJY
~+t~
t tJY tJY
.... (5.15b)
Bz,--+-0 oz2 8y-+-0 toy t
dw
For these two values of dz to be equal, the real parts must be equal
146
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
and the imaginary parts must be equal, that is

ocf> o!f .... (5.16a)
ox= oy
ocf> o,p
oy = -ox .... (5.16b)
These equations, the consequence of the condition of one-valued

derivatives, are called the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Provided
that the partial derivatives ~:, :; , ~~ and :; exist, and are

continuous, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are the sufficient con-
ditions that a continuous one-valued function w = f(z) is analytic.
The complex variable, w = cp +up, in which cp and ,P satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations, is called the complex potential. Differ-
entiating Eq. 5.16a with respect to x, and Eq. 5.16b with respect to
y, and adding, results in
o2cp o2cp
ox2 + oy2 = 0 .... (5.17)
Similarly, differentiating Eq. 5.16a with respect toy, and Eq.

5.16b with respect to x and subtracting, yields
o2,P o2,P
ox2 + q_'l'2 = 0 .... (5.18)
Hence the real and the imaginary parts of any function of a complex
variable satisfy the Laplace equation and are therefore possible
velocity potential functions or stream functions for two-dimensional
irrotationa1 flow. This is directly evident from the Cauchy-Riemann
equations, for, in irrotational flow,
ocf>
-
o,p and
o,P
ox =oy- =U -- = v
ox
5.5 Significance o£ dwfdz
The derivative ~; can be regarded either as a complex operator

or as a complex velocity.
(a) The complex operator
An infinitesimal line cSz on the ;:.-plane is transformed into a
147
corresponding line Sw on the w-plane (or vice versa) according to

the relationship
dw
Sw = -Sz .... (5.19)
dz
dw
for Sw and Sz are complex numbers and dz can be regarded as a
complex number or operator which transforms Sz, by rotation and
stretching (or shrinking) to produceSw. Since:; has only one value
at any point, irifinitesimallines in all directions in the region of that
Figure5.9-The ~-plane for the trans-

formation w = ~2 • Points, lines and
figures correspond to those in the
w-plane shown in Fig. 5.10
point will be equally affected as regards rotation and scale change.

Hence infinitesimal figures will be transformed, by rotation and
change of scale, without distortion, onto the w-plane and any two
lines intersecting at a particular angle on the ;;;-plane will, after
transformation, intersect at the same angle on the w-plane. These
transformations, owing to their retention of angular form, are called
conformal. Since ~; is, in general, a function of z and therefore
varies as z varies from point to point, the amounts of rotation and
change of scale vary for different points of the ;;;-plane.
Large figures therefore become distorted in transformation but
angles formed by the intersecting lines of those figures do not. In
Figs. 5.9 and 5.10, the small triangle, LMN on the ;;;-plane is seen
to be rotated and altered in size without appreciable difference of
form on the w-plane. The large triangle vertices, L, M' and N', are
148
SIGNIFICANCE OF dwjdz
rotated with respect to the origin by different amounts, the triangle
is enlarged and distorted but the angles have not been altered in the
transformation to the w- plane. Angles at the origin areal tered, for the
origin is a singular point at which the mapping process breaks down.
1/J w-plane
Figure 5.10---The w-plane. Points, lines and

figures transformed from the z-plane (Fig.
5.9) by the transformation w - z•
(b) The complex velocity

. dw ow
Smce, from Eq. 5.15a, dz = ox
dw = !__(cp+i«/J) = ocp +i ocp = u-iv

dz ox ox ox
dw .
- = u-w . ... (5.20)
dz
The derivative : ; can be regarded therefore as a complex velocity, the

real part equalling the x-component, and the imaginary part the
negative of they-component of the velocity Vat any point (Fig. 5.11).
The absolute value of the complex velocity is 1:;1 = y(u 2 +v 2 ), the
speed at the point z; and its argument is -oe where oe = tan-1 ~

u
dw
-
dz
= lVI [cos ( -oe) +isin ( -oe)]
dw
dz = lVI e-at .... (5.21)
6 149
where IVI is the absolute magnitude of the velocity V. Provided the

w =f(z;) function is known, Eq. 5.21 provides a ready means of
determining the velocity at any point of the flow pattern in the
..
' 1ar, at stagnation
z;-p1ane. I n particu dz; equals zero.
pomts, dw
Figur1 5.11-The relationship between Figur1 5.12-Pattern of flow for the

the actual velocity, Y, and the complex transformation w- 2.t1
.dw
velOClty, ' 'mh
d.t , at a pomt Iane
t e z-p
Elaunple
5.4. For the pattern w- 2.t1 , determine the magnitude and direction of
the velocity at the point (3,2) (Fig. 5.12).
dw .
d.t- 4. t - U - l V
.. u-iv- 4(3+2i)- 12+8i

u- 12, v- -8, lVI- y'(u1 +v1) - 14·4
v
a: - tan-1- - tan-1 ( - 0·67) - -34° 54'
u
Elaunple
5.5. Considering the transformation w - .t1 (Figs. 5.9 and 5.10)
(a) At the point (2,1) in the z-plane, determine the corresponding values
of w, .f., 1/J and : ; and the change in w corresponding to a change
8-t- 0·5+ 0·2i.
(b) Examine the point (0,0) in the z-plane with regard to determinations
similar to those in (a).
(c) Determine the shape of the curves x - constant andy - constant on
the w-plane.
150
SUCCESSIVE TRANSFORMATIONS
Solution.-
(a) Since z = x+~ = 2+i
w = ,P+Uf; = z 2 = 3+4i
whence, equating reals and imaginaries
,p = 3, 1/J = 4
The change in w corresponding to a small change 8z could be
determined by evaluating w+8w = (z+8z) 2 and subtracting w = z2
A simpler method makes use of~;. Since
dw = 2z = 4+2i
dz
8w = ~; 8z = (4+2i)(0·5+0·2i)
8w = &fo+roi/J = 1·6+ 1·8i

&p = 1·6, 81/J = 1·8 (see Fig. 5.10)
(b) At the origin of the z-plane

z= x+~ = 0
w=z2 =0
tfo=O 1/J=O
dw
- = 2z = 0
d~
If the subsequent step of (a) above is followed, the result is

8w = ~; 8z = 0. This step is invalid for, ~; being zero, the point
z = 0 is a singularity, the function is not analytic at this point and
the mapping procedure breaks down. It is evident that the directions
of the streamlines at this point in the z-plane are both IX = ; and IX = 0;
and that after transformation to the w-plane, the direction is IX =• 0,
so that ddw, as a complex operator, does not give consistent results
ZJ
at z = 0. We may approach z = 0 as near as we please, however,
provided z retains a finite value and the procedure will hold. For
example, if z = 0 · 0 I + iO, the change 8z = 0 · 5 + 0 · 2i corresponds to
the very small change 8w = 0 · 01 + 0 · 004i. At such small distances
151
from the origin of the z-plane, which is a point of stagnation, the

velocity is very low so that over the distance 8z, the changes in tfo
and 1/J being proportional to the velocity, are negligibly small.
(c) Since w = z2
tfo+ie/J = (x+!Y)2
tfo = x2-y2, 1/J = 2xy
y =
"'
2x
If xis constant, say x = 1, tfo = 1- ~ which plots as a parabola on the

w-plane. Hence the lines, x =constant, plot as a family of parabolas.
The lines y = constant form a family of parabolas which intersect
the x-curves orthogonally (Fig. 5.10).
5.6 Inverse transfonnations
Some transformations can be expressed in the inverse form
z =f(w) more conveniently than as w =J(z). An example of such
a transformation is z = w + ew. The derivative of the inverse function,
:~,plays a useful role in certain transformations and is represented
by~ (zeta)
~ = dz
_ = _1 = 1
-etoc .... (5.22)
dw dw lVI
dz
Hence ~ is a complex number with a valu for each point in the
z-plane. Its modulus is I~~ and its argument is the direction, a:, of V,
where Vis the velocity at the point in the z-plane.
For a streamline in the z-plane, along which the speed V, and
direction a: of flow are known, it is therefore possible, from Eq. 5.22,
to evaluate ~ = ~: even though the function w = j(z) is unknown.
Use is made of this procedure in the determination offree-streamline
profiles (see Chapter 6).
5.7 Successive transfonnations
The process of transforming a pattern from the z-plane to the
w-pla:ne in complicated cases may have to be carried out in stages.
152
SOME SIMPLE TRANSFORMATIONS
The z-pattern is transformed through one or more intermediate

planes and the functional relationship between wand z is represented
by the set of transformation equations used. As a very simple example,
consider the function w = sinez. Let ez = p. Then
z = lnp .... (a)
w = sinp .... (b)
The ;:-pattern can now be transformed to the intermediate plane,
p, by the inverse transformation (a) and the p-plane pattern can be
then transformed to the w-plane by means of (b). Then
dw dwdp dw 1
-dz = - - =- . - =Pcosp
dp dz dp dz
dp
dw .
- = u-tv = ezcosez
dz
Some cases involving successive transformations are presented
in Section 5.9 and in Chapter 6.
5.8 Some sim.ple transformations

The following simple transformations are but a few of the many
useful analytic functions which have been investigated. They are
here treated with sufficient detail to enable the student to develop
proficiency in identifying the flow patterns, some of which have
been already treated from an elementary approach in Chapter 4.
In some cases an alternative, rapid approach, which gives a quali-
tative idea of the transformation pattern, is provided.
Transformation Flow pattern in the ;:-plane

I w=Az Uniform flow
2 (i) w =mIn (z-a) Source at z = a
iK
(ii) w = --In (z-a) Vortex at z =a
27T
(iii) w = (m-~~) ln(z-a) Spiral vortex at z = a
3 w = __!!:__ Doublet at z = a
z-a
z+a
4 w=mln-- Source at (-a, 0), sink at (a, 0)
z-a
153
1'1
5 w = Azn Flow at a wall angle, 8 = -
n
6 z = ccoshw Flow through an aperture (inverse
function)
Flow into a rectangular channel
(inverse function)
s (i) w = u(z+~) Flow past a cylinder of radius a
(ii) w = u(z +~)z _27T ln z Flow

iK
tion.
past a cylinder with circula-
( 1) Uniform flow
w = Az .... (5.23)
(i) A real
Since~; = A, a real constant
dz 1
:. Sz = dwSw = ASw
and therefore the pattern of the z-plane is that of the w-plane (not
rotated, since A is real) reduced in scale by the constant factor 1·
From Eq. 5.20,
dw = u-iv =A
dz
whence v = 0 since A is wholly real, and u =A. The velocity in the
z-plane is therefore equal to A, from left to right, parallel to the
x-axis.
(ii) A complex
Since dw =A = a+ib = RetfJ
dz
b
where R = y(a 2 +b 2), f3 = tan-1 -
a
1 1
-Sw = -e-tfJ?!Jw
· S""' = A
.. R
From the rule concerning the product of complex numbers it is
clear that each element, l!Jw, is reduced by the constant scale factor 1
154
and rotated clockwise through the constant angle fJ, to produce the
~-pattern. Hence the ~-pattern is that of uniform flow at an angle
-fJ to the positive x-axis (Fig. 5.13).
.
S1nce- dw = A
d~
u-iv = a+ib
u =a, v = -b
y
w-plane
I I I I I I I
I
I I
I
I
I
I l I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
::
I I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
I
I I I I I I I
(a)
Figur1 5.13-The transformation w- A.t (A= a+ ib, /l :;:= tan- 1 ~)
and, as w =A~
t/J+it/1 = (a+ib)(x+~)
= (ax-by) +i(ay+bx)
tfo =ax-by= ux+~
1/J = ay+bx = uy-vx

as was previously obtained (Eqs. 4.1).
Alternatively,~= 1w
rel8 = - 1- r eiB• = '.!ei(B,-/1>
Re'fl 1 R
that is, the ~-pattern is formed by decreasing the polar angles of the
w-plane by fJ and dividing the polar distances by R =v(a2 +b1)
(2) (i) Source at ~ =a
w = mln(z-a) ...• (5.24)
155
In this function, m = i1T where Qis the strength of the source, and
a is a complex constant. Hence (z-a) is simply a radius vector
with origin at z =a on the z-plane (Fig. 5.14)
i.e. z-a = r' et8' and ln (z-a) = lnr' et8'
cfo+i~ = mln (r' e18')
= mlnr'+imO'
c/> = mlnr'
~ = mO'
y
z-plane
Figure 5.14-Source at z = a; w = mIn (z- a)
The streamlines are radial from the point z = a and the equi-
potential lines are concentric circles with centres z = a (compare
with Eqs. 4.3 and 4.5). The point z =a is a singular point, and is
excluded from the map, since dw is infinite and the function is
dz
therefore not analytic at this point.
The velocity at any point is radial from the source, with a magni-
dw
tude equal to the absolute value of dz
dw m
dz = JVI e-fot = z-a
lVI = I:;I= ?= 2~'

which is the velocity at radius r' in source flow.
1.56
(ii) Vortex at z =a
iK
w = --ln (z-a) .... (5.25)
21T
The strength of the vortex is K and its circulation is T = K, the
direction of flow being anticlockwise for positive values of K.
Putting z-a = r' eiB'
The streamlines are concentric circles with centre z = a and the

equipotential lines are radii (compare with Eq. 4.9).
(iii) Spiral vortex at z=a

w = (m-~~)ln(z-a) .... (5.26)
~+up = mln (r' eiB')- iK ln (r' eiB')

21T
K
whence ~ = mlnr'+-0'
21T
K
tfo = mO' - - ln r'
21T
(Compare with Eq. 4.16).
(3) Doublet
w=l!:. .... (5.27a)
z
. 1-' 1-'(x-iy) f'X . 1-'Y
~+lt/J = x+iy = x2+y2 = x2+y2-l x2+y2
~ _ ,.,x _,_,cosO. tP _ 1-'Y _ ,_,sinO
- x2+y2- - , - , - - x2+y2- - - , -
which were shown to represent a doublet of strength 1-' at the origin

with its axi~ in the negative x-direction (Eq. 4.12).
6* 157
. 1y, smce
AI ternatlve . z = -wp.
y
z-plane
It'
(a) (b)
Figure 5.15-Doublet at the origin; w =~;graphical construction
.c
On thew-plane (Fig. 5.15), the point b1 (r 1,0 1 ) yields, on trans-

formation to the z-plane, the point b (r, 0). Similarly, the points
a1, c1 , d1 . • • on the same streamline, if!= I, yield the corresponding
y
~~---------------K
Figure 5.16-Doublet at .c =a; w = _!!:__elfJ
.c-a
points, a, c, d ... which are seen to be on a circle tangential to the
x-axis in the z-plane. It is apparent that the w-plane streamlines
transform to a series of circles tangential to the x-axis, and these, in
fact constitute the pattern of a doublet. The equipotential lines of
158
the w-plane can be shown to transform to circles tangential to the

y-axis of the ~-plane.
For a doublet at ~ = a, with its axis inclined at an angle fJ to the
x-axis (Fig. 5.16), (~-a) is written for~. and the ~-plane pattern is
rotated so that the doublet axis is horizontal, by means of the factor
e-I{J,
Then
w = 1-' = ~ elfJ .... (5.27b
(~-a) e-1P ~-a
@ Source and sink

The combination of a source at (-a, 0) and a sink of equal strength
at (+a, 0) (Fig. 4.9) is represented by the sum of the individual
complex potentials.
W = W10 urc:e + W ink
1
= mln (~+a) -mln (~-a)

~+a
w = mln-- .... (5.28)
~-a
rl el8•
w = m ln ----;e
r2e •
:. cp = mln~
r2
if = -m(82 -81)
which equations were previously obtained (Eq. 4.14).
(5) Flow at a wall angle
w =A~" (n > !) .... (5.29)
The ~-plane pattern is readily determined by the use of polar
co-ordinates with the inverse form of this transformation; thus
I
~ -w'"
=A lin
re18 = (jY'" el<8dn)
r = (3Y'"· 8 = ~
159
Hence the z-plane polar angles, 8, are !n x the corresponding polar

angles, 81 , of thew-plane; and the z-plane polar distances equal the
nth root of the corresponding w-plane polar distances divided by A.
If the reference angle on the w-plane is 7T the corresponding angle on
the z-plane is:: (see Fig. 5.17). When n > 2, the z-pattern can be
n
y
~=rr~~~~~~~~x
(a) w:Az 3 (b) W:Az 2
y y
(c)w=Azllz (d)w:Az
y y y
(e )w:AzZIJ (f) w=Az 112 ( g)w:Az113
Figure 5.17-Flow at a wall angle 8; w- Azn where n- i· For these orientations

and directions of flow A is real and positive
160
regarded as flow at an acute angle, ~, or stagnation flow towards the

n
apex of the angle 277 ; the case n = 2 is that of flow at a goo angle, or
n
stagnation flow towards a flat plate; the case n = i is flow around the
exterior of a goo angle; and n = l represents flow around the end of
a sharp plate, or, if any other streamline is selected as a boundary,
flow around an elongated body.
If A is real and positive the orientations of the patterns and direc-
tions of flow are as shown in Fig. 5.17. The effect of making A
negative is to reverse the direction of flow. If A is complex the
z-pattern is rotated clockwise through an angle equal to the argument
of A.
In practice, sharp changes of direction of boundaries result in
separation if flow is turbulent, with consequent patterns of flow
which may differ appreciably from those of Fig. 5.17. In the case of
percolation flows, separation does not occur and the actual and
theoretical flow patterns may be expected to be in reasonably good
agreement.
(6) Flow through an aperture
z = ccoshw .... (5.30)
(Note: A summary of hyperbolic functions is provided in Appendix
B. The reader should make himself familiar with the common
functions.)
For this inverse transformation, substitution for z and w yields
x+ry = ccosh (cp+it/1)
= ccosh cp cos t/J + ic sinh cp sin t/J
x = ccoshcpcost/J
v = csinhcpsint/J
Since cos2 tfJ + sin2 tfJ = 1
x2 y2
c cosh cp + c sinh2cp
2 2 2
For an equipotential line, cp = constant and this equation reduces

to the equation of an ellipse
x2 y2
~+hi=
and the equipotential lines form a family of ellipses with foci at
(c,O) and ( -c,O), these foci being singular points.
161
Similarly it can be shown that streamlines form an orthogonal

family of confocal hyperbolae,
x2 y2
-----=1
c2 cos2 ifJ c2 sin2 ifJ
which have the same foci as do the ellipses (Fig. 5.18). The pattern
is that of flow through a slot, the speeds at the edges approaching
infinity and therefore being unreal. However, any pair of streamlines
can be regarded as boundaries but care is required in the use of such
Figur1 5.18-Flow through an aperture;

.t- ccoshw. Interchange of</>- and oji-lines
yields the pattern of circulatory flow in
elliptical paths
patterns, since separation in the region of diverging flow of a real

fluid may alter appreciably the conve~ging, as well as the diverging
pattern.
The transformation z = ccosw produces the same pattern, with
the cp- and !fo-lines interchanged. This is the pattern of circulatory
flow around an elliptic cylinder, any streamline being a possible
cylinder boundary. The limiting case is circulation around the thin
plate extending between ( -c,O) and (c,O).
(7) Flow into a rectangular channel
.... (5.31)
Substitution for z and wand expansion of e-toji in Eq. 5.31 yields
x= e--4> cos ifJ - cp
y = -e--4>sin!fo-!fo
For the streamline 1/J = 0, x = e-4>-cp andy= 0, hence this stream-
line is the x-axis, x varying from + oo to - c;o as cp varies from - oo
to + cg that is, in the direction of flow.
For the streamline !fo= -1r, =x-e--4>-cp andy=1r, that is, as
162
t/J varies from - oo to zero, x varies from - oo to - 1 ; and as t/J varies

from zero to + oo, x varies from - 1 to - oo,y remaining unchanged.
This streamline folds back along itself at x = - 1 and may be regarded
as the wall of an open-ended channel. The streamline .p = 1r takes a
similar form at y = -1r. The remaining streamlines form the
pattern shown in Fig. 5.19. Any pair of these streamlines can be
adopted as boundaries (see Section 6.8).
y
Figure 5.19-Flow into a channel

without separation; .c - e-w - w
(8) Flow past a cylinder

(i) Without circulation
The combination of a doublet with uniform flow was seen in
Section 4.10 to yield the pattern of uniform flow past a circular cylin-
der. The complex potential for this pattern is simply the sum of the
individual complex potentials. For uniform flow with a velocity U
in the positive x-direction and a doublet with its axis in the negative
x-direction.
W = Wuniform flow+ Wdoublet
.... (5.32a)
where a = JD• the radius of the cylinder.
163
When ;:; is very large, w approaches the value U;:;, that is, flow is
practically uniform at large distances from the origin. With ;:;
expressed in polar co-ordinates
if>+iif = u(rei8+~ e-18)

u(rcosO+~ cosO+irsinO-i~ sinO)
= u(r+~) cosO+iU(r-~) sinO
if> = u(r+ ~)cosO .... (5.32b)
if = u(r-~) sinO .... (5.32c)
The complex velocity
~; = u( 1- ~) = lVI e-1«
is zero at the stagnation points;:; = ±a and has the maximum value of
2U at;:;= ± ia (see Section 1.10, Example 1.5 and Section 4.10).
(ii) With circulation
Addition of the complex potential for a clockwise vortex of strength
K yields the complex potential for flow in the positive x-direction
past a cylinder with circulation T equal to K. In this instance, K
has a negative value.
w = u(z +~)z - 21T ln;:;
iK .... (5.33a)
if>= u(r+ ~)cos0+~0 .... (5.33b)
if = u(r-~)
r
sinO- K lnr
21T
.... (5.33c)
(see Section 4.10).
5.9 Transformations of the circle
The pattern of flow past a circular cylinder, obtained by means of
Eq. 5.32, can itself be transformed into other patterns. It can be
treated, therefore, as the pattern on an intermediate plane, say the
a2
;:;1-plane, and the transformation w = ;:; 1 +- can be regarded as the
Zt
164
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE CIRCLE
first step in the transformation from the w-plane to the physical or

z-plane. Consideration is now directed to the several possible
transformations from this z 1-plane to the z-plane. The useful
physical patterns which can be obtained include those of flow past
plates, streamlined struts, arcs and aerofoils. In each case, the
y
(a)
y
, The straight line

',of the z-plane
--~~,-,--i---~~--~~~~~_.x
,,
a a a
(b)
Figure 5.20--Transformations of the circle. (a) graphical
I
construction for the transformation <: - .c1 + ~ locates the
pointS(<:- rell) corresponding to the point i(.c1 - r1 eiB.).
(b) Transformation of the circle into a straight line. The
straight line is the locus of S if P lies on the circle of radius a
z1-plane circle of radius a is transformed into the new profile. For

simplicity, the undisturbed velocity on the z-plane is taken as unity
and in the positive x-direction, except where otherwise stated.
The terms inverse point, and image or optical reflection, are defined for
the present purposes as follows. The inverse point of any point P
(Fig. 5.20a) with respect to a circle of centre 0 and radius a is Q
165
where Q lies on OP and OP. OQ = a2 , that is OQ = ;p.

I
The image,
or reflection, of any point Q in the x-axis is R where OR= OQ
and the angles xOR, xOQ are of equal magnitude.
Hence R is the image in the x-axis of the inverse of P. If P is
. I
defined by the radius vector r 1 et8•, then R is defined by ~ e-18, since
rl
OR= OQ = -.
a• The vector sum of OP and OR is OS= ret8,
rl
that is,
a•
rel9 = r1 et8•+-e-t8• .... (5.34)
rl
S being located geometrically by the parallelogram rule of addition.
It will be seen that, if ret8 be denoted by z, and r 1 e19• by zu the above
equation can be written
a•
z= z1+- .... (5.35)
Z1
Also, if Plies on the circle of radius a, so also does R, so that the locus
of Sis the x-axis between ( -2a,O) and (2a,O) (Fig. 5.20b).
These geometrical relationships will be used in the transformations
now to be considered.
(i) Flow parallel to a flat plate
The transformation
.... (5.36a)
or, expressed in its inverse form,

z1 = l[w ± v'(w2 -4a2)] .... (5.36b)
transforms the uniform flow of the w-plane to flow past a circle of
rad.msa,m. theposttivex
.. d' . . h 1
1- xrectionm t ez 1-p ane.
s·meed-=
dw 1 -~ a•
z z1
is zero at z1 = ±a, these are singular points.
The next transformation equation
.... (5.37)
being similar in form to Eq. 5.36a reproduces the w-plane pattern of

uniform flow, parallel to the x-axis, in the z-plane. The streamlines
of the z 1-plane become lines parallel to the x-axis. The circle of
radius a, henceforth called the a-circle, becomes a line extending
166
from (- 2a, 0) to (2a, 0) and can be regarded as a flat plate oflength

21, and of negligible thickness, set parallel to the flow. The trans-
formations are shown in Fig. 5.21.
The geometrical construction which transforms the streamlines
and the a-circle can be used also to transform circles of radius greater
than a, centred at the origin of the z 1-plane. They form, in the
z-plane, a series of confocal ellipses, the foci being at (- 2a, 0) and
(2a,O). One such circle is shown in broken line in Fig. 5.21.
y
rp w-plane z-plane
w z
,,
-~
1/
/
-
', X
2a 2a
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.21-Fiow parallel to a flat plate. The a-circle in the ,c1-pkme is transformed
into the line or 'flat plate' of length 4a. The larger circle (which has no physical
significance in this particular case) is transformed into an ellipse
(ii) Flow normal to a flat plate

If the direction of flow past the a-circle in the z 1-plane is changed
by means of a 'rotating' transformation, the final transformation
to the z-plane changes the circle to a straight line as before, but the
flow ip no longer uniform and parallel to it. For example, suppose
that the direction of flow pattern is rotated through-~ by means
of the transformation z 2 = -iz1 •
On the z 2-plane the direction of flow is in the negativey-direction
(Fig. 5.22c). The final transformation
a2
z = z2+-
z2
yields the physical pattern of flow in the negative y-direction normal
to a flat plate of length 4a.
.
S1nce dz = 1 - a2 = 0 at z = ±a, t h ese are, once agam,
d- . gul ar
. sin
1 1
z2 z1
points.
167
The successive transformations relating the w- and z-patterns,

az
w = z1 +- .... (5.38a)
Zl
Zz = -izl .... (5.38b)
az
Z = Zz+- .... (5.38c)
Zz
1/J
w-plane
(c) (d)
Figure 5.22-Flow normal to a fiat plate. The transformations are
a' a'
w = z1 +-, z, = - iz1, and z = z, +- whence w = iv(z'- 4a')
Z1 Zs
can be combined by the elimination of z 1 and z 2

Zz .
Z1 = -T = zza
w = iz2+ ~)
~2 = i(z2 - Zz
::r
zz2
w2 = - ( z2 -
also z2 = ( z2 +~j 2
wz+zz = 4az
w = iy(z2 -4a2)
168
If 1 = 2a, the half width of the plate,

w = iv(z2-L2) .... (5.39)
which is the required transformation.
The transformation for horizontal flow normal to a vertical plate
(Fig. 5.23) is obtained by rotating the <.-plane pattern through ~
: /,., .... -~ I --~
--....
........
: .... ----
\ /
---- ' , , ' I I,"' ----~
----'S::~., ..
Figure 5.23---Flow normal to a vertical plate or wall;
;:,' - i;:, whence w - v (;:,'1 +II) where l - 2a
by multiplication of z by i, the new physical pattern being on the

z'-plane
z' = iz
z'
z=-=
•
. ... (5.40)
This result is obtained by an alternative method in Section 6.6.
(iii) Flow past an ellipse

2
In case (i) above, the final transformation z = z1 +~transformed
Zt
the a-circle into a straight line of length 4a, and larger, concentric
circles into ellipses. If, instead, the final transformation equation is
b2
Z = Zt+- .... (5.41)
Zt
where b is less than a, then a circle of radius b with centre origin, the
169
b-circle, is the circle in the z 1-plane which is transformed into a

straight line in the z-plane. The line extends from ( -2b,O) to
(2b,O), its extremities being singular points (Fig. 5.24). The a-circle
which is larger and concentric with the b-circle, is transformed into
Y!w-plane ~ yfz-plane
=_-==!=-t--==__..~~=t(~
~' ~X
- 2(a + - 2)
(a) (b) (c)

I
Figure 5.24--Flow past an ellipse, obtained by the transformations w - z 1 + ~ •
z1
z = z1 + ~ (b < a). The a-circle is transformed into the ellipse and the b-circle
z1 into the line oflength 4b
1 X
~
N
a
Figure 5.25-Flow past an ellipse. Graphical
construction of the elliptical profile
an elliptical profile with the singular points as foci. The method of

graphical construction is apparent if Eq. 5.41 is expressed in polar
co-ordinates and applied to the a-circle
.... (5.42)
170
The radius vector ~ e-19 in the z 1-plane defines points on a circle

a
of radius ~, which is the inverse of the a-circle in the b-circle, since

a
b' x a= b1 (Fig. 5.25). For each point P 1 on the a-circle (with the
a
image, P~, of its inverse, on the ~-circle),
a
the corresponding trans-
formed point Pin the z-plane is obtained by vectorial addition. The
resulting ellipse has a length of 2 (a+~) and a width of 2 (a-~) .
The successive stages in the transformation from the w-plane to the
z-plane are shown in Fig. 5.24. The profiles obtained by this trans-
formation and treated in this and the following three subsections
are called J oukowski profiles.
(iv) Flow past a streamlined strut

If the a-circle is not centred upon the origin of the z 1-plane some
of the symmetry of its transformed profile disappears., Displacement
(a) (b)
Figur1 5.26-Flow past a streamlined strut. The b-circle becomes the
line BD, the (a+ m)-circle becomes an ellipse with foci Band D, and
the a-circle becomes the streamlined strut AB
in the horizontal direction destroys the symmetry about the vertical

axis. In Figs. 5.26 and 5.27c the a-circle centre is displaced from the
origin toC, where OC = m, a small distance in the positive x-direction,
by the transformation from the z 1-plane to the z 1-plane
Za = z1 +me10 = z1 +m
171
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATI ON-I
Now, the transformation

.... (5.43)
transforms the b-circle with centre 0 and radius OB 1 = b =a-m

in the z 2-plane into the straight line BD of length 4b in the z-plane.
The circle of radius OA 1 = a+ m is transformed into the ellipse
with major half axis OA and foci B and D. The a-circle of radius a
!J
w-plane
---+---~
(~ (b)
Y z-plane
It
(c) (d)
Figure 5.27-Flow past a streamlined strut. w- - ( .t1 + ~)

b•
.ta = .c1 + m, .c = .t 1 +- (b = a-m)
.c.
and centre C, is transformed into a profile which extends from B to

A and has the characteristics of the straight line, that is a cusp of
zero angle, at B; and of the ellipse, that is, a round nose, at A. The
profile is that of a symmetrical Joukowski streamlined strut and it
can be developed by the normal graphical procedure. The successive
transformations are shown in Fig. 5.27, the flow being in the negative
x-direction.
(v) Flow past a circular arc
The centre of the a-circle (Figs. 5.28 and 5.29) is displaced along
they-axis toCwhere OC = m by the transformation from the z 1-plane
to the z 2-plane
Z 2 = Z1 + m e1<"12> = z1 + im •••• (5.44)
172
The next transformation

b2
~ = z2+- .... (5.45)
~2
where b is selected so that it equals OB 1 (Fig. 5.28), transforms the

b-circle into the straight line AB of length 4b on the ~-plane. The
two arcs B 1D 1A 1 and B 1E 1A 1 of the a-circle in the ~ 2-plane are
each transformed into the one circular arc BA on the ~-plane.
4b
Figure 5.28-Flow past a circular arc. Graphical construction

for transforming the a-circle into a circular arc
The geometrical construction in Fig. 5.28 shows why the two

transformed arcs coincide, for
P1 Ox OE1 = B 1 Ox OA 1
r1 x OE1 = b2
b2
OE1 =-
't
Hence, by symmetry, OP~ = OE1 =~that is, the image, P~,

of the
rl
inverse of the a-circle point Pin the b-circle lies itself on the a-circle.
When P 1 is on the arc B 1E 1Al> then P~ is on the arc B 1D 1A 1 so that,
in the process ofvectorial addition, both arcs yield the one transformed
arc.
173
The camber of the transformed arc, OD, is seen to equal 2m, for,
when P 1 is at Du in the z 2-plane, D 1D = OF1 = ~
rl
OD = OD 1 -D1 D = OD1 -0F1
= (a+m)- (a-m)
=2m
The transformations from the w-plane to the z-plane for flow past
a circular arc are sketched in Fig. 5.29. The positions of the stagnation
Y,
11' w-plane z1-plane
x,
(a) (b)
Y2 y
Zfplane z-plane
----.-~
(c) (d)
Figure 5.29--Flow past a circular arc.
w - - (.c1 + ~) .ts - .t1 + im, .t = .ts + ~

.tl .c.
points are evident in each of the three z-planes. The ends of the arc
in the final plane are singularities where the velocity of flow is
theoretically infinite.
(vi) Flow past an aerofoil
The centre of the a-circle (Figs. 5.30a and 5.3lc) is displaced into
the first quadrant to C such that OC = m and the angle COX= 8,
by the transformation
.... (5.46)
TRANSFORMATIO NS OF THE CIRCLE
The transformation to the ~-plane,
b2
Z = z2 +- .... (5.47)
Zz
where b = OBu transforms the b-circle into the straight line of
length 4b. The a-circle is transformed into aerofoil profile which has
the rounded nose and cusped tail of the strut and the camber of the
arc previously treated. The normal geometrical construction can be
used, as indicated in Fig. 5.30. It can be shown that the locus ofthe
image, P~, of the inverse of P 1 is a circle with radius C'B 1 and centre
C' on the line B 1 C such that the angles C' Oy 2 and y 2 OC are equal.
Use of this fact simplifies the location of Pf in the graphical method.
c'~c
Yz~ y
0
b b
(a) (b)
Figur1 5.30-Flow past an aerofoil. (a) Graphical construction for transforming
the a-circle into an aerofoil. OC- m; Pi lies on the circle with centre C' and radius
C'B1 ; the angle C'Oy = yOC = i- 8. (b) Resulting aerofoil. The circle with
centre E 1 and radius E 1B 1 is transformed into the 'skeleton' arc of span 4b and
camber 20E1
A circle in the ~ 2-plane with centre E 1 and radius E 1B 1 (Fig. 5.30b)

would transform into the circular arc of span 4b which is the skeleton
of the aerofoil, shown in broken line in the ~-plane. The thickness of
the aerofoil increases with increase in the distance E 1 C' and the
camber, with increase in the distance OE1 • The stages in the trans-
formation from thew-plane to the ~-plane are shown in Fig. 5.31.
The meanings of some terms commonly used in connection with
aerofoils are indicated in Fig. 5.32; the angle of attack being defined
in some cases as ex and in some cases as the more easily measured ex'.
175
The cusped trailing edge where the angle of intersection of the

upper and lower surfaces is zero is unsatisfactory in a practical aerofoil
for constructional reasons. A modified profile (Fig. 5.33) with a
" w-plane
(a) (b)
y
z-plane
- -
(c) (d)
Figure 5.31-Flow past an aerofoil. w ~ - ( ~ 1 + ~);
b•
~.- ~ 1 +mel~; ~= ~.+-
~.
Lift force L
Figure 5.32-Aerofoil terms
finite angle, -r, at the trailing edge can be obtained by means of the
transformation, due to Karman and Trefftz
z+nb =
z-n b
2
z2- b
(z +b)n •••. (5.48)
The angle-r equals (2- n) 7T, n being selected as a little less than 2.
When n = 2, the transformation is
z+2b =
z-2b
(zz +b)
2
2-b
2
176
LIFT OF AN INFINITE AEROFOIL
which simplifies to the ordinary Joukowski transformation,

b2
z = z.+-
zs
The transformation functions so far considered, and the corres-
ponding geometrical constructions, are applicable of course to all
Figur1 5.33-Karman-Trefftz profile with a finite

angle at the trailing edge
of the streamlines, the profile being merely a streamline of particular

importance. From the stream pattern in the z-plane, the distribution
of pressure around the profile is readily determined.
5.10 Lif't of aD infinite aerofoll

In the case of the aerofoil flow of Section 5.9 there being no circula-
tion in the z 2 -plane, the circulation around the z-plane profile is zero
and therefore there is no lateral or lift force. A stagnation point
occurs at S1 on the nose and at S 2 on the upper surface near the tail
of the profile (Fig. 5.34a). At the tail, the air in theory makes an
impossibly sharp turn as it flows from below around the surface to
the rear stagnation point S 2•
In practice, not only is this pattern of air flow around the tail not
possible, l:mt a lift force is experienced by all aerofoils, arcs, and
inclined plates-in fact by any profile which is not symmetrically
formed or situated with respect to the direction of flow. Joukowski's
hypothesis, proposed with the object of bringing theory into agree-
ment with experiment, supposes that in all such flows, there is set up
about the profile a circulation of such magnitude that the rear
stagnation point is moved thereby to the trailing edge. This hypo-
thesis not only disposes of the difficulty of the infinite velocity at the
trailing edge but it explains the presence of the lift force and provides
177
a means of determining analytically the magnitude of the circulation

and hence of the lift force itself.
In this theoretical approach it is assumed that the aerofoil is of
infinite length so that flows around its ends do not affect the pattern,
which is therefore two-dimensional; further it is assumed that
separation does not occur. In the case of streamlined profiles at
small angles of incidence with the flow, separation effects are small
and the predictions of pressure distributions and lift forces made on
the basis ofJoukowski's hypothesis agree well with experiment.
It is easy to visualize a rotating cylinder setting up a circulatory
flow by means of viscous drag on the air close to its surface but the
method of establishment of circulation around a non-rotating aero-
foil is less obvious. It is to be remembered that the mean motion of
a low viscosity fluid such as air resembles irrotational flow, except in
Figure 5.34--Development of circulation around an aerofoil
regions where the velocity gradient is high. The establishment of

the circulation around the aerofoil is explained by this dual character
of the air.
According to Kelvin's Circulation Theorem (Chapter 8), in an
ideal fluid subject to body forces derivable from a single-valued
potential, the circulation in a circuit which moves with the fluid
remains constant. Hence the circulation around a vortex does not
change with time, regardless of the fluid's motion. In effect, this
means that a vortex in a non-viscous fluid can neither be created nor
destroyed. I fit exists, it must always have existed and will continue to
do so. Hence, if a fluid initially at rest is set in motion by movement
of its boundaries, no vortices can develop and the circulation around
any curve in the fluid remains at zero. An aerofoil which is set in
motion in a non-viscous fluid initially at rest would therefore produce
no vortex and no circulatory flow around itself.
In a real fluid, at the commencement of motion, the flows from the
upper and lower edges meet at the rear stagnation pointS (Fig. 5.34a).
As the velocity increases, flow from the lower surface around the tip
cannot be maintained and separation occurs at the tip, viscous
178
LIFT OF AN INFINITE AEROFOIL
action producing a clockwise 'starting' vortex with a circulation of

its own. Application of Kelvin's circulation theorem to a closed
curve surrounding the aerofoil, and lying in regions of practically
irrotational flow, suggests that the circulation around this curve
must remain at zero. This can only be possible if a second circulatory
flow of equal magnitude to that of the starting vortex, but opposite
in sign, has been simultaneously established within the closed curve.
This is the anticlockwise circulation around the aerofoil, according
tojoukowski's hypothesis (Fig. 5.34b).
As the speed increases, so also does the strength of the circulation
and this increasing strength causes the forward stagnation point
to move downwards and the rear stagnation point to move
back towards the tip. When it reaches this point, the cause of the
development of the starting vortex no longer exists. When the speed
becomes steady, the vortex ceases to grow and is detached and swept
downstream to be dissipated by viscous action, leaving the circulation
around the aerofoil undiminished (Fig. 5.34c). This briefly, is the
basis of circulation theory oflift.
The magnitude of the lift is pUT. This relationship, known as the
Kutta-Joukowski Law, can be shown to apply not o~ly to circular
cylinders (Section 4.1 0) and to aerofoils but to any form in two-dimen-
sional irrotational flow. t In the case of a real fluid, surface resistance
and separation may produce effects markedly different from that
predicted by the law but, for streamlined profiles, it is in fair agree-
ment with experimental determinations for angles of attack up to
about 10°. In fact this law forms the basis of the circulation theory
oflift on aeroplane wings, the thrust of fan and propeller blades, and
the transverse forces on unsymmetrical solid bodies, and on rotating
balls and cylinders moving through a fluid. The principal problem
in the application of the law is the determination of the appropriate
value for the circulation, r.
In the case of the aerofoil, it is that value
of r which makes the trailing edge a stagnation point (see footnote,
p. 181 ).
The transformations from the w-plane to the z-plane to obtain
the pattern of flow past a Joukowski type aerofoil with an angle of
attack ex and a circulation of strength T = Kt are as follows:-
(i) w-plane to z1-plane
w = - u(z +~)-
1
Z1
iK ln
27T
z
1 (K > 0) .... (5.49)
t See Appendix B (iv).

t Since, in a conformal transformation, there is a decrease in the velocity scale
corresponding to an increase in the length scale at any point, the circulation around
a body remains unaltered by the transformation.
179
which yields the pattern of flow past a circular cylinder of radius a,

at the origin of the <; 1 -plane, with an anticlockwise circulation
(Fig. 5.35a and b).
(ii) <: 1-plane to ;:,2-plane

.... (5.50)
which rotates the pattern through an angle, -oc, where oc is the angle
of attack (Fig. 5.32). The <; 2 pattern is shown in Fig. 5.35c.
tJ w-plane
Y1 z 1-plane
I I I I I
I I I
I
I I I I I
I I I
I
I I
I I I
I I I I j
(a) (b) (c)
Y z-plane
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5.35---Kutta-Joukowski transformation for flow past an aerofoil. In (f) the
circulation has been increased to move the rear stagnation point to the trailing
edge. w= -U z 1 +- - iK ( a')
.:::,
21T lnz,, z 1 =z,e-i"', z1 =z 1 +mel~, z-za+-
-
b•
.O::a
(iii) <:2-plane to <; 3-plane

• 0 •• (5.51)
which removes the a-circle a distance m from the origin in the

directionS (Fig. 5.35d).
180
UFT OF AN INFINITE AEROFOIL
(iv) z 3-plane to z-plane

b2
Z = Zs+- .... (5.52)
Zs
which transforms the a-circle to an aerofoil (Fig. 5.35e). If the
appropriate value of K is used, the rear stagnation point occurs at
the trailing edge (Fig. 5.35j). This value of K follows from the fact
that the complex velocity for the flow past the profile is
dw dw dz1 dz2dzs
dz = dz1 dz2 dz 3 dz
= [- u( I-:;) -2~J I:~~ .... (5.53)
z;
If the point B (Fig. 5.35j) is a stagnation point, ~; is zero for
that point, hence
.... (5.54)
where z 1 refers to the point Bin the z 1-plane, which is transformed

to the point B in the z-plane. For this point it is evident from
Fig. 5.35b that
z1 = -a e 1<~+P> .... (5.55)
and substitution of this value in Eq. 5.54 yields the value of K which
makes the trailing edge a stagnation pointt
K = 4-rraUsin (a.+,B) .... (5.56)
The lift force is L =pUT per foot length of aerofoil
L = !pU 2.4a.27Tsin (a.+,B)
L = CLA!pU 2
where CL = 27Tsin (a. +,8)
and A= 4a (the chord length, very nearly)
Since ,8 is a positive constant for an aerofoil, being a measure of
its camber, the angle of attack for a lift coefficient of zero is negative,
a. 0 = - ,8, and (a. +,8) can be regarded as the angle of attack measured
t If Sis brought extremely close to B it remains a stagnation point and this argu-
ment is valid for the evaluation ofK. When S coincides with B, on an aerofoil with
a cusped trailing edge, the velocity at Sis no longer zero.
7 181
from the line of zero lift. For small angles, the sine of an angle varies
almost linearly, so that the coefficient oflift is very nearly proportional
to (rx+/3) up to about 14°.
A comparison of the theoretical and the experimental character-
istics of a typical J oukowski profile is shown in Fig. 5. 36. Even closer
agreement' is obtained if the theoretical profile has the form of the
experimental profile with the boundary layer displacement thickness
added.t
16
~tall
1/, I ~
1/
"c
CL- I
12 Theoretical
'f
I J/\CL-
10
/ Experimental
08 I
CL
06
IJ
'/
,v
Q/,
C0=(Exper.)
0·2 t--
Co o ~11 [l<
il Theoretical
Drag =0
-0 2
. I I
1--
-0 I, '""' .!
-10" -S0 0 S0 10° 15°
a'
Figure 5.36-Lift and drag coefficients for
two-dimensional flow around a typical
Joukowski aerofoi1 (Prandtl)
In modern aircraft design, speed and manoeuvrability considera-

tions demand a profile which not only has good lift characteristics
but which also has low drag and favourable pressure distributions
over a range of angles of attack. For these reasons profiles other than
those of the Joukowski type are preferred and methods have been
devised! for calculating the irrotational flow with circulation, and the
corresponding pressure distributions, for any arbitrary profile. It is
t Preston, J. H., 'Calculation of Lift taking account of the Boundary Layer'.
Brit. A.er. &s. Coun&il R. and M. No. 2725, 1953 .
.t National Advisory Council for Aeronautics, Report No. 411 (1931) by T.
Theodorsen, and No. 452 (1933) by T. Theodorsen andj. Garrick.
182
THE USE OF IMAGES
possible, also, to determine, by approximate methods, profiles which

correspond to prescribed pressure distributions.
Although, in wing design, the three-dimensional flow phenomena
associated with the wing tips introduce complexities which we have
not considered here, the ideas of Kutta and Joukowski on the
characteristics of two-dimensional flow past aerofoils rank as contri-
butions of major importance in the field of aeronautics.
5.11 The use of bnages

The method ofimages, introduced in Section 4.13 for patterns of
flow adjacent to plane and circular boundaries, is applicable in
terms of complex potentials. The flow patterns due to the images,
inside the boundaries, of the external flows or singularities are super-
imposed on the external unobstructed flow pattern to produce
streamlines which coincide with the boundaries.
(i) Source near a wall
If they-axis is a wall and a source is located at (a, 0), the resulting
pattern is that due to the source, an image source at (-a, 0) together
with corresponding sinks at infinity.
The resulting pattern (Fig. 4.16a)
w =min (z-a) +min (z+a)
I.e. w = min (z2 -a2 ) .... (5.57)
(ii) Source near a cylinder
The flow pattern for a source at (a, 0) with a cylinder of radius
R <a at the origin (Fig. 4.16b) can be established by superposition on
the simple source pattern of those of its image source Bat (b, 0) and
the image sink B' at the origin. There is, of course, a sink at infinity
surrounding the region.
Since B is at the inverse point of A, b =R2fa
w = mIn ( z- a) +mIn ( z- b) -mIn z
w = m(ln (z-a) +ln( z- ~2 ) -Inz) .... (5.58)
(iii) Source between parallel walls

From Fig. 4.18, with sources located at intervals l along they-axis,
it is evident that
w = m [In z+ln (z+ it) +In (z-it)
+In (z+2il) +In (z-2il) ... ]
183
w = m [In z+ In (z 2 + /2) +In (z 2 +4f2) ... ]
= m [rn z+ln ( 1 +;:)+In ( 1 +~z~) ... +constant]

Omitting the constant, further simplification leads to
w = mlnsinh} z .... (5.59)

This pattern is similar to that of Fig. 6.8, where the flow to the half-
sink is Q.
REFERENCES
(I) LAMB, H., Hydrodynamics, Cambridge, 1932.
(3) GLAUERT, H., Th4 Elements of Aerqfoil and Airscrew Theory, Cambridge, 1937.
(4) PoPE, A., Basic Wing and Airfoil Th4ory, McGraw-Hill, 1951.
ProbleDls
5.1. Find the complex numbers given by
(a) (l+i) (4-3i)
(h) 11 + ~i
2-J
(c) ln(5+2i)
(d) ln i
(e) ln (- 1)
5.2. If w- f(;;,) where w- </>+ i.p and ;;, - x+ ry, find the values of</> and
.p in terms of x andy for the following functions of ;;, :
(a) A;;, (e) ln ;;, 2
(h) ;;,2 (f) z+!
;;,
;;,
(c) -
;;, (g) z
(d) In;;, (h) eiz
Ans. (a) </> - Ax, .p- Ay
(h) x 1 - y 2, 2xy
X y
(c) xz+y2'- x2+yz
184
PROBLEMS
5.3. Show that

(a) sinhix- isinx (g) cosh-1 (1)- 0
(b) COSh ix- COSX
(c) sinhx- - isin ix

(h) cosh-1 (0) - ± z
iTT
(d) coshx- cosix (i) cosh-1(-1)- ±i1r

(e) sinh(-x)- -sinhx
(j) :x sinh x - cosh x
(f) cosh(-x)- coshx
From the table in Appendix B plot on the one graph, cosh 8, sinh 8 and
tanh 8 for values of 8 from - 1r to + 1r.
5.4. Determine which of the following are functions of a complex variable

(a) x 2 +2y2 +ixy x iy
(e) - - + - -
(b) r3 cos 38 + ir3 sin 38 x2 +y2 x2 +y2
x2 - y 2 i2xy
(c)
(x2 +y2)2
(f) sin x coshy + i cos x sinhy
(x2 +y2)2
(d) ~ (cos28- isin28)

T
Ans. (b) z;S, (c) ~. (d) ~.(f)

<:: <::
sin<::
5.5. For the transformation w - !<::2, plot on diagrams representing the

w-plane and the <:-plane, the r/J-lines and <,6-lines in the region r/J - - 3 to
r/1 - 3, <,6 - - 3 to <,6 - 3, with intervals of unity for A rfJ and A <fo.
Identify the features on the <:-plane corresponding to the following
features on thew-plane:
(a) The square formed by the lines rfJ- 2, rfJ- 2 ·5, <,6- 1, <,6- 1·5
(b) The square formed by the lines rfJ- 1, rfJ- 3, <,6- 1, <,6- 3
(c) The square formed by the lines rfJ- 0, rfJ- 1, <,6- 0, <,6- 1
(d) The circle, with centre the origin, tangential to <,6- 2
(e) The circle with centre <,6- -2, rfJ- 2, tangential to the r/J-axis
(f) The triangle (0, 2) (- 2,- 1) (2,- 1) in thew-plane
5.6. Establish the polar co-ordinate form of the Cauchy-Riemann

equations
ar
-- __
o<fo 1 orfl , 1 o<fo
r o8 ; ()8-
orfl
Or
185
5.7. Identify the following z-plane patterns and determine, for each, the
velocity V and the direction of flow, oc, at the point z - 3 + 4i
(a) w- 3z (e) w- 3(z+n
(b) w-41nz
(c) w- 4ilnz
(d) w--
15
z
(f) w- 3(z+n+4ilnz
Ans. (a) 3, 0° (d) 0·6, - 73° 44'
(b) 0 . 8, 53 ° 08' (e) 3·22, -10°23'
(c) 0·8, -36° 52' (f) 3·95, - 15° 32'
5.8. Write down the transformation for flow past a half-body and thence
find expressions for the velocity components at any point and for the location
of the stagnation point. The approach velocity is U and the source constant
ism.
Ans.w= Uz+mlnz;u- U+~cos8,v-~sin8;
r r
m
r--,8-1r
u
5.9. Write down the transformation for flow past the Rankine body
resulting from a uniform flow U, a source at (- a,O) and a sink at (a,O) and,
by differentiation, obtain an expression for the velocity at any point and
for the locations of the stagnation points
z+ a
Ans. w- Uz+ min--; lVI e-l«- U- - 2am
2- -11
z-a z -a
x- ±aj(1+!~),y-O
5.10. Write down the transformation for the combination of uniform
flow with a velocity U in the positive x-direction with a sink of strength Q
at (-a, 0) and a source of equal strength at (a, 0). Find the location of the
stagnation points and show that they are on the x-axis if QU < 1 and on
?Ta
they-axis if QU > 1. Under what conditions does flow from the source
?Ta
reach the sink?
Sketch typical flow patterns for JL_ respectively less than, equal to and
1raU
greater than unity
Q z+a
Ans.w-Uz--1n--,z±-a
21r z- a
J( Q)
1---,
1raU
JL_>l
1raU
186
PROBLEMS
5.11. Write down the transformation for flow at an angle f3 to the positive
x-axis past a circular cylinder of radius a, with its centre at Zt> if there is an
anticlockwise circulation K around the cylinder. Sketch the pattern of
flow, taking f3 as 30°.
Ans.w-U[(z-z 1 )e- 1 ~+( <:- Z1a2) e lll]-t2.Kln(z-z1)

11'
5.12. By means of the graphical construction of Fig. 5.15, draw the

streamlines .p- - 1,0, 1,2,3 and the equipotential lines</>- - 1,0, 1,2,3 for
a doublet of strength p.- 4-, at the origin with its axis in the negative
x-direction.
5.13. Identify the component patterns, including the numerical strengths,
27 fl
tv= 4ft/sec ·J
in the flow pattern shown and determine a transformation which would

produce it.
Ans. w - 4-tz + 54
0
-;In ( 1 - 3+4-i)
-z-
5.14. Plot to scale the streamlines .p ~ 1, 2 and 3 for the transformation

w- 3z2' 3 • Determine the velocity distribution along the positive x-axis,
taking the velocity at x- unity as the reference velocity.
187
5.15. Show that for the transformations
W - - ( Zt + f) Za - Z1 e 1"', Z - Z1 + ~,
the pattern in the z-plane is that of flow past an elliptic cylinder whose
major axis is inclined at an angle "' to the direction of the stream.
5.16. Show that, for the flow in the x-direction of a fluid of infinite extent
past a plate of width 2/ set normal to the flow at the origin,
reiB = J(J 2 e21B,- [2)

where rand 0 refer to the z-plane and r1 and 01 refer to thew-plane.
Use this relationship to plot the streamline .p- 10 ft. 8 per sec. per ft.
depth if l - 2 ft. and U- 10 ft.jsec.
5.17. Construct by graphical means the J oukowski aerofoil determined

by a- 2 in., 8- 60°, m- 0 ·4 in.
5.18. (a) Show that Eq. 5.56 follows from Eq. 5.54 and 5.55.
(h) If for a particular Joukowski profile f3- 7°, plot the theoretical
coefficient oflift against the angle of attack from - 10° to + 10°.
5.19. Establish the transformations for flow past a flat plate aerofoil and
show that, according to Joukowski's hyp~thesis, CL ~ 21rac for moderate
angles of attack.
Ans. w- - v(z + ~)-
1
Zt
iK lnz1,
21T
-1"' a•
Zs - Zt e , Z - Zt + -
z.
188
6
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-II
IF a ,e--plane pattern is, or can be transformed into, a pattern of flow
within straight-wall boundaries, that is, within a simple polygon, a
theorem due to Schwarz and Christoffel provides a standard method
for transforming the pattern within this polygon to that of flow
occupying the whole of the upper half of a plane. It is then usually
possible to transform the half-plane pattern to that of uniform flow
in thew-plane, and, the relationship between wand ,e- being estab-
lished, the flow pattern in the .e--plane is mathematically determined.
The Schwarz-Christoffel (S-C) theorem is one of the few direct
methods of approach to the determination of complex potentials.
Examples of straight-wall boundary flows which can be solved by
its use are shown in Fig. 6.1.
.·-------
(a)
,_____ _
=.;.~=:::::------
~
.... ----J. . . . . . .::.:-::.
===::::
~ __ ',;
4---...
"!~:·~A::;:::::. ---
_,---
...... - _..... .,-.:,,';'.,....
I
...,. ;'_,---
::-~.:~:::~~---- ..::~,. r
(d) (e) (f)
:::..-::.-=--=-::
- : ,r----1:.
, - ,.""'
~
/ 'I
I :
(g) (h) (i}
Figure 6.1-Examples of two-dimensional flow between boundaries
composed of plane surfaces
7• 189
Patterns involving effiux with free surfaces from straight-walled

containers can usually be transformed into patterns of flow within
simple, rectangular polygons. An S-C transformation to the half-
plane and a second, which may be an S-C transformation, to the
w-plane yields the w = f( z) relationship and provides a method of
determining, mathematically, the free streamline profile. Profiles
~\L -'--'c== .
1'\'--
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)

Figure 6.2-l:xamples of two-dimensional flows with free streamlines
and contraction coefficients for two-dimensional flows determined

in this manner agree well with measured values. Fig. 6.2 shows
some of the classes of free streamline problems which can be dealt
with by this method.
6.1 Silnple closed polygons
For the present purposes, a simple closed polygon is defined as a
plane figure with the following characteristics:
( 1) the boundary is composed of straight lines;
190
SIMPLE CLOSED POLYGONS
(2) the boundary can be completely traversed without leaving

it. For example, there is no separate interior boundary in addition
to an exterior boundary;
(3) the boundary divides the whole plane into two regions, one
internal and the other external;
(4) the interior is, by definition, on the observer's left as he
traverses the boundary in an anticlockwise sense;
(5) the interior is 'connected', that is, any two points in it can
be joined by a line which does not cross a boundary; and the exterior
is connected;
(6) one or more vertices may be at infinity.
Exterior Exterior
B Aoo
B/u ' ' « « tzz:u "' ',foo
t Interior
-
2 Exterior
Doo Cdo' '' ''' ' '
Extrior
·I~>' ' >>>Doo
(a) Semi- infinite strip (b) Infinite strip
Exterior
eG:e 5::w;; s; :Aoo
1
Exterior
A":',,;; ,~T: » » » Boo
Exterior
(c) Semi-infinite line (d) Half- plane
Figure 6.3---Simple polygons frequently used in Schwarz-Christoffel transformations
Subject to these restrictions the S-C theorem is applicable to

polygons of any shape. For example, the deflection angles of the
polygon boundary may be positive (anticlockwise) or negative
(clockwise) for a traverse in the anticlockwise direction; and they
may take any value between -TT and +TT, these limits corresponding
to a boundary folding back along itself; but a boundary may not
cross itself. Examples of simple polygons are shown in Fig. 6.1 and
6.3.
Two polygons which are frequently involved in problems requiring
successive transformations are the semi-infinite strip and the infinite
strip. A semi-infinite strip is a rectangle with two vertices at infinity.
The parallel sides can be regarded as intersecting at infinity to form
one vertex with a deflection angle of TT. An irifinite strip is a rectangle
191
with two vertices at - oo and two at + oo. Each pair can be regarded
as one vertex with a deflection angle of TT. A semi-irifinite line is a
semi-infinite strip of zero width, while a half-plane can be considered
as an infinite strip of infinite width, with its lower boundary on the
real axis (Fig. 6.3).
The interior of a polygon is the region of flow. It may be the
z-plane physical pattern, as in Fig. 6.8a, which shows one type of
flow in a semi-infinite strip; or it may be a pattern derived from the
z-plane pattern by one or more transformations, as in Fig. 6.8b,
which shows a pattern in a half-plane, and in Fig. 6.8c, which shows
uniform flow in an infinite strip. Transformed patterns retain the
boundary conditions, apart from boundary shape, if the z-plane, so that solid
boundaries, free surfaces, sources and sinks in the z-plane have their
counterparts in the same relative locations in the transformed poly-
gon. With the boundary conditions of the polygon known, the
families ofcp- and if!- lines can be sketched in if necessary. In particular,
an infinite strip or a half-plane, with a source at - oo and a sink at
+ oo on the real axis, contains a pattern of parallel flow from left to
right and is therefore simply a part of the w-plane.
The half-plane pattern is the upper half of a plane generally known
as the t-plane, on which the location of any point is determined by
the complex number t = iti e18. Since we are interested primarily
in real values oft, that is, points along the real axis of the t-plane,
no distinctive names or symbols are necessary for the real and
imaginary parts of t. Any simple polygon can be transformed into
the upper half of the t-plane by the S-C transformation and hence
any simple polygon can be transformed into any other simple polygon
by two successive S-C transformations.
6.2 The Schwarz-Christoffel theore1n

The theorem can be stated as follows:
'The interior flow pattern of a simple closed polygon can be
transformed to a pattern filling the upper half of a plane, the polygon
boundary being transformed into the whole of the real axis of the
plane. If the polygon is in the z-plane and the new plane is the
t-plane, the transformation is
-dz = A(a- t)-rr.hr (b- t)-fJhr (c _ t)--yln ••• . ... (6.1)

dt
where A = R ei8 is a complex constant

a,b,c ... are real constants in ascending order of magnitude
g.,f3,y ... ilrt;: the external deflection angles of the polygon.'
192
THE SCHWARZ-CHRISTOFFEL THEOREM
The exterior of the polygon becomes the lower half of the t-plane;
the constants a, b, c ... are the values of t along the real axis of the
t-plane to which the vertices of the polygon are transformed; and the
sum or;+ f3 +y ... obviously equals 2'1T (Fig. 6.4).
Whatever the pattern of flow in the polygon may be, the velocities
at the vertices A,B,C ... will be either zero (for positive deflection
angles) or infinite (for negative deflection angles); these points are
therefore singularities, where the mapping process breaks down.
They are shown excluded from the z-pattern by means of small
circular arcs, and the corresponding points t = a, t = b ••• are excluded
from the t-pattern, even though the velocities at those points in the
t-pattern may be finite.
The transformation can be regarded as opening up the polygon at
some convenient vertex and extending it along the real axis of the
t-plane. Any point, M, on the boundary between vertices can be
regarded as a vertex with a zero deflection angle for this purpose.
The interior of the polygon expands to fill the upper half-plane and
the 'straightened' boundary extends from t = - oo to t = + oo,
these limits representing the opened ends of the one vertex. Since
an elemental length 8z of the polygon boundary will be related to
a corresponding length 8t of the t-plane real axis, by the eq:J.Iation ·
dz
8z = dt 8t .•.. (6.2)
it is evident from Eq. 6.1 that the scale of the transformation, and
hence the location of the other vertices on the real t-axis, depends
upon the absolute value of the complex factor A. In practice, the
scale, which is a non-linear one, is fixed by arbitrarily locating two
of the remaining vertices at points on the t-axis convenient for the
integration ofEq. 6.1 and the corresponding value ofA is subsequently
calculated.
The mechanism of the transformation can be understood from a
. . dz.
. ofE q. 6 .2• The d envative
cons1.deration dt IS a comp1ex operator
which transforms the element 8t, by rotating and stretching it, into
a corresponding element 8z. From Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2,
8z = [A(a- t)-1XI1T (b- t)-811T (c- t)-'Y"' ••• ] 8t .... (6.3)
the square-bracketed portion representing ~;. We consider the

arguments or directions of elements 8z, corresponding to elements 8t,
as the point t moves from - oo to + oo along the real axis (Fig. 6.4).
193
Since St, being directed to the right in the real axis, always has zero
argument (except on the small arcs around the vertices), the argu-
dz
ment of Sz always equals that of dt .
So long as t is less than a, the numbers (a-t), (b- t) ... are real
and positive and when raised to the powers _::, -~ ... , remain
7r 7r
real; and therefore the argument of ~;, and hence of Sz, remains
constant and equal to the argument of A. For values oft less than a,
therefore, the corresponding line in the z-plane is straight.
t-plane
(a-f) Mqving
~ Interior
I~P
. 'i'((''
,,,,,,,,,~,~
t:::-oo t=a t=b t=c t=d t=+oo
M A B C 0 M
Figure 6.4--Definition sketches of Schwarz-Christoffel theorem
When t is between a and b, (a-t) is negative and, raised to the

fractional power, - ~, becomes complex. Its effect on the argument
7r
of Sz can be seen if (a-t) is regarded as a vector directed towards a.
As t passes around the semi-circle at a, the vector (a-t) rotates
clockwise through an angle Tr, decreasing its argument from zero to
-Tr. Hence, fort real and greater than a, the vector (a-t) has the
argument -Tr. Therefore
(a-t) = r1 e-1"
where r 1 is the absolute distance of the point t from the point A
(t =a).
(a-t)-a11r = (r1 e-ltr)-altr = r1attrela
Therefore (a-t)-a.ltr operates on St, rotating it through a constant

angle, +ex, (in addition to the rotation due to A) ift is greater than
a. The line ab is therefore transformed into a straight line on the
194
SEMI•INFINITE AND INFINITE STRIPS
z-plane with a deflection angle equal to a:. Similarly the remaining

portions of the real axis of the t-plane are transformed into straight
lines on the z-plane with deflection angles f3,y .... It can be shown
that the z-plane figure does actually close.
Integration ofEq. 6.1 yields, for all transformations to the t-plane,
z =A f dt
(a-t)rx11T(b-t)f311T(c-t)YI1T(d-t)811r ••• +B · · · .(6 ·3)
where A and B are constants which may be complex. A affects the

scale and orientation of the z-plane polygon and B its position with
respect to the origin. Both constants are determined, following
integration, from known conditions.
Usually one or two of the points A,B,C ... are at infinity on the
real axis of the t-plane, and they need not be considered in Eq. 6.3
for the following reason. Suppose that the argument of A is .:\ and
its modulus, Carxt 11 • (This does not restrict A but merely defines C.)
Then
dz = Carx11T ei>. (a-t) -rxi1T (b- t) -{311T •••

dt
=
t)
a - -rxl1T
C et>. ( ----;- (b - t) -{3111 •••
a - t) -rxl11
(
and, as a approaches oo, ----;- approaches unity and ultimately
disappears from the equation. Hence vertices at infinity in the
t-plane can be ignored in Eq. 6.3.
6.3 Semi-infinite and infinite strips

For rectangular polygons, including semi-infinite and infinite
strips, the deflection angles, oc, {3, y and 8 each equal~ and thus
z =A f dt
v[(a-t) (b-t) (c-t) (d-t)]
+B .... (6.4)
One of the vertices can be located at + oo and - oo, and two others at
convenient points on the real axis on the t-plane. In the case of
semi-infinite and infinite strips a pair of vertices at infinity on the
195
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-ll
~-plane can be treated as one vertex with a deflection angle of 1T.

The strip is usually 'opened' at a vertex at infinity.
(i) Semi-infinite strips
ABCD is a horizontal semi-infinite strip of height 1, in the ~-plane
with one of its lower vertices C, at the origin (Fig. 6.5a). The corre-
l
sponding points in the t-plane are A, B, C and D and we arbitrarily
place A att = - ctJ, Batt= -1 and C att = +I. From considerations
y
z-plane
t-plone
8 A..,
J f=a=-ro b:-1 0 C=+l

>1>>?///b
d:ro
c D..,
X ~;;;;;;;~;;
(a) f=cosh !fz

y y y
~~-·'·~·.
z-plane z-plane
8 A..,
~::_':_""T-!/:...-~ X
a., 8 c
(b) f:COSh 1{- (Z-zf (c) t=isimfz (d) l=sin !fz
Figure 6.5-Mapping of semi-infinite strips on a half-plane
of symmetry D will fall at t = + ctJ. (Alternatively if A and D be

regarded as one vertex and the point of opening of the ~-plane
polygon, then D must be at t = + ctJ.)
From Eq. 6.4, with (a-t) and (d-t) omitted, since these vertices
are at infinity,
z=A I dt
v'[(-1-t)(l-t)]+B
=A Iv'(t~~ l) +B
z = Acosh-1 t +B
To evaluate A and B, we obtain two equations by substituting,
in turn, corresponding values for z and t for the two vertices C and B.
196
SEMI-INFINITE AND INFINITE STRIPS
ForC, z=Oandt=l
0 = Acosh-11 +B
For B, z= il and t = - 1
l
il = Acosh-1 (-IJ = Ai1r A=-
7T
l
z = -cosh-1t
7T
or t = cosh 7TZ .... (6.5a)

l
which relationship holds for all semi-infinite strips with C at the
origin of the z-plane and CD along the positive x-axis, irrespective
of the pattern of flow in the strip.
If Cis not at z = 0, but at z = z 1, say, (Fig. 6.5b) the z-t relation-
ship could be developed afresh. However, it is simpler to obtain it
from Eq. 6.5a by transference of the x-y axes to the point z 1. Then
l
z-z1 = -cosh-1t
7T
l
or z = - cosh-1 t+ z1
7T
.... (6.5b)
In particular, if the midpoint, G, of BC is at the origin (Fig. 6.5c),

. .l d
C Is at z1 = - z2an
t = coshy(z+iD
=cosh (jz+ii)
yzcosh"z2+sm
=cosh 7T • h • h"
yzsm77
'2 77 77
and since cosh i ~ is zero and sinh i i equals i

t=zst -z
• "nh7T
•... (6.5c)
l
197
Again, if the semi-infinite strip is vertical, with G at the origin

(Fig. 6.5d) the transformation function can be developed directly, or
it can be derived from Eq. 6.5c by rotation of the axes or of the
pattern. Multiplication of z by - i rotates the vertical strip clockwise
through the angle ~, to produce the pattern of Fig. 6.5c. Hence
the transformation function follows from Eq. 6.5c if -iz is written
for z
t=zsm .. h( -zlz .1T )
=i 2 sin(-jz)
.1T
t = smyz .... (6.5d)
(ii) Irifinite Strips

ABCD is an infinite strip of height l, with CD lying along the
x-axis (Fig. 6.6). The parallel sides can be regarded as meeting at
y
z-plane
B X E A..,
c... 0 - D..,
X ?.,,h,,,,
A E
,,!;,::."'.'
B,C 0
(a) Z=
I
1i" In f (b)
Figure 6.6--Mapping an infinite strip on a half-plane; z = ! In t
1T
x = ± co, that is, A coincides with D and B with C. When the polygon
boundary is 'opened' at A and located along the t-axis, A is placed
at t = -co, the coincident points, B and C are placed at t = 0 and,
as with the semi-infinite strip, it is evident that D falls at t = +co.
Eq. 6.4 reduces to
z = Af~+B
yt2
z = Alnt+B
One more point on the <;-plane boundary can be arbitrarily located
on the real axis of the t-plane to establish the t-scale. Let the ~-plane
origin correspond to t = 1. Then
0 =Alnl+B
whence B=O.
198
SEMI-INFINITE AND INF~NITE STRIPS
For any pointE on AB, z = x+il and t = it! eiTT

x+il = Aln it! el1r
= Aln iti +Ai1r
Equating imaginaries, we obtain l = A1r
l
A=-
1T
l
z= -lnt .... (6.6a)
1T
is the required transformation.
,......--,--....._
~ I "!-'-
/ \ It-plane ,
/ \ I I '
B., ----
f.,
I'
\\t/
I I
/ .....-""
\
Q=--=--
cco -- A!,,,,~::iff,:.,,,,,,,, ,)o
Q
(a) (b)
Fit,/,.e 6.7-Uniform flow in an infinite strip mapped on the half-plane
w~ !..lnt
1T
If the strip is displaced vertically a distance ry 1 from the position

shown in Fig. 6.6, the transformation becomes
. = -llnt
z-ryl
1T
z = 1T-ll nt+ry. 1 . ... (6.6b)
The infinite strip transformation is frequently used as the final

step in a series of transformations to obtain the w-plane pattern of
uniform flow from left to right. An infinite strip (Fig. 6.7a) with
a source at - oo (B,C) and a sink at + oo (A, D) does in fact constitute
part of thew-plane. Its width, l, being measured in the direction of
the 1/J-axis equals the 1/J-value of the upper streamline and hence is
equal to Q, the rate of flow from left to right. In the corresponding
pattern in the upper half of the t-plane, the same flow rate, Q, issues
from the corresponding source B,C, which is at the origin, and flows
to the corresponding sink, located around the infinitely distant arc
between A and D. The half t-plane pattern represents one-half of
199
the pattern of a source whose total flow is 2Q and whose source con-
stant is therefore m = 22Q = f1.
7T 7T
From Eq. 6.6a, with l = Q, it is clear that the transformation from
a half-source at the origin of the t-plane to flow in an infinite strip
in thew-plane is
w =Q
-lnt .... (6.6c)
7T
This equation is in accord with that previously obtained (Eq. 5.24)
for source flow, w =mint, with m equal to q·
7T
..---r---
-\ I ';-
/ , Jl-plane '-
/ \ l I \
!'--.... \ I I ,., \
I -.... \. • ./ _,.,,.- \
~ ~,.,, I v.l .,!,
»>»»»mm;;m;;;>*;,,,,,,,mmnm
A B S~ C D
Q
(a) (b)
A
"'
Figure 6.8-Flow to a narrow outlet at the end of a channel;
Ql
. 'nh 11-~;w=--nl
t-u1
l 1T
For a half-sink at the origin of the t-plane, substitution of -Q

forQ yields
w
Q
= --lnt .... (6.6d)
7T
and, as the infinite strip width l = -Q, the strip lies below the rp-axis
in thew-plane (see Fig. 6.8b and c).
If the flow rate is arbitrarily fixed at TT ft. 3Jsec. the flow patterns
are unaffected and the algebra is simplified, for Eq. 6.6c becomes
w = lnt .... (6.6e)
In the figures relating to the following examples, the patterns of
flow have been sketched for each of the transformation planes.
200
FLOW OUT OF THE END OF A CHANNEL
With experience, this procedure is not essential, the u.sual practice

being to show the boundaries only. It is unnecessary, also, to fix
the location of the infinite strip in the final transformation to the
w-plane.
6.4 Flow out or the end of a channel
Flow to a narrow outlet in the end of a long channel (Fig. 6.8a) is
an example of flow in a semi-infinite strip. For the determination of
the complex potential, the pattern is transformed to the upper half
of the t-plane, the resulting pattern being that of flow to a half-sink
at the origin. A second transformation yields parallel flow in an
infinite strip on the w-plane.
(i) ;:.-plane to t-plane
The ;:.-plane axes are placed so that the x-axis lies along the
channel centre-line and the sink is at the origin (Fig. 6.8a). The
boundary is 'opened' at the infinite end, A being located at t = - oo,
B at t = - 1, and C at t = + 1. Since the vertex D coincides with A
at infinity in the ;:.-plane, D will fall at t = + oo; and, the sink being
midway between B and C, the point S will be at the origin, t = 0
(Fig. 6.8b). The transformation for a semi-infinite strip so situated
is, from Eq. 6.5c,
.. h7T
t = um l ;:., .... (6.7)
and the t-plane pattern is evidently that of flow to a half-sink.

(ii) t-plane to w-plane
The transformation from a half-sink at the origin to parallel flow
in an infinite strip of thew-plane is
Q
w = --lnt
7T
w .. h7T
= --Q 1nzs1n -;:.
7T l
Writing et(.,/2) fori and expanding, we obtain
Q . 7T Qi7T
w = --lnsmh- ;:.---
7T l 7T2
The constant term can be dropped since it contributes nothing to
the flow pattern and therefore
w = -- . h7T
Q 1ns1n -;:. .... (6.8a)
7T l
201
The complex velocity is

. dw Q h1T
u-w = dz = - 7cot yz
ancl the rfo- and tfo-functions can be shown to be
rfo = - _[ ln! (cosh 21TX- cos 21TY) .... (6.8b)

21T 2 l l
tan TTY
_qtan- 1 - -1- .... (6.8c)
ifi= TT 1TX
tanh-y
Notes: (i) The patterns of flow out of the corner of the closed
end of a channel, flow out of a long channel through a slit in one
wall (see the next section), flow to a sink located midway between
parallel walls and also the pattern for an infinite nu:rrober of sources
spaced a distance l apart along they-axis are all similar. They can
be obtained from Eq. 6.8, with 2l substituted for /where appropriate.
(ii) Eq. 6.8a can be simplified if the discharge, Q, is fixed at
1T ft.ajsec. per ft. depth, and the channel width, l, is made equal to
1r feet so that the approach velocity, l• has unit magnitude. Then
w = -lnsinhz
(iii) If the channel is located along they-axis, with the source at
the origin, use of Eq. 6.5d leads to
Q 1 . 1T
w = - ; nsm 7 z
6.5 Flow out of the side of a channel

The z-plane pattern is an infinite strip with flow from each end
to a slit at the origin (Fig. 6.9a).
z~t. The transformation of an infinite strip to the t-plane
(Eq. 6.6a) is
l
z = 1T-lnt
the vertices B, C falling at the origin, t = 0.
202
FLOW OUT OF THE SIDE OF A CHANNEL
To locateS, we have from the above equation
t = e<1r!f)z
and, for S, z = 0; hence t = I. The t-plane pattern is sketched in

Fig. 6.9b.
t ~ w. The point t = 1 is regarded as a sink with a total flow of
2Q, of which half comes from the upper half of the t-plane. Similarly,
at t = 0, the flow of~ is regarded as that due to a source of total flow
Q. For this source-sink combination
Q Q
Wsource = mlln t = 2--ln t = - In t112
7T 7T
2Q Q (t-1)
Wsink = - m2 ln (t - I) = - - In (t - I) --In
2n 7T
w = - ~ [In (t - 1) -In t112]
Q t-1
--In-
n tl/2
_ Qln (1112 _ 1-112)

7T
Q e(1TI21) z _ e-(1TI21) z
- -In 2 ---:::----
n 2
- QIn sinh~ z- QIn 2

7T 21 7T
and, sirice the constant does not affect the pattern, we may write
w QI nsm
= -- . h'TT
-z .... (6.9)
7T 21
The similarity of this pattern with that of Section 6.4 is evident.

An alternative approach to the t~w transformation is to seek an
intermediate transformation to a t' -plane on which B-C will be made
to coincide either with A, D or S, so that there is only one sink and
one source on the t'-plane and thew= lnt' form of transformation
203
can be used. A suitable transformation is t' = tt~ 21 , the transformed

positions being
Point A B,C s D
t 0 1
-a:>
"'
t' ia:> 0
-a:>
"'
and A, B, C and D all lie at infinity, S being now at the origin

(Fig. 6.9c). Then
W=
as before.
y
z-plane
(a) (b)
"' w-plane
(c) (d)
Figrm6.9-Flowtoanoutletin thesideofachannel; z- ~In t;
1T
t' = t ~,.1 ; w-- Qlnt'
t 1T
6.6 Flow past a flat plate without separation

The pattern of flow past a flat plate set normal to the stream,
assuming no separation (Fig. 6.10a), can be obtained by consideration
of the upper half, the dividing streamline and the half-plate being
204
FLOW PAST A FLAT PLATE WITHOUT SEPARATION
regarded as the boundary of a polygon ABCDE with vertices A and

Eat oo (Fig. 6.10b).
z ~t. The point A is located at t = - oo, B at t = -1 and Cat
t = 0. From considerations of symmetry, D is at + I and E at + oo.
y
z-plane f-plane
(w-plane is
___ similar)
7777m;.;mp,~m;o;'7 -.x
B·D ooE A B C D £
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.10-Flow past a flat plate without separation;
1
I= p'(~1 +/2); w~ Ult= Uv(~1 +l2 )
The deflection angles are-at B, f3 =~;at C, y = -1r; at D, S = ~-
Z-
-AI dt
(b-t)f1'" (c-t)Y'" (d-t)r,,.,
+B
f
= A
dt
( -I-t)l/2 ( -t)-1 (I-t)l'2 +B
=Af tdt
y'(t2-l) +B
z = Ay'(t 2-I)+B
A,and B are evaluated from consideration of the points C and D.
ForD, z=O and t=I, therefore B=O. For C, z=il and t=O,
therefore it =Av( -I). A= l.
z = ly'(t 2-I)
or t = J(~ +I) = ~ y'(z2+l2)

Since the t-plane pattern is one of uniform flow parallel to the real
axis, it represents thew-plane to some scale.
w = Kt = K J(~ + I) = ~ y' (z2 + [2)

205
where K is a real constant. For absolute values of z which are large

in comparison with l, that is, for points well away from the plate
and in the region of uniform flow with a velocity U in the positive
x-direction, the above equation takes the form
K
w = 1z
Since, for such uniform flows, w = Uz (see Eq. 5.23), then~= U
and the transformation equation, previously obtained by another
method (Eq. 5.40), is
w = Uy'(z2 +l2) .... (6.10a)
(q,+up) 2 = U 2[(x+!1) 2+12]
q,2-r/J2 = U 2(x2-y2+12)
H = U 2 xy
U'x2y2
q,2--r = U2(x2-y2+[2) .... (6.10b)
U'x2y2
and -----;p----r/12 = U2(x2-y2+[2) .... (6.10c)
These final two equations are the equations of the potential lines and
the streamlines, respectively.
6. 7 Flow into a rectangular channel

We treat the upper surface as a folded boundary ABC, and the
line of symmetry as a solid boundary so that one half of the pattern
is considered (Fig. 6.llb). The vertices A and E, being at infinity,
can be treated as one vertex.
z-+t. The polygon is opened at the vertex at infinity, AE. On
the t-plane, A is located at t = -co, B at t = -1, the sink, C,D, at
t = 0 and E falls at t = +co. The t-plane pattern is obviously a
simple half-sink at the origin. The deflection angle at B is -TT,
and at CD, +1r, and
z f dt
= A t(t+ I)-1 +B
=A f(l+Ddt+B
= A(t+lnt) +B
206
FLOW INTO A RECTANGULAR CHANNEL
For the point R, at z = x, whose corresponding point is t1 on the

t-axis,
z = x = A(t1 +lnt1) +B
and, since the boundaries are both horizontal at this point, A is
real. Hence B must be real or zero.
y z-ptane
',
\ ,
I
/
A.,..
\
81/ /
I
=
. .-=-=-=....=-=-:::----~~/'
______ _
E=-=-~~~~~-=--~',
~~-a_=-~-~-~_:_~~///
0 =lt..,._:::::.
,.. ---- _ .....
______ '
4----------.-... -
;;.:-, \
D.,..
I \ '
{a) / ~ {b)
't- plane w-plane

I
', I /, E o =0 D
'' + / / ------ -- ---~~
"" -.1 ',,,/ ~~ "" -Q~ti--=-=--=-- ~-- !!=.-:=
A''' '8 'c¥J' 'ii' 'E A 8 1t Y"-tr · C
a
{c) {d)
Figure6.11-Flowintotheendofa channel; z = ~(t+lnt);
1T
w=- ~hnt;
1T
z- e-w-w if l- Q = w
For the point B, z =it and t = -1 = elw

it= A(-l+i1r)+B
Equating imaginaries,
it = Ai1r
t
A=-
1T
and equating reals,
t
A=B=-
1T
t t
z = -(t+Int)+-
1T 1T
207
t--+ w. The transformation from a sink at the origin of the t-plane

to thew-plane pattern is
w = _q_lnt
1T
or t = e--<1TIQ) w
z = ~ (e--<1TIQ) w- ~ w) .... (6.lla)
omitting the constant, which has no effect on the pattern. If l and Q

are numerically equal to 1r,
Z = e-w-w .... (6.llb)
which is the transformation considered in Section 5.8.
6.8 Free streaiDiine theory

In the patterns of flow considered so far, it has been assumed that
the fluid does not separate from the boundary. However, at abrupt
changes of direction where a boundary is deflected away from the
flow, fluid particles moving along the boundary would require
infinite accelerations to change their directions offlow instantaneously
and so remain in contact with the boundary. In such cases, separa-
tion of the flow from the boundary always occurs. The space between
the surface ofseparation and the boundary may be filled with elements
of the same fluid, as when a jet of air issues into the atmosphere; or
it may be occupied by a fluid of much lower density, as when a jet
of water is discharged into the atmosphere. In the former case, the
form of the surface of separation is affected appreciably by inter-
action between the separating flow and the surrounding fluid. In
the latter case, these effects are very small and can be neglected in
analytical investigations.
The surfaces of liquids in contact with the atmosphere or with
other fluids of much lower relative density are known as 'free'
stream surfaces and streamlines in these surfaces are called free
streamlines. Examples of flows with free stream surfaces are shown
in Fig. 6.2. Many such flows in two dimensions, involving either the
deflection offree jets, or the production ofjets by separation at points
of efflux from straight-walled containers, can be analysed by means of
the 'free streamline' theory. This theory originated with Helmholtz
and was subsequently developed by Kirchoff, Rayleigh and others.
It provides a method of determining analytically the profiles of
free streamlines and, in the cases of efflux from slots, coefficients of
208
FREE STREAMLINE THEORY
contraction, the calculated values agreeing remarkably well with

experimental determinations. In the analysis, gravity effects are
neglected and separation is assumed to occur at points which other-
wise would be points of infinite velocity. Pressures on free surfaces
are assumed to be constant and, hence, from the Bernoulli equation,
surface velocities are constant. In order to reduce the labour of
computation, it is convenient to take the free surface velocity as
unity, this being simply a length scale adjustment which does not
affect the proportions of the flow patterns. The directions of the free
surface boundaries at infinity must be known, or assumed. In some
cases they can be computed from momentum considerations.
The procedure involves a series of transformations from the z-plane
to thew-plane, the first being to the velocity, or 'hodograph' plane
m and the second to the log-velocity plane (r).
The transformations
are
(i) z-plane to '-plane
.... (6.12)
The complex number ' has for its modulus the absofute value I~~;
and, for its argument, tX, which is the direction of flow (not the
argument, 8) at the general point z on the z-plane. Straight bound-
aries on the z-plane are streamlines with tX constant and therefore
they become radial lines on the '-plane. Free surface bounqaries
are lines of constant speed, IVI, on the z-plane, and, if this speed is
unity, I~~ is unity and the free surfaces become circular arcs of unit
radius, with centre the origin, on the '-plane.
(ii) '-plane tor-plane
,, = ln' = ln~~~+itX .... (6.13)
The complex number ,, has for its real part ln \ ~~, and for its imag-
inary part, tX. Hence straight-wall boundaries on the z-plane, with
I~~
tXconstant, become radial lines on the '-plane and horizontal lines
on the ,,-plane. Free streamlines on the z-plane, with constant
at unity, become circular arcs on the '-plane and vertical lines in
the imaginary axis of the r -plane, since ln I~~ =ln 1 = 0. The
209
''-plane pattern is thus a flow in a semi-infinite strip of width l. The

student, with experience, will proceed directly from the ~-plane to
r
the -plane.
(iii) ,,-plane to t-plane
or .... (6.14)
the transformation for a horizontal semi-infinite strip with its lower

finite vertex at'; (see Eq. 6.5b).
(iv) t-plane to w-plane
Frequently the /-plane pattern is that of a half-source or half-sink
at the origin, for which
w = ±Qlnt .... (6.15)

7T
In other cases, the t-p1ane pattern is recognizable as a standard

pattern or a combination of standard patterns for which the trans-
formation to the w-plane can be written down directly.
In any case the general appearance of the w-plane, including the
transformed free imd solid boundaries, can be sketched directly
from an examination of the ~-plane. All boundaries must be so
tran~ormed as to yield the normal w-plane pattern of uniform flow
from left to right. An S-C transformation of this w-plane pattern to
the t-plane pattern already obtained yields the required result.
Examples of this procedure are given in Sections 6.11 and 6.13.
The free streamline profile
In the determination of the free streamline profile, advantage is
taken of the fact that, along the profile, IVI is unity and if; is constant,
so that dif; = 0, hence
(i) ,, = ln~~~+icx = icx .... (6.16)
dcp
and (ii) dw = dcp = - ds = V ds
ds
dw = ds .... (6.17)
where s is measured along the free streamline.
The method of analysis is demonstrated in the following examples.
210
FLOW THROUGH A PLANE SLOT
6.9 Flow through a plane slot

A liquid issues in the form of a free jet through a slot in a plane
wall of a vessel. The other walls are sufficiently distant to have
negligible effect on the flow pattern at the slot and the plane wall can
be regarded therefore as being of infinite extent (Fig. 6.12a). A
~
1 t-plahe
\ : I
tnJtJ ..... ,
\
\
I
I I
I
,-"
' , "t I _,,.,.
Q) -1'-~lt.--""-+1 9?
8~----~A~IJ:~A~/----~B'
1/1 G=n
(c) (d)
8.-;;;;"';;....-.;.A~'0~~=~~-t/J
G=1t -~-=._-:::_-=_;:: :::- ----:=--:..-=:: ::£ I""
Boo---- A -~-;.-:; w-plane
(e)
Figure6.l2-Flowthroug haplaneslot; '=I~~ eia; r- InC- In IH+ ia;
t- cosh (r+i1r); w- -Int
length scale is adopted which makes the free streamline velocity,

and hence the ultimate jet velocity at / 00 , unity. The discharge is
arbitrarily fixed at 7T so that the ultimate jet width is 7T. The width
of the slot is 7T + 2b, and b is to be determined. The pattern of flow
in each plane can be found by consideration of the positions of
various points, the one letter being used to denote corresponding
211
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-n
points in all planes. In the tabulation below, columns I to 4 are

completed directly and the patterns are sketched (Figs. 6.12, a, band c).
The constants in the !-plane and w-plane transformation functions
are determined, columns 5 and 6 are completed and the remaining
patterns are sketched (Figs. 6.12d and e).
Plane
Point
z '=Iii eia r = lnl~l + ia t =cosh (r +i1r) w- -lnt
---
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
B Cl = 0, v- 0 oo eiO oo + iO -co==coei" -00- i1f'
A o, I eiO 0+i0 -I= ei" 0 -i1T
I
1T
-2' I e-i(,/2) 0 _,2
,1T
iO = Oei(,/2) +oo-'2
,1T
A' -1T, I e-i11 0- i1T I= eiO 0-iO
B' -1T, 0 c:oe-m CO -iTT oo = oo eiO - oo- iO
1T .1T ,1T
I' 0 oo e-i(,/2) 00- '2 oo = oo el(,/2) -00-12
-2'
r -+t. The semi-infinite strip in the t'-plane is opened at the

B, B 1 vertex and, along the !-plane real axis, B, A and A1 are located
in order at - oo, -1 and + 1. From symmetry, it is seen that I
falls at the origin and B 1 at + oo. Since, in the t' -plane, l equals 7T
and A1 is located at -i7T, we have, from Eq. 6.14
t = cosh y(t' - tD
t = cosh (t' +i7T)
which is the transformation shown in column 5.
t-+ w. The flow to the half-sink at the origin of the t-plane being
Q = 77', the transformation to thew-plane is given by Eq. 6.15.
w = -lnt
which enables the entries in column 6 to be completed and the
w-plane pattern (Fig. 6.12d) to be sketched.
212
FLOW THROUGH A PLANE SLOT
The successive transformations are
{ = dz =
dw
j!..le'
V
a:
{' = 1n{ = 1n~~~+ioc

t = cosh({' +i1r)
w = -1n t or t = e-w
for all streamlines.

For the free streamline profile AI (Fig. 6.12a), from Eq. 6.16
yt •
"' = zoe
where oc varies from 0 to - i·

t = coshi(oc+1r) = cos(oc+1r)
= -cosoc
and from Eq. 6.17,
dt
ds = dw =
t
since w = -1nt
dt
dx = coscxds = -cosoc- and t = -cosoc
t
dx = dt
As x increases from 0 to b, between the points A and J, t increases

from -1 to 0.
I dx = Jdt = 1
b 0
:. b =
0 -1
8 213
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-n
Hence the contraction coefficient= 77

~2 = 0·611
2 b = 7T+
7T+
For the equation of the profile, we have, since dx = dt,
x = t+C, where Cis a constant
= -cosoc+C
and x = 0 when oc = 0, therefore C =
x = 1-cosoc
Also dy = sin oc ds
. dt
- sinoc-
t
. sinoc
= s1n oc - - doc
cos ex
= sin oc tan oc doc
y = In (tanoc+secoc) -sinoc
} •••• (6.18)
x = 1-cosoc
These equations enable the profile to be plotted, the co-ordinates

x andy being computed for various values of ex. Since the analysis
takes no account of gravity, the theoretical profile departs from the
actual as the distance from the slot increases and gravity effects
become appreciable. The profile for one half of the jet can be
regarded as that of flow beneath a vertical sluice gate, with gravi-
tational effects neglected.
6.10 Flow through a 90° slot

Flow out of a tank with 45° sides is a case of flow through a 90°
7T
slot (Fig. 6.13a). The direction of flow along BA is - 4 and along
B'A', -~;and the ultimate width of the jet is 7T.
214
FLOW THROUGH A 90° SLOT
The tabulation is as follows:
Plane
Point
.c C= ~~~el~ r -Inl~l +iGI t-cosh2( t' +i7) w- -lnt
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
B ~--
.,.
4 ,V=0 «> e-i(w/4) «>-14
... -«> or aoelw -ao-iw
.,. 1 e-l(w/4) 0 ... -1 or ehr 0- ;,.
A -4· -14
I -2·
.. 1 e-/(w/2) ·'"
0 -12 iO or 0 el(rr/2) + «>-12
.
.
377 0 .3..
A' -4· 1 e-1(3w/4) -14 1 or eiO 0-iO
3w «> e-1(3w/4) .3..
B' 0 «>-14 «> or aoeiO -ao-iO
..
-4·
I' -2· 0 «> e-l(w/2) «> -12
... iao or «> ei(w/2) -«>-12
..
.
r -+t. For the semi-infinite strip with A' at ( 0, - 3:), we have,
from Eq. 6.5b, since l = i and{~= -i 3;
t = cosh2({'+i 3;)
If B is placed at - oo, A at -1, A' at I, the t-plane pattern is that of

a half-sink at the origin (Fig. 6.13d) and column (5) of the tabulation
can be completed.
As in the previous example,
w = -lnt
Column (6) can be completed and the w-plane pattern sketched

(Fig. 6.13e).
215
For the free-streamline profile AI (Fig. 6.13a)

7T
,, = irx and rx varies from to
7T
4 2
;-plane
Boo
(a) (c)
(a> t- plane "" w-plane
'
,
I
1 /
/
a' A' o '1/J • o
' r, a:" .;,_----t-=-...L----
--- - - - - ~
' 1 //
-1' o,~/__..:+1:.:--..:::CO -~-=-= == ::_-::. 2 = ~

8 A II A' B' 8
O:itt
(d) (e)
Figure 6.13--Fiow through a 90° slot; C~ j Hela:; C'- InC- In I~~+ ia:;
t = cosh 2 ( C' + i 3;); w- -In t
= sin2rx
dt = 2 cos 2rx drx
dt
ds = dw =
t
2 cos2rxdrx
sin 2rx
216
FLOW THROUGH A NOZZLE
dx = cosocds
- 2 cos oc cos 2oc d (X

2 cos oc sin oc
1-2sin2 oc
= - doc
sinoc
(2 sin oc- cosec oc) doc
b -w/2 -w/2
b= Jdx = 2 J sin oc doc - J cosec oc doc
0 -w/4 -w/4
-w/2 [ (X] -w/2

= 2 [ cosoc] - ln tan 2
-tr/4 -tr/4
= 2x0·707-0·882
= 0·532
The coefficient of contraction is Cc = 1T:2b = 0 •746..

6.11 Flow through a nozzle
The boundary form in Fig. 6.14 can be regarded as a two-
dimensional nozzle. Since it is symmetrical about the axis I' I, we
consider the upper half only. Suppose that the width ofthe approach
channel is four times the jet width, that is %. The jet velocity being
unity the approach velocity is V = !-·
Plane
Point
.c 4 w-In (t+k)*
c-l~let« r-In~~~+ia t-cosh4 ( ''+i 1T)I t+l
1
l' cx~o,v-4 4el0 In4+i0 -I2s,:, -00
A
1T
0,-4, 0 oo eiO, oo e-l(tr/4) oo + iO , oo -i'!!:4 - oo, + 00 0
B
., I e-l(tr/4) ·'"
0 -14 +1 +2·1 (appx.)
- 4'
I 0, 1 eiO 0+i0 -1 +oo
217
t -+t. The semi-infinite strip is opened at A, and A,l and Bare

placed, in order, at t = - oo, - I and + I. Then A falls again at
t = + oo. Suppose that I' is at t = -k. From Eq. 6.5b, since B is at
r1=-t4an.TT d z =4TT
t = cosh I(''_,~)
t = cosh4(,, +i~)
(-plane
_!f ~-------A:.
\A'
-!1,-._....;.......--1/A:
I
(c)
t -plane A O wBplane
,--~ ------~~------;
Q) _£/~~; •l (J)a.:!!,~~~~= ~~~==E ~
A.;:;..~/~'-~...._...;;8,;.-----iA A''· n B'
(d) (e)
Figure 6.14--Flow through a two-dimensional nozzle;
'-1~\etcx; r-In,~lnl~l+icx; t-cosh4(r+i~);

t+k)lll
w - In ( i+1 where k - 128Jh
To evaluate k, we have for the point 1', r = ln4.

t = -k = cosh(4ln4+iTT)
= cosh 4ln 4 cosh iTT +sinh 4ln 4 sinh iTT
in which cosh iTT= cosTT = -1 and sinh iTT= isin TT = 0.
-k = -cosh4ln4
4'
em,. + e-ln ,. + 4'1
k = + 2 =-2-
1
128 512
218
FLOW THROUGH A NOZZLE
t-+ w. The pattern in the upper halfof the t-plane is the half-pattern
of a source at t = -k = -128-rl-2 and of a sink at t = -1, the total
source and sink flows each being 2Q, that is, 7T. The transformation
is therefore
2Q 2Q
w =-In (t+k) --In (t+ 1)
27T 27T
w = !ln(t+k)-!ln(t+l)
t+k)l/2
or w =In ( - -
t+ 1
If the streamline I'ABI be taken as the line 1/J = 0, the w-plane
pattern for the complete nozzle is as shown in Fig. 6.14.
Alternatively, inspection of the z-plane pattern shows that
transformation of the upper half of the nozzle to the w-plane is
achieved ifthe boundaries are straightened. We can therefore draw
the w-plane pattern directly as a strip of height ; , with the upper
straight boundary consisting partly of the solid boundary I;,AB and
partly of the free streamline B/00 • The lower straight boundary is
the nozzle-axis streamline I;,I00 • If I'ABI is taken as 1/J = 0, I:r,I00
will be. at -;. However, the location of the w-plane origin is of
little importance. The strip can be regarded as a polygon with
vertices at I:X,, A and 100 and it can be opened at A for mapping
onto the t-plane in conformity with the t-plane pattern already
obtained. Thus, A is located at t = + ex:>, I' at t = -k, I at t = -1.
For I' and I the deflection angles are 7T so that
w =AI dt
(t +k)(t+ 1) +
B
~J(-
= k-1 1 1 )dt+B
t+1 -t+k
-
A
= k-l [ln (t+ I) -In (t+k)] +B
Since B can be varied by latera-l or vertical displacement of the

polygon without affecting the pattern it can be set arbitrarily
at zero. To determine A, we consider the line I' I for which
219
{t+l) is negative and (t+k) is positive and w=tf>-ii. Since

(t+ 1) = It+ II e;,. and (t+k) = lt+kl el0
cp-i'! = kA [lnlt+II+i7T-ln(t+k)-i0]
2 -I
. . . . b . A
and, equatmg 1magmanes, we o tam k _ I = -2I
w = -!ln(t+l)-!ln(t+k)
t+k)l/2
or w =In ( - -
t+ I
as obtained above.
Along the free streamline (Fig. 6.14)
r = ia. and a. varies from - 7T4 to zero.
t = cosh4 (ioc+ii)
= cos (4oc +1r)

t = -cos 4a. and dt = 4 sin 4oc da.
ds = dw = ~
2 t+k
(-I___t+lI_) dt
= 2( 1 - 1 )sm
' 4a.doc
k-cos4oc l-cos4oc
dx = dscosoc = 2cosocsin4[k 1 -I I ] da.

-cos 4a. -cos 4oc
dy = dssinoc = 2sinocsin4[k 1 - 1 ] doc

-cos 4a. 1 -cos 4oc
From these equations the profile can be determined by numerical
integration.
6.12 Borda's mouthpiece

The two-dimensional form of Borda's mouthpiece is shown in Fig.
6.15a. The value of oc is zero along B'A', increasing along the lower
220
BORDA'S MOUTHPIECE
surface of the jet to TT at I, and increasing further along the upper

surface to 2TT at B. The tabulation is omitted but the reader should
check the correctness of the ,_ and ''-plane patterns (Figs. 6.15b
and c).
For the t-plane transformation, since A' is at the origin of the ,,
plane and the width of the semi-infinite strip is l = 2TT
7T
t = cosh l ,, = cosh l''
A B.·
( b'
til
r:,1 t-plane 1/1
w-plane
~'-plane I I
\ I I 8' A' ¢1:0 ~A
'-... \ I
' 't l ..-"
~-2".;-~1-lll.+l~c
I ,/'
Q:.Jt~;.====
- ---
==·=::::I
-
- - - :::: ...
'fl
A tl A' B;., B. ¢'=-J'l

Q:k
(c) (d) (e)
Figure 6.15-Flow through a two-dimensional Borda's mouthpiece; t -I ~~ei01 ;

I l
t' = In t - In ~I + i01; t = cosh t' = cosh H'; w = - In t
For the w-plane, since Q = TT, and the t-plane pattern is that of a
half-sink at the origin
Q
w = --lnt = -lnt
7T
with the streamline B'A' being the line 1/J = 0.

On the free streamline, ,, = ioc
t = coshi~ = cos~
2 2
a• 221
With A' as origin, we have, for the lower free surface (Fig. 6.15a)
. (Xd oc
sm
dt 2
ds = dw = (X
cos 2
dy = dssinoc
. (X
=
sm 2 . oc
(X 2
oc
+--2sm-cos-d -
2 2
(«)
cos-
2
= sin2 ~ doc
2
= !(1-cosoc) doc
b= I
0
b
dy = ! I
0
"
(1-cosoc) doc = ~
which agrees with Borda's theory.
6.13 Flow past a flat plate with separation

The case of flow past a flat plate without separation was dealt with
in Section 6.6. For flow with separation, the transformations to the
{-,{'-and t-planes are straightforward (Fig. 6.16), the {'-t relation-
ship being
= cosh y ({'- {~)
7T
t
= cosh({' +iTT)
The pattern in the t-plane is that of flow from the origin I outwards
towards the infinite arc representing the point C, and back to the
origin again (Fig. 6.16d). This pattern is not amenable to direct
transformation to the w-plane. However an intermediate trans-
formation to a w'-plane, 'opening' the pattern so that the real
negative axis is rotated through an angle 7T in an anticlockwise
direction would produce the pattern of a doublet. The necessary
transformation from the t-plane to the w' -plane is similar to that for
222
FLOW PAST A FLAT PLATE WITH SEPARATION
flow around the end of a thin plate (z =Aw2 ), that is,

w' = At2
For the point A', t = + 1 and w' is real and positive, therefore A is
01 r: plane
(c)
(b) 1 w'-plane
,-r-,
I I '
I ,..j-, )
', 1 I ) 1 A'
c c..,-----7t">}·
'-'I~
A
,\ ', 1/ ) '
~
' I I
'-L//
w-plane (e)
---- -:a----
1~-- c '
- - - - -A!.--
T.r.-tfJ
(f)
Figure 6.16-Flow past a flat plate with separation;
,_1 ~~el"'; ,, = lnC=lnltl +i<X; t= cosh(C' +iw);
_!_- -
w'- At1 ,• w = w' -1-
(w+4)t•
a real, positive constant. The transformation of the doublet to the

w-plane is effected by
W=-=-=-
1 1 c
w' At2 t2
where C is a real positive constant.
Alternatively, the w-t transformation can be obtained as follows.
From an examination of the z-plane it is evident that the plate must
be folded about the point C so that the dividing streamline is re-
united to produce the uniform pattern of the w-plane. The w-plane
223
diagram Fig. 6.16e can therefore be drawn directly from the z-plane
and it can be regarded as a polygon Cl00 I:r,I00 C, which occupies
the whole of the w-plane. The total of the deflection angles for the
vertices at infinity is 377 and these vertices can be treated as one. By
means of an S-C transformation, the polygon can be mapped onto
the t-plane to produce a pattern conforming with that already
obtained, the opened vertex C being placed at t = oo and I at t = 0.
Then
w = A1 f dt !A1 C
-+B1 = - - + B1 =- +B1
t3 t2 t2
If the point Cis at w = 0, B 1 is zero; and since, for the point A, w and
t2 are both real and positive, Cis real and positive.
C is determined by the width, l, of the plate. Along CA
where q is henceforth written for the speed, JVJ.

Hence along CA
t = cosh (r +i7T)
= Heln q+I?T + e-ln q-11T)
and, since ei11 = e-111 = - 1
t = -~(q+~)
q = -t-y(t2 -1)
the negative sign being chosen so as to make q = 0 for the point Cat
t= - CX),
Along the streamline CA in the z-plane, q = ~: and, in the
w-plane, w = cp since CA is in the real axis, therefore~~ = ~~ = - ~~.

These relationships are used in the integration along CA:
f dx = f dcpdxdcpdt dt = f
1/2 -1 -I
l 2C
2= - -dt
qt3
0 -oo -oo
224
FLOW PAST A FLAT PLATE WITH SEPARATION
Substitution for q yields, upon integration,
l
C=-
7T+4
Along the free streamline AI, ' 1 = icx. and therefore
t = cosh (icx.+i1r) = cos (cx.+1r) = -cos ex.
Also, since w is real along AI, iifl equals zero and
..I.
c
= w = - = C sec2 ex.
't' t2
and, since q = ~~ = 1, s=c/J

l
s = - - sec2 cx.
1T+4
with ex. varying from 0 to - i along AI. Thence, taking the centre
of the plate as the origin,
x = -21- ( seccx.+-7T)
7T+4 4
y = - 1- [sec ex. tan ex. -ln tan (:: + ~)]

1T+4 4 2
The resultant force on the plate follows from the Bernoulli equation
where Po and q0 refer to the undisturbed fluid. With q0 as unity
and integration across the plate gives the pressure force on the
225
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMA TION-11
r~ r(
upstream face, per unit length of plate.
F =2 p ( 1 _ q2) dx = p 1 _ q2) ~: dt
0 -~
-2pC f (~-q) ~
-1
-~
-~
= 7rpC for unit approach velocity q

According to the Bernoulli equation, the pressure varies as the
square of the velocity and, since all such motions are geometrically
similar, the resultant force will be proportional to the square of the
approach velocity. Hence for any approach velocity q0
7T
F = 1rpCq~ =- - pq 2 l 2 = 0 · 440pq 2 l
TT+4
or F = CDAlpq~
where A= projected area normal to the flow, and
CD= coefficient of drag with a valpe, according to this solution,
of0·880.
In this analysis, it is assumed that the wake is at rest, with a
pressure equal to that of the undisturbed stream. This condition
applies where a stream of water flows past a flat plate and the space
between the surfaces of separation is filled with air or, as in the case
of high velocity flow, water vapour. Good agreement with theory
is found in such cases. However, if the wake contains fluid of density
comparable with that of the main stream, the surfaces of discon-
tinuity are not stable. Eddies develop and the stream closes in
behind the plate. The pressure behind the plate is less than the
undisturbed stream pressure and the drag is much greater than that
calculated by the free streamline theory. In fact, CD for the two-
dimensional case, as determined by experiment, is equal to about
2 ·0. For discs and square plates, the downstream reduction in
pressure is not so marked and CD has a value of about 1 · 10.
REFERENCES
(I) LAMB, H., Hydro4Jnamics, Cambridge, 1932.
(2) STREETER., V. L., Fluid Dmamics, McGraw-Hill, 1948.
226
PROBLEMS
(43) RAMsEY, A. S., A Treatise on Hydromechanics, Bell, 1947.

( ) MILNE-THOMSON, Theoretical Hydrodynamics, MacMillan, 1955.
For further study of applications of conformal mapping to fluid flow, the reader
is referred to
(i) MeNoWN, J. S., and YIH, C. S., (ed.) 'Free Streamline Anal}'3es of Transition
Flow and Jet Deflection'. State University of Iowa Engineering Bulletin No. 35,
1953.
(ii) Symposium 'Construction and Application of Conformal Maps', National
\.Bureau of Standards, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1952.
(iii)'BIRKHOFF, G., and ZARANTONELLO, E., Jets, Wakes and Cavities, Academic
Press, N.Y., 1957.
Proble~ns
6.1. Show that, for the pattern of flow in the cul-de-sac in the diagram,
I~
and .p- . h'"

sm . '"
-xsm-y
l l
6.2. For the pattern of flow out of a channel through a narrow slot near
one end show that
w - - qln (sin~ z- cosh ~a)

'" l l
6.3. For the flow from a reservoir through a square entry into a channel
show that for a channel width a
Z- i~[y(e-(B>r/Q)w_l)-sec- 1 e-("/C2)w]
1T
~
T 227
Notes. f ty~!_ 1 ) - sec-1 t. Show that
z - i~.,. [y(t1 -1)- sec-1 t] Q

and w- --Int or t- e-<•tQ)w
6.4. The pattern in the diagram can be regarded as an abrupt widening
of a wide channel or as a step in the bed of a deep channel. Show that the
pattern can be established by the transformations
z - .,.-k [y(t1 -1) +cosh- lt]

k
w- -Ut
.,.
where k is the height of the step. Take the lower corner as the origin of
the z-plane.
[Assume that, in the t-plane, the velocity is Vand, from
~~;~-~~~~~ ::1, show that V- ~ U]

6.5. For the pattern of flow into a channel at one corner and out at the
other, show that, if lis the width of the c~annel
2Q .,.
w - - In coth - .t
.,. 21
6.6. By inspection of the .t-plane patterns, sketch the w-plane patterns,
(a) (b)
~~ (c)
(d)
showing the locations of the transformed boundaries for the preceding five
problemS and for the four cases shown in the diagram.
228
PROBLEMS
6. 7. Plot to scale the form of a jet issuing from a plane slot.
6.8. Plot to scale the free streamline for flow past a flat plate set normal
to the flow.
6.9. For the pattern of flow past the symmetrically placed angle-plate,
sketch the patterns in the transformation planes and determine the trans-
formation equations.
t- cosh2(C'+ii);w'- At2 ;w- ~'

6.10. The patterns in the z-, t- and w-planes for flow produced by a
planing surface are as shown. Determine the patterns in the C- and C' -planes.
t-plane
A..,---''---------i•~
(c)
229
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-U
Show that, if the slopes of the jet Band the plate are {1 and y, respectively,
(i) 1- cosh[C'-i(y-,.)1
and that this simplifies tot- cos (ex+ 71'-y) for the free streamlines; and
(ii) t+m)
w - - I(n - +m+n
-
1-n 1-n
wherem -cos (y-{1) and n- -cosy.
6.11. Determine the coefficient of contraction for flow through a slot at

the junction of two plane walls inclined to each other at an angle of 45°.
Ans.0·86
230
7
THREE-DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL
FLOW
7.1 lntroducd.oD
THE general case of three-dimensional irrotational flow involves the
determination of the velocity potential function which satisfies the
boundary conditions and the Laplace equation
.... (7.1)
Conformal transformation procedures are not applicable to three-

dimensional flows and the most important of the available methods
of solution is that of Spherical Harmonics, a spheric,al harmonic
being the name given to any homogeneous solution ofEq. 7.1.
The special case of axisymmetric flow can, however, be treated
by the method of standard patterns which is similar to the method
presented for two-dimensional flow in Chapter 4. Only in axi-
symmetric flow is the three-dimensional stream function defined. It
is known as Stokes's Stream Function. In this chapter, attention
will be restricted to axisymmetric flows, the x-axis being adopted
as the axis of symmetry.
7.2 EquadoD o£ coDdDuity

(i) The equation of continuity, expressed in cartesian co-ordinates
(Eq. 1.3),
... '(7.2)
was developed by equating the net rate of mass flow into an

elemental volume of dimensions, 8x, 8y, 8z, to the time rate of
increase in mass in the volume.
In axisymmetric flow problems it is convenient to work sometimes
with cylindrical co-ordinates and sometimes with polar spherical
co-ordinates. The interrelationship of the co-ordinates is shown in
Fig. 7.1. Since the pattern of axisymmetric flow is the same on all
231
THREE-DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL FLOW
planes containing the axis of symmetry, (the x-axis), it is independent

of rJ>, both in cylindrical co-ordinates (x, R, rJ>) and in spherical
co-ordinates (r, 8, cfJ). If spiral type flow be excluded, axi-sym-
metric flow has no rl>-component of velocity.
Figure 7.1-Co-ordinate systems. The co-ordinates of P are:

Cartesian: x,y,;;:;
Cylindrical: x, R, <I>
Spherical: r, 0, <I>
(ii) The general equation of continuity in cylindrical co-ordinates

follows from consideration of the net rate of mass flow into the
elemental portion of a cylinder, whose axis is parallel to the x-axis
(Fig. 7.2). If the velocity at the centre of the element is V and its
axial, radial and tangential components are respectively, vx, vR and
v<l>, the component mass inflow rates are readily shown to be
(a) axial,
a
-ox (pvx.RSrJ>.SR) Sx
(b) radial,
a
- 0R(pvR. RScfJ.Sx)SR
(c) tangential,
1a
- RorJ> (pv<l>. SR.Sx)RSrJ>
and their sum must be equal to the time rate of increase in mass
within the element,~ (p.RSrJ>.SR.Sx).
ata (pRScfJ.SR.Sx) + 0a)pvx.R8c[J .SR) Sx

a 1a
+oR (pvR.R8cfJ .Sx) SR+ RocfJ (pv<I>SR.Sx) RSrJ> =0
232
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
Division by the volume (RSC/>SRSx) yields the equation of continuity

op o(pvx) 1 0 1 0
at+~+ R oR (pvRR) +R ocf> (pvti>) = 0 .... (7.3a)
For an incompressible fluid, pis constant and

ovx 1 0 1 ovtl>
ox +RoR(vRR)+Roci> = 0 .... (7.3b)
Figure 7.2-Equation of continuity-

cylindrical co-ordinates
In incompressible axisymmetric flow 0~ is zero and therefore

.... (7.3c)
(iii) In spherical co-ordinates let the velocity components at the

centre of an elemental portion of a sphere be v, vo and vtl> (Fig. 7.3).
The components of mass inflow are:
(a) radial, -;, (pv,. rSO. rsin 0 ocf>) or
(b) 0-direction, -~ :o (pvo.Sr.rsinOoci>) rSO

(c) C/>-direction, -~ ':l:
rs1n u u-¥
(pvti>.Sr.ro8) rsinOSC/>
and their sum equals the time rate of increase of mass

:t(p.SO.ocf>.Sr.r2 .sin0). Re-arrangement, and division by the
233
volume, r2 sin 8888<P8r, yields the equation of continuity
for an incompressible fluid
~;,(v,r2)+rsilno[:8 (vesin8)+~v:] = 0 .... (7.4b)
and if, in addition, flow is axisymmetric,
1a(
::.- v,r2) +-.- a( vesm
1 :::~() . 8)-o
- .... (7.4c)
r2 ur rs1n 8 u
...__~--">:-Length • ro
6
~...:.m~~-~Width =rsin68<t>
Thickness : or
~~~-------~~---------- X
Figure 7.3-Equation of continuity-spherical co-ordinates
7.3 Stokes's stream function

The stream function ,P can be defined, for axisymmetric flow,
either by relating ,P to the flow rate, in which case it must be shown
to satisfy the equations of continuity; or by relating it to the velocity
components in such a way that the continuity equation is satisfied
and then finding its relationship to the flow rate. The latter method
is adopted here.
(i) Cylindrical co-ordinates
The continuity equation for incompressible flow can be written,
from Eq. 7.3c, as
o(Rvx) + o(RvR) = O
.... (7.5)
ax aR
If .p is to be a scalar function of x and R from which vx and vR can be
234
STOKES'S STREAM FUNCTION
obtained by partial differentiation, it will satisfy Eq. 7.5, if, upon

substitution for vx and vR it yields
(J2,P (J2,P
oR ox -ox oR= 0 .... (7·6)
From Eqs. 7.5 and 7.6, it is evident that
RVx =oR
o,P and RvR = -OX
o,P
1 oifl
vx = RoR
} .... (7.7)
- ~ oifl
R ox
These equations define ,P for axisymmetric flow. In other words,
Stokes's stream function, ,P, is a scalar function of space and time,
such that, at any particular instant, Eqs. 7. 7 hold. From the definition
of a streamline it follows that ,P as defined above is constant along a
streaml.me, 10r
r dR
- = dx - along a streaml'me
VR Vx
vRdx-vxdR = 0
.!.. oifl dx !._ oifl dR = o
Rox + RoR
d,P = 0
or ,P = constant along a streamline, and therefore along a stream-
surface, in axisymmetric flow.
The relationship between ,P and the flow rate Qcan be determined
with reference to Fig. 7.4, from which it is seen that the components
of flow across the elemental surface of revolution (taking flows from
left to right as positive) are
1 oifl o,P
(a) radially, SQR = -vR27TRSx = R ox27TR8x = 27T oxSx
1 oifl o,P
(b) axially, SQx = vx27TRSR = R.aR21rR8R = 27T oRSR
(c) tangentially, SQtl> = 0 for axisymmetric flow
dQ = dQR+dQx = 27T(~: dx+ :~dR) = 27Tdifl

dQ = 27Td,P •... (7.8)
235
which is the three-dimensional axisymmetric counterpart of the

relationship for two-dimensional flow, dQ = d,P.
If the flow is irrotational
ov,._ OVR = 0
oR ox
.... (7.9)
Figure 7.4--Relationship between Figure 7.5--Relationship between

.p and Q. Cylindrical co-ordinates .p and Q. Spherical co-ordinates
This is the three-dimensional counterpart of the Laplace equation
for two-dimensional flow,
(ii) Spherical co-ordinates

The continuity equation for incompressible flow (Eq. 7.4c), can
be written as
. (Jo(v,r 2 ) o(vosin8) - 0
sm -----a,- + r o(J - .... (7.10)
236
STOKES'S STREAM FUNCTION
and, for this equation to take the form

o2t/J o2t/J
---=0
or o8 o8 or
it is necessary that sin8v,r2 = ~~and rvosinO = -~~whence there

follows the definition of the Stokes's Stream Function in spherical
co-ordinates
1 ot/J
v =---
r r2 sin 8 o8
} •... (7.11)
1 ot/J
vo = - rsin(J or
. . of a streaml.me, dr
F rom t h e d efi mt10n - = -
r d(J a long a streamline
v, vo
v,rd8-vodr = 0
_1_ ot/J dO+ _1_ ot/J dr = o
r sin (J o(J r sin (J or
ot/J ot/J
o8d8+ or dr = 0
d!f =0
t/J = constant, along a streamline,
and hence on a streamsurface, in axisymmetric flow.
The relationship between t/J and Q is found by consideration of
the flow across an elemental surface of revolution (Fig. 7.5). The
flow components are:
(a) radially,
SQ, = v,27Trsin8rSO = ~(J~tP

r s1n 8 27TTsin8rSO
(J
ot/J
= 27T aoso
(b) tangentially (8-direction)
SQo = vo21rrsin8( -Sr) = _;_
TSln 8 tJT
~tP27TTsin8Sr
= 27T ot/J Sr
or
237
THREE•DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL FLOW
(c) tangentially (4>-direction) 8Qtl> = 0 for axisymmetric flow
:. dQ = 21T (~~d8+ :~ dr) = 21rd,P
as was previously determined (Eq. 7.8).

If the flow is irrotational
.... (7.12)
which is the spherical co-ordinate equivalent of the Laplace equation,

applicable to irrotational, axisymmetric flow.
7.4 Velodty potential function

The velocity potential, cfo, is defined by the equations
U=ocfo V=ocfo W=ocfo

ox' oy ~ oz
and cfo exists only for irrotational flow. The flow is not necessarily
steady nor axisymmetric. Substitution for u, v and w in the con-
tinuity equation yields the Laplace equation V 2 cfo = 0 (Eq. 7.1).
In cylindrical co-ordinates
and substitution for vR, v"' and vtl> in the continuity. equation (Eq.
7.3b) results in the equation
.... (7.13)
For axisymmetric flow the last term ofEq. 7.13 disappears.

238
STANDARD FLOW PATTERNS
In spherical co-ordinates,
otfo
v, = or'
and substitution in the continuity equation 7.4b yields, upon
expansion of product terms
o ( 2 otfo) 1 o ( . otfo)' 1 o2 tfo _

aT r or +sinO oO smO oO + sin20 ot1>2 - 0 · · · · ( 7.1 4)
which is the Laplace equation in spherical co-ordinates. For

axisymmetric flow, the last term is zero.
7.5 Standard flow patterns

The four standard patterns of irrotational axisymmetric flow,
uniform flow, source, doublet and line source, are developed below.
In each case the constants of integration are omitted. For ready
reference, there is provided first, a summary of the general relation-
ships between the velocity components and tfo and if!, in the cartesian
two-dimensional, and the cylindrical and spherical three-dimensional
co-ordinate systems.
Cartesian
(two-dimensional): = otfo = oif!. otfo oif!
u
ox oy' v = oy = -ox
Cylindrical:
otfo 1 oif! otfo 1 oif!
v, = ox= RoR; vR = oR = - R ox
Spherical:
(i) Uniformjlow
For uniform flow with a velocity U parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 7.6)
vR = otfo = - ~ oif! = o
oR Rox
v = dt/J = !_ do/ = u
" dx RdR
tfo = Ux = UrcosO .... (7.15a)
if! = !UR 2 = lUr2sin2 0 .... (7.15b)
The equipotential surfaces are equally spaced planes normal to
239
the x-axis, and the stream surfaces are coaxial tubes (Fig. 7.7). If
stream surfaces are selected such that d-/J is constant from one surface
to the next, the flow between any pair of adjacent streamsurfaces is
vR:O
t
-
-
Figure 7.6-Uniform flow with a
velocity U parallel to the x-axis
................
~~~o:::,iia~~
M II U M II II II It
Figure 7.7-Uniform flow parallel to the x-axis. Stream-

surfaces and equipotential surfaces
--~--L-L-----------~x
Figure 7.8---Uniform flow inclined
at an angle at to the x-axis
dQ = 271'd-/J and, since the velocity is constant, the annuli formed by

the traces of the .P-surfaces on any normal plane are of equal area. -
For uniform flow in a direction inclined at an angle ex to the
x-axis (Fig. 7.8)
cf, = Urcos (6-cx) and .p = !Ur2 sin2 (6-cx)
240
(ii) Source at the origin

Since flow is entirely radial (Fig. 7.9), vo = 0
Q dcfo 1 di/J
v, = .47rr2 = dr = r 2sin 8 dO
m
.... (7.16a)
r
=-m
= -0·75m
=-O·Sm
=-0·25m
(a)
"{1=-mcosO
~ =-!Jl
ft:l'
~"' ~~ l:'o
.\\''
~ .~ :g -$..
" 0
~;
(c)
Figure 7.9-Three-dimens ional source, (a) streamsurfaces, (b) equipotential
surfaces, (c) pattern of streamlines and equipotential lines on a plane containing
,
the axis of symmetry;</>= - ~; 1/1 ~ - mcos8
where m = Zr is the source constant

1/J = J_Q_r
47rr2
2sin8d8 =_Sf_ cosO= -mcosO .. .. (7.16b)
411'
For a sink these cfo- and ~/~-functions have positive signs.
241
TBREE•DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL FLOW
(iii) Doublet at the origin

A source and a sink of equal magnitude m, spaced apart a distance
Ss are considered to approach one another and to increase in strength
in such a manner that the product, mSs, approaches a finite value, JL·
((}-8{}) ,.,
Ss fJ
---;¥;-'=.::L.C¥--'---• X
(m) (-m)
Source Sink
Figure 7.10-Definition sketch of three-
dimensional doublet
,/'
I
I
41
I
\
' .._
(b)
Figure 7.11-Three-dimensional doublet, (a) streamsurfaces (in full line) and
equipotential surfaces (in broken line), (b) pattern of streamlines and equipotential
lines on a plane containing the axis of symmetry
The resulting pattern is a three-dimensional doublet. For any point

P, distant r+Sr from the source and r from the sink (Fig. 7.10).
mr+mSr-mr
r(r+Sr)
mSs cos(() -M)
r(r+Sr)
242
p.cos8
As 8s-+0, m8s-+p. and t/J-+--
r
2 -
r/1 = 1/Jsource+r/Jaink = mcos8-mcos (8-88)

= m(cos8-cos8cos88-sin8sin88)
Since sin 88 ~ ~ ~ 8s sin 8 and cos 88 ~ 1

r r
m8ssin2 8 p.sin 8 2 ~s~O
,P ~ -
r
-+ ----r
as a ~
Hence t/J = p.cos8 .... (7.17a)

r2
r/1 = _p.sin2 8 .... (7.17b)
r
and the pattern is as shown in Fig. 7.11.
(iv) Line source
A line source is a line along which infinitesimal point sources are
uniformly distributed. The strength, q, is the flow out from the line
per unit length. Fig. 7.12a shows a line source extending from the
R
P(x,R}
(a} (b)
Fig11re 7.12-Three-dimensional line source, (a) definition sketch, (b) stream-
surfaces, streamlines and equipotential lines
origin a distance l along the x-axis. The value of 1/J at any point P
due to an elemental length 81, which may be regarded as a point
source of strength q8l, is
q8l
81/J = - -coscx = -m'8lcoscx
41T
243
where m' = ! and at is the angle between the x-axis and the line
joining P to the elemental source.
Since x- l = Rcotoc
dl = R cosec1 at doc
I
.p ;: : - Jm' cosocdl
0
f
I
- m 'Rcosoc
- - d at
sin2 oc
0
= -m' R(-1 _ _
I )
sin oc 0 sin oc1
.... (7.18)
The flow pattern on a plane through the axis of symmetry is
shown in Fig. 7.12b, the streamlines being hyperbolae with foci at
the ends of the line source. A line sink is a negative line source.
7.6 Source and uaU'orm Sow (Sow past a half-body)

(i) The tf>- and .P-functions for the combination of a source at the
origin and a uniform flow with a velocity, U, parallel to the x-axis
are obtained by addition of the component functions.
m
tP = tPsource + tPuniform flow = --r + Ur COS 8 .... (7.19a)
1/J = .Psource + 1/Junirorm flow = - m cos 8 + t Ur2 sin2 8 .... (7.19b)
The resulting pattern is shown in Fig. 7.13.

(ii) The stagnation point, S, can be located from the fact that
v. = vs = 0. Firstly,
aq, m
Vr = -or = r-2 + U COS 8 = 0 .. .. (a)
and both m and U are positive, therefore cos 8 must be negative.

244
SOURCE AND UNIFORM FLOW tFLOW PAST A HALF-BODY)
Also,
vo = ~ ~~ = - U sin 8 = 0 .... (b)
hence, 8 = 7T and therefore, from (a), r, = J (D) ·
- 1/J=m
-
Figure 7.13--Source and uniform flow-flow past a half-
bodv,
•
streamsurfaces and streamlines; 'I'
.l. = - ~r + Ur cos ();
.P= -mcos8+!Ur2 sin•8
(iii) The streamsurface passing through S forms a half-body. Since
J
if! is constant over a streamsurface, its value for the half-body is the
value of if! at S where 8 = 7T and r = (D) .
if!s = -mcosTT+!UDsin2 7T = m
The equation for the half-body surfaces is therefore if! = m
or -mcos8+!Ur2 sin 2 8 = m
or cosO- U r 2 sin 2 8 = -1 .... (7.20a)

2m
or r = j(;) cosec~ .... (7.20b)
The limiting width of the half-body, at x =ex:>, is 2h. At this

distance the velocity due to the source is zero and the uniform
velocity is U. However, the flow, Q, within the limits of the half-body
surface is that from the source. Hence
Q = 4mn = 7Th 2 u
h = 2j(;) 2r, = .... (7.21)
9 245
(iv) Pressure distribution. At all points, excluding the origin
m2 2mUcosO .
= - + + lj2 cos2 () + lj2 sm 2 ()
r4 r2
m2 2m U cos() U2
=,-4+ r2 +
P-Po _ 1 V2 _ m2 2mcos0
!pU2- -U2-- r4U2-~ .... (7.22a)
On the half-body surface, from the combination of Eq. 7.20b and

7.22a the pressure distribution is given by
p-p 0 3m2 2m
!p lj2 = lj2,-4- Ur2 .... (7.22b)
7.7 Doublet and uniform ftow (ftow past a sphere)

(i) The cf>- and !f-functions for a doublet at the origin with its axis
in the negative x-direction, and a uniform flow parallel to the x-axis
with a velocity U are
I-' cosO
c/> = c/>doublet + cf>uniform flow = -.r-2 - + Ur COS() •• 0. (7.23a)
Figure 7.14-Doublet and uniform flow-steady

flow past a sphere. Streamsurfaces, streamlines
and equipotential lines; 4> = pc~sB + Urcos8;
r
psin•B
-r- + lUr1 sm1 8
0
1/1 = -
From Eq. 7.23b,,P = 0 when()= 0 or 7T and when r = J(b).

The streamsurface ,P = 0 can be regarded therefore as the solid
246
DOUBLET AND UNIFORM FLOW (FLOW PAST A SPHERE)
boundary of a sphere of radius a = J(~) and for p,, in Eq. 7.23,
may be substituted u;s (Fig. 7.14).
(ii) Velocity and pressure distributions. Since the velocity at the

boundary is wholly tangential, v, = ~~ = 0
vo = !r dr/>
d(J
= - uas sinO- Usin()
2r3
and, since r = a on the boundary
vo = -lUsinO .... (7.24)
The negative sign results from the sign convention for v9 (positive
anticlockwise). The stagnation points are at (} = 0, (} = 7T and the
maximum velocity, fU, occurs at (} = ~.
The pressure distribution over the surface of the sphere is
P-Po = l-(~2 = l-l!.sin2(J .... (7.25)

ipU2 iJ} 4
(iii) Translation of a sphere in an irifinite fluid at rest at infinity is the

unsteady pattern corresponding to the above steady pattern. Super-
Figure 7.15--Motion of a sphere through a fluid.

Streamlines and equipotential lines (compare with
2, 2 cos , 't' = - 2T sm
. 711b)
F:1g. • ,· 't'
.J.-- uas 8· ·'· uas · 29
position of a uniform velocity U in the negative x-direction yields

the unsteady pattern at the instant the sphere is at the origin. The
9* 247
resulting t/J- and ~/~-functions are obviously those for a three-dimen-

sional doublet (Fig. 7.15).
Ua 8 Ua8
t/J =-cosO; 1/J = --sin28
2r 2 2r
The kinetic energy of the fluid set in motion by the moving sphere
can be determined from Eq. 1.52, with reference to the surface of
the sphere
Figure 7.16-Intc;gration over

the surface of a sphere
For the integration over the surface ofthe sphere, dS = 21ra sin 8 adB
(Fig. 7.16). With r =a
T1 = ~aa U2 f
"
0
cos 2 8sin8d8 = i(f-rra3 p) U2
= !M'U2
where M' = half the mass of the fluid displaced by the sphere. If
M is the mass of the sphere itself, the total kinetic energy of fluid and
sphere is
T1+, = i(M+M') U2
so that the effect of the presence of the fluid is to provide an apparent
increase, M', in the mass of the sphere, the increase being known as
the virtual mass.
248
SOURCE, SINK AND UNIFORM FLOW (FLOW PAST A RANKINE BODY)
·7.8 Source, sink and uniform flow (flow past a Rankine Body)
(i) The cp- and if;-:functions for the combination of uniform flow
with a velocity U parallel to the x-axis, a source at x = -a and a sink
at x = +a (Fig. 7.17) are
cp = Ur cos 0- m1 + m2
rl r2
and, if m1 = m1
cp = Ux-m (v[(x+~)2+R2] v'[(x-~)2+R2]) .... (7.26a)

if; = tUr 2 sin2 0-m cos 0 1 +m cos 02
if;= tUR 2-m(cos01 -cos0 2) .... (7.26b)
R
-
u-
--
=C
Figure 7.17-Source, sink, and uniform flow.

Streamlines of the source-sink combination
and of uniform flow;</>~ Urcos8- ~ + ~;
rt r2
o/J= !Ur1 sin1 8-m(cos81 -cos8.J
(ii) The stagnation points can be located by equating the velocity

along the x-axis to zero. From Eq. 7.26a, since R is zero on the x-axis
m m
cfox = Ux- x+a + x-a
v = ocfox = U+-m- _ _m_ =0

x ox (x+a) 2 (x-a) 2
for the points S.
u =0 .... (7.27)
m
This equation, which can be solved by trial yields the location, x,

of the stagnation points.
(iii) The prqfile. When 8 = TT, ifJ = 0 and, from Fig. 7.18, x < (-a);
and when 8 = 0, ifJ = 0 and x > (+a). Hence ifJ = 0 is the streamline
which divides and forms the surface ofthe Rankine body (Fig. 7.18)
whose equation is therefore ifJ = 0 or from Eq. 7.26b,
2m
U (cos81-cos82) -R 2 =0 .... (7.28)
R
Figure 7.18-Flow past a three-dimensional Rankine body
The maximum half width OP (Fig. 7.18) ish and, for the point P,
81 =ex, 82 = TT-cx and
a
-
u-
-
Figure 7.19-Source, line-sink and uniform flow-
flow past a streamlined body;
1/J = - mcos8+ m'(r- r1 ) + tUr1 sin1 8
From Eq. 7.28 it follows that

h2 =4m a
u v(a2+h2)
from which h can be solved by trial. By elimination of Vwith the
250
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF AXISYMMETRIC FLOW
use ofEq. 7.27, there results the equation
h2y(a2+h2) = (x~-a2)2 .... (7.29)

x.
from which the source and sink locations (±a) can be determined
for a Rankine body of given dimensions (h,x9 ).
7.9 Source, line sink and unifonn flow (flow past a strea.m.-
lined body)
The if-function for the combination of a source at the origin a
line sink extending from the origin along the x-axis a distance l, and
uniform flow with a velocity U parallel to the x-axis is
.... (7.30)
I
Figure 7.20-Flow past a sphere located on the
axis of a tube-the streamsurfaces are coaxial
If the rate of flow from the source (Q = 4mn) equals the total flow
rate into the sink (Q' = ql = 4-rrm'l), the resulting pattern provides
a closed streamsurface with a streamlined airship profile (Fig. 7.19).
Other combinations of sources and sinks can be used to produce a
variety of such forms and the pressure distributions on them can be
readily determined analytically.
7.10 Num.erical analysis of axisynunetric flow

Numerical methods are readily adaptable to the determination
of axisymmetric flow patterns. The method to be described is an
extension of the two-dimensional method of Chapter 3 and the
equation best suited for the purpose is the cylindrical co-ordinate
counterpart (Eq. 7.9) of the Laplace equation
o21/J 1 o!f o21/J
oR2 -R cJR + ox2 = o .... (7.9)
The method is presented with reference to the example of flow
past a sphere located on the axis of a tube (Fig. 7.20). It is necessary
251
to consider the t/J-values only on any one plane containing the axis
of symmetry (Fig. 7.21). On this plane, a grid of squares of equal
side, a, is superimposed upon sketched curves representing the
approximate locations of the traces of the streamsurfaces. Approxi-
mate values oft/J, obtained by interpolation from the sketched curves,
From Eq. 7· 32 From Eq. 7·33 1
45+100+54+21- ~ (100-21) 0+45+16+4 xo- ro+V4> (45-0)
--------~~-----a 52 ------~3-+~4~~~----=&
4
6
..
5.1
7
0
0
Figure 7.21-Flow past a sphere located on the axis of a tube. Numerical analysis-
coarse ~d
are entered at the node points of the grid. At any node point 0,
distant na from the axis of flow symmetry (Fig. 7.21)
02 tP tP2+t/J,-2t/Jo
()R2 ~ a2
02 "'
()x2 ~
tPt + "'a23 - 2t/J0
~ ot/J ~ na
RoR
~ ("'22a-"'')
and, if the values of t/J are the correct ones, the sum of these three
expressions will be equal to zero, for infinitesimal values of a.
1
tP1 +t/12+t/Js+t/J, -4t/Jo- 2n (t/12-t/1,) = 0 .... (7.31)
tPo = ~ [tP1 + tP2 + tPs + t/J,- dn (tP2- t/J,)] .... (7.32)
252
PROBLEMS
This equation differs from that for two-dimensional flow only by

theamount, -;n(o/2-o/4). ItisevidentfromFig.7.7andE q. 7.15b
that, even in uniform flow, t/J does not vary linearly with distance, R,
from the flow axis.
The relaxation procedure consists of working through the grid
systematically, deleting the estimated value, o/ 0 , at each node and
substituting in its place, a value based upon the four nearest values,
in accordance with Eq. 7.32.
At nodes with one or two short cross arms, a weighted formula is
used in place of Eq. 7.32. For example, if the first and fourth arms
are, respectively ..\ 1a and ..\,a, it is easily shown that
1
t/JJ..\1 +o/2+o/a+t/J,j..\,- n(l +A..) (o/2-o/,)
tfo ~ 2 + 1/..\1+ 1/..\, .... (7.33)
Hence for a node point for which n = 3, ..\ 1 = 0 · 5 and ..\ 2 = 0 · 25

1
2o/1 +4o/2+o/a +t/J,- 3(1 +0· 25) (o/2-o/,)
tfo = 2+2+4
2o/1+3· 7o/2+o/ 3 + 1· 3o/4
8
The details of the relaxing procedure are otherwise substantially
the same as for the two-dimensional case. The calculation sheet of
the coarse-grid relaxation for the solution of the case sketched in
Fig. 7.20 is shown in Fig. 7.21. For the complete solution, a finer
grid is relaxed and the streamlines are drawn by interpolation
between the final t/J-values.
REFERENCES
(3) MILNE-THOMSON, L. M. Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Macmillan, 1955.
ProbleJDs
7.1. If the motion of a fluid is such that the path of each particle is a
circle in a plane normal to a common axis, show that the equation of
continuity is
~+ o(pw)- 0
ot o<P
where w is the angular velocity at time t.
253
7.2. A fluid moves so that the streamlines lie on the surfaces of coaxial
cylinders. Show that the equation of continuity is
op 1 a a
at+ ROtt> (pv~) +ox (pvx) = 0
where xis the direction of the common axis.
7.3. If a fluid motion is radially outwards with a velocity v, which is a
function of r and t, show that the equation of continuity is
~ + vr ~
ot + I!_~ (v r 2) ~
Or r 2 Or r
0
7.4. For a half-body of maximum width 8 ft. in an infinite stream of

uniform velocity 100 ft./sec., plot the profile and streamlines by graphical
superposition of flow patterns.
7.5. For the pattern of flow past a sphere at the origin in a uniform
stream flowing parallel to the x-axis, plot the distributions of velocity and
pressure along the x- andy-axes.
7.6. Show that, for a source, A, of strength m1 , and a sink, B, of strength
m2 ,in an infinite liquid, the equation of the streamlines is
- m1 cos 01 + mzcos 02 ~ constant
where 01 and 02 are the angles which AP and BP make with AB, P being any
point. Prove that, if m1 > mz, the streamlines from A which terminate at
B lie within the cone defined by
2mz
cos01 - l - -
m1
7. 7. A source of strength 1600 ft. ajsec. is immersed in a uniform stream
flowing with a velocity of 100 ft./sec. Determine
(i) the distance from the source to the stagnation point;
(ii) the equation of the resulting half-body profile;
(iii) the width of the profile in the plane of the source;
(iv) the limiting width of the profile.
On a scale drawing of the leading 10ft. of the profile, plot the distribution
of pressure.
2 2 8 5·66 8
Ans.- ft., r=-:-;- cosec 2-,-:; ft.,--:-; ft.
yW yW yW yW
7.8. Explain qualitatively, with the aid of sketches, why a sphere in an
infinite, non-viscous fluid is attracted towards a source. Show that when the
distance from the source is large compared with the radius, the attraction
varies inversely as the fifth power of the distance, approximately.
7.9. Show that, for a sphere of radius 2ft. in a uniform air stream flowing
with a velocity of 50 ft.jsec., </>- e~Q + 50r) COS 0 and tP- ( 25r2 - 2 ~) sin 2 0.
Determine the maximum velocity, and the maximum drop in pressure
254
PROBLEMS
below that of the undisturbed flow. Plot the streamlines and the potential
lines on a plane through the axis of symmetry, within the region r - 5 ft.,
with a ,P-interval of 100 ft. 3Jsec. and a </>-interval of25 ft. 2Jsec.
Ans. 75 ft./sec., 3 · 7 lb.jft.2
7.10. Show that, for a sphere of radius a in an infinite stream flowing

with a uniform velocity U the streamline equation can be expressed as
sin 2 0
U (r3 - a3 ) -- - constant
T
Show that the total thrust, parallel to the direction of U, on the front half
of the sphere is less than it would be if the fluid were stationary, with the
pressure at infinity unchanged, by the amount !11a 2• fpU 2•
7.11. The form of a three-dimensional Rankine body can be described

by the ratio of its half-width to its half-length. If U is the undisturbed stream
!:t
velocity and V and tJp refer to the point where the velocity is a maximum,
plot curves to show the variation of ~and 2 with the form of a Rankine
body, in the range extending from a line parallel to the flow to a sphere.
7.12. Investigate the various types of profile which can be produced by

variation of the strengths of the source and line sink and the uniform flow
velocity of Fig. 7.19.
7.13. For the pattern of flow past a sphere located on the axis of a tube
(Figs. 7.20 and 7.21) complete the analysis by relaxing a fine grid with sides
one-halfofthose in Fig. 7.21.
7.14. Determine by numerical analysis the pattern of three-dimensional

flow normal to a plane wall.
255
8
VORTEX MOTION
8.1 Introduction
THE concept of vorticity has a dual importance in the study of
patterns of flow. The irrotational vortex, in which vorticity is con-
fined to an infinitesimal area at the core, is one of several elementary
flow patterns involving singularities, and certain combinations of
these patterns with uniform flow were found in Chapter 4 to yield
more complex patterns ofirrotational flow. The singularities them-
selves are sometimes excluded from the pattern by the selection of
streamlines enclosing them as solid boundaries.
The second important application of vortex dynamics is in the
study of the rotational flow of real fluids, where vorticity can develop
as an effect of viscosity. It can also be produced by the buoyant
motion of a body of fluid through a more dense fluid; and by Coriolis
forces acting on currents of air in the atmosphere and of water in the
oceans and by electromagnetic forces acting on magnetic fluids.
These Coriolis and electromagnetic forces are non-conservative-
that is, unlike the gravity force, they cannot be derived by differen-
tiation of a force potential.
Of primary importance to students of the motion of real fluids is the
production and diffusion of vorticity by viscous action. Vorticity is
developed in the region of steep velocity gradients such as those in a
boundary layer near solid surfaces and in the region of the boundary
of a wake or a submerged jet. The rotational core of finite area in a
combined vortex (Fig. 4.5b) and the starting vortex of an aerofoil are
also examples of vorticity induced by viscous effects.
If intense vorticity is confined to a localized region, the remainder
of the flow in many cases can be treated as inviscid. As an approxi-
mation, such a flow pattern can be treated as one ofirrotational flow
containing singularities or pockets of rotational motion. The ideal
fluid theory of circulation can be applied to a circuit in a region
reasonably free of vorticity, even though it embraces local areas
where vorticity is appreciable. The treatment of two-dimensional
flow past an aerofoil (Section 5.1 0) made use of this fact.
It is remarkable that a theory of vorticity, developed for an ideal
fluid under conditions in which vortices can neither be generated nor,
if they exist, be destroyed, should prove of very real value in the study
256
CIRCULATION AND VORTICITY
of real fluids in which such changes are not only possible but are
continually occurring.
In this chapter, the concepts of circulation and vorticity previously
introduced are reviewed; and important principles, including the
Circulation Theorem of Kelvin, which was taken on trust in Section
5.1 0, are dealt with in detail.
8.2 Circulation and vorticity

The circulation, r, in a circuit was defined in Chapter 4 as the
line integral of the velocity vector around the circuit
f
r = Vcos cxds .... (8.1)
while the vorticity at a point was seen in Chapter I to be a measure
of the rate of rotation of the fluid at that point. For two-dimensional
flow in the x-y plane, the vorticity at a point is
r = av- au .... (8.2)
"'
ax ay
and it is a vector normal to the plane at that point, coinciding with
the axis of the vorticity, or spin, of which it is a measure.
Since vorticity may be distributed over a region of flow, a circuit
in the x-y plane enclosing a region 'infected with vorticity' can be
regarded as a loop binding a bundle of vorticity vectors (Fig. 8.1).
The circulation SF around each elemental circuit of area SS is
shown in Appendix A(ii) to be
sr = (av- ay ss = ,ss
ax au) .... (8.3)
wh ence .,r __ dT
dS . . . . (8 .-rA)
Since the line integrals along common boundaries of adjacent areas
have opposite signs, the sum of the circulations, sr,
reduces to the
circulation, r, in the outer circuit bounding S, as shown in Appendix
A(ii). If 4is constant overS, it follows that
= r 's ....
(8.5)
Exam.pie
8.1. For two-dimensional flow parallel to the x-axis with u oc y (Fig. 8.1),
determine the distribution of vorticity and show that Eqs. 8.4 and 8.5 are
satisfied for the small region ABCD and the large region of which it is part.
Ifu=cy and v=O,
~ = ~-~ = -c
ox Oy
which is constant throughout the flow.
257
VORTEX MOTION
For the small region SS

sr LAB+LBo+LoD+LDA
-c
SS = ab
For the large regionS
T= 0- cy3 x2a+0+cy 1 x2a = -2ac(y3 -y 1 )
= -4abc = -cS
r= ~s
y
Figure 8.1-Vorticity in flow with a velocity gradient u=constant xy
In three-dimensional flow the circulation in a circuit is
F= ~Vcosocds
whence .... (8.6)
r= ~(udx+vdy+wdz)
as shown in Eq. 4 of Appendix A(ii).
The total vorticity X at any point is a vector with three components
of vorticity, g, 7J and,, parallel to the x-,y- and z-axes respectively.
Fig. 8.2 shows a very small plane surface, of area S, taken for
convenience as circular, normal to the axis of vorticity at P.
If the circulation about sis r,
then
r
x=s
The vorticity in the x-y plane is the component of X in the z direction.
'= axov- ouoy

258
VORTEX LINES AND TUBES
and for they-z and z-x planes the components are, in order,
OW OV. h d" . d
i:.
S = oy- OZ In t eX 1rect10n an
TJ =
ou ow.
oz- ox m t hey d"1rect10n.
.
It is evident from Fig. 8.2 that X= y(g2+TJ2+ ' 2). The sign con-
vention for the vorticity vector follows the right-handed corkscrew
~--------------~--~x
Figure 8.2-Components ~' 7J and ' of the vorticity vec::tor
rule, that is, the positive sense of the vector is that which gives the
appearance of clockwise rotation when the vector is viewed 'from
behind'.
8.3 Vortex lines and tubes

Just as the velocity vector may vary through a region of flow, so
also may the vorticity vector. Corresponding to streamlines, which
are at all points tangential to the velocity vector, vortex lines exist in
flow with vorticity. A vortex line is a line which is at all points tan-
gential to the vorticity vector at those points. Corresponding to the
streamline equation (Eq. 1.8d) the equation of the vortex line is
dx dy dz
.... (8. 7)
g TJ '
Again the continuity equation (Eq. 1.4) expresses the principle of
conservation of matter and a similar equation (Eq. 8.8) expresses the
principle of conservation of vorticity
ag + aTJ +a' = 0 .... (8.8)

ax oy oz
259
VORTEX MOTION
Hence the gradients of the three components of vorticity at a point

are not independent. The derivation of this equation is left as an
exercise (Problem 8.1).
The orientation of vortex lines in a flow region is independent of
the orientation of the streamlines; a vortex line can be parallel to
the streamlines or at any angle with them and its position and orienta-
tion in the flow may vary with time.
A region through which vorticity is distributed will contain a
pattern of vortex lines and a selection of these lines passing through
every point in a closed loop defines a vortex tube, a volume of fluid
Possible direction of general
motion of the fluid
I i ~ ~
I I/ ,/f3
-e----.-'--,.:....' ~cb
, I
Figure 8.3-Vortex tube
bounded by vortex lines (Fig. 8.3). It is analogous to the stream-

tube, which has no velocity component across its surface and which
is characterized by the constancy of the product of mean velocity
and cross-sectional area at all sections. The vortex tube has no
vorticity component normal to its surface and, as will be shown, the
product of the mean vorticity and the cross-sectional area, xA,
termed the vortex strength, K, is constant for all sections of the tube at a
given instant. Since the circulation in a circuit on the tube surface,
which encloses the tube is
T= xA =K
the strength of a vortex tube equals the circulation around it.
Demonstration of the constancy of circulation, and hence of vortex
strength, at all sections of a vortex tube at any instant follows from
consideration of the 'wrapped' surface ab, whose two edges parallel
to the tube axis almost touch (Fig. 8.3). The four edges of this surface
form a closed circuit on the surface of a vortex tube, so that no vortex
line_ passes through the circuit. The circulation in the circuit (the line
integrals of velocity following the arrows) must therefore be zero.
260
PERSISTENCE OF VORTEX STRENGTH
Now, imagine the two edges parallel to the tube axis to approach
one another. Their contributions to the circulation will, in the limit,
be equal and opposite. Since the circulation or total line integral is
zero, it follows that the line integrals along the curved edges a and b
must be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. Taken in the
same sense, the line integrals would have the one sign as well as the
same magnitude.
These curved edges can now be regarded as separate circuits
enclosing the tube and so it is evident that the circulations in all circuits
on a vortex tube which encircle the tube are the same, at any instant.
Figure 8.4--A vortex tube cannot terminate within the fluid
Hence the vortex strength, K =XA, is constant along the tube. Where
the tube is thin, A is small and the vorticity is correspondingly high.
If the vorticity in the flow is limited to the fluid in the vortex tube,
the circulation in a'!)' circuit enclosing the tube will be constant; and
if, in addition, the vorticity is restricted to a very narrow tube, the
flow pattern approaches that of irrotational flow containing a single
vortex line of finite strength, K, but infinite vorticity (Fig. 4.5a).
A vortex line or tube cannot have a beginning or an ending within
the fluid. Imagine that, in Fig. 8.4, the section c represents the
supposed end of a vortex, the surrounding fluid being free of vorticity.
Application of the wrapped surface technique of Fig. 8.3 shows that
the circulation in circuit b must equal that in a so that the vortex
must extend beyond the supposed end c through b. It is evident that
a vortex cannot have its ends in the fluid. They must either join to
form a vortex loop or ring, or they must extend to the boundary walls.
8.4 Persistence of vortex strength

The constancy of the strength of a vortex along its length at any
instant has been treated above. In addition, from a Circulation
261
VORTEX MOTION
Theorem due to Kelvin, it follows that the circulation, and hence the
vortex strength, does not vary with time, under certain conditions.
These conditions are
(i) the fluid is non-viscous;
(ii) its density is either constant or a function of pressure only; and
(iil.) the body forces are derivable from a single-valued potential
(such as the gravity force potential, D, introduced in Chap-
ter 1).
Proof of Kelvin's Circulation Theorem rests on the demonstration
that the value of~~· in a circuit which moves with the fluid elements
composing it, is zero.
r /
(&7--~--~ I I
Figure 8.5--Persistence of circulation
The circulation in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.5 is the summation of

the line integrals of velocity along elements such as AB, whose
projections on the co-ordinate planes are dx, dy and dz. From the
r
f
expression for
r= (udx+vdy+wdz) .... (8.9)
the rate of change of r is

DF
Dt = y,( Dt
D
(udx+vdy+waz) .... (8.10)
The term
D(udx) d Du Ddx
Dt = xDt +u Dt
262
PERSISTENCE OF VORTEX STRENGTH
an d Ddx.
Dt IS t h e rate of"mcrease ofd x, t h at Is,
· It· equals the difference,
du, in the x-components of the velocities of A and B. From Eqs.

1.32a and 1.34
D(udx) = dxDu +udu
Dt Dt
= (x-~pOX
op)dx+udu
-(o!l +~ op)dx+udu
ox pOX
- :x ( D + f;) +dx u du
. . D(vdy) D(wdz)
In a similar way -----nl and Dt can be evaluated, and, by
addition, we obtain
D
Dt (udx+vdy+wdz) - d (D+ f ; )+ u du + v dv + w dw
= -d ( D+ f ;)+~d(V2) .... (8.11)

In order to evaluate Eq. 8.10, this must be integrated around the
circuit. Since Dis a single-valued potential, and the density is either
a constant or a function of pressure only, integration of the right-
hand term yields zero. Therefore
DT ,(D
Dt = j Dt (udx+vdy+wdz) = 0 .... (8.12)
r
that is, is constant in a circuit which moves with the fluid.
If the circuit embraces a vortex, it follows that the vortex moves
with the fluid and its strength does not vary with time. Vortices can
neither be created nor destroyed in a non-viscous fluid under the
conditions specified above. Since the vortex moves with the fluid,
vortex tubes retain the same fluid elements and these elements
retain their vorticity. Conversely, an element which has no vorticity
cannot acquire any.
The circulation in a circuit which embraces more than one vortex
is equal to the sum of the strengths of the vortices it encloses. This
follows from consideration of a modification of the circuit which
excludes the vortices and therefore has zero circulation (Fig. 8.6).
263
VORTEX MOTION
If the width of each narrow path approaches zero, the contribution

to the circulation of one side of the path cancels that of the other side.
The line integral of the remaining outer circuit is evidently equal to
the sum of the line integrals in the two separate circuits, taken in the
same direction. Hence the circulation in the outer circuit is equal
to the sum of the strengths of the enclosed vortices.
-r -
r=o
l t
(a)
Aerofoi l
-
(b)
Starting
vortex
Figure 8.6-Circulation in a circuit embracing more than one vortex. In case (b)
since the circulations of the aerofoil and starting vortex are of equal magnitude and
opposite sign, the circulation in the outer circuit is zero
8.5 Vortex sheet

When a real fluid moves rapidly past a solid boundary or past a
region of stationary or slower moving fluid such as a wake behind a
body, the viscous effects are largely confined to a narrow region
where the velocity gradient is high. Parallel flow with a lateral
Figure 8.7-Vortex sheet in the region of a steep velocity

gradient across the direction of flow
velocity gradient was seen, in Fig. 8.1, to involve circulation, and

hence vorticity, and the narrow region can be pictured as a thin layer
containing a series of parallel vortices resembling roller bearings,
often oriented normal to the direction of flow (Fig. 8.7). This
idealized pattern is termed a vortex sheet.
264
VORTEX SHEET
If the vorticity is assumed constant within the sheet, it can be

evaluated by consideration of the circulation in a circuit oflength ds
of the sheet. If the thickness of the sheet is 8n and the velocity differ-
ence across it is 8v, the circulation in the circuit is
8F = '8n8s = V1 8s- V2 8s = -8v8s
'= _ 8v
8n
The strength of the vortex sheet K 1 , is defined as ~:, hence
K 1 = -8v .... (8.13)
the velocity difference across the sheet.
y
a a a a
Figure 8.8--Fiow pattern for an infinite row of vortices (after Robertson, Reference 5}
.p = r 21ry (21rx)
--In! cosh--cos-
47r a a
Since the complex potential for a single vortex with a core of

infinitesimal size at the origin is
iF
w = --lnz
27T
the potential for an infinite row of such vortices spaced at intervals a
along the x-axis (Fig. 8.8) can be evaluated by summation of the
separate potentials to yield
iF . 7TZ
w = --lnsin- .... (8.14)
27T a
It is evident that the induced velocity at any point in the row is zero,
since the vortices to the right have the opposite effect to that of those
to the left. Hence the row remains at rest, with the flows above and
10 265
VORTEX MOTION
below in opposite directions and, at some distance from the row,

practically parallel to the x-axis. However, the arrangement is
unstable, for a slight displacement of one vortex causes the row to
Figure 8.9--The rolling-up of a vortex sheet
curl. The same effect is observed in a real fluid, a plane sheet once
established rolling up into a series oflarger whirls (Fig. 8.9).
The vortex sheet concept has been applied in thin aerofoil theory,
with the flat skeleton curve of the foil replaced by a vortex sheet
Figure 8.10---Vortex sheet concept applied to a thin aerofoil
(Fig. 8.10). Its strength, K, being the difference between the velo-
cities above and below the foil at any point, varies from the leading
to the trailing edge. The circulation around the foil is
whence the lift, pUT, can be determined once the value of K, as a

function of x, is specified.
266
MOTION DUE TO TWO-DIMENSIONAL VORTICES
8.6 Vortex street

When a flat plate long in comparison with its width is held normal
to a flow, eddies are detached alternately from the sides of the plate at
a practically constant rate for a given stream velocity. The pattern
is that of a double row of vortices (Fig. 8.11) and it is known as a
vortex street. Karman has shown that the only stable arrangement
of a double row of vortices is that in which the vortices are symmetric-
ally staggered and the ratio of the row spacing to the vortex spacing,
bfa, is 0·281.
Figure 8.11-Vortex street behind a flat plate
For flow past a circular cylinder of diameter D, in the range of

Reynolds numbers (R= VD/v) from about 103 to 105 (Fig. 2.12b),
the spacing of the rows in the vortex street is about l·2D and the
frequency of shedding is approximately 0·2 VfD per second, where V
is the free stream velocity. The oscillations in the wake produced by
the shedding of vortices alternately from one side of the body and then
the other tend to set up a lateral vibration !Jf the body. If it forms
part of a structural element, such as a chimney stack in a wind, and if
the frequency of shedding eddies approaches the natural frequency
of elastic vibration, the effect may become critical.
8.7 Motion due to two-dimensional vortices

Although vorticity, or rotational motion, may occur only within a
limited region, the core of a vortex, circulatory motion is induced in
the surrounding region, where the flow is irrotational, as indicated
in Fig. 4.5. In fact, the term irrotational vortex refers to such
motion produced by a line vortex, the rotational vortex core having
an infinitesimal area.
The velocity induced in irrotational flow at a distance r from a line
vortex ofstrengthK is, from Eq. 4.8,
K r
v6 = 27Tr = 27Tr
267
VORTEX MOTION
since the strength of the vortex equals its circulation. This induced
velocity is superimposed on the velocity due to any other cause at the
point.
One vortex will induce this velocity in the fluid elements in the core
of another vortex, and, since these elements retain their vorticity, the
second vortex will move with them. However, the second vortex will
likewise induce a velocity in the elements of the core of the first one,
causing it also to move. The resulting motions depend on the strengths
and sense of rotation of the vortices.
Figure 8.12-Motion of two vortices
They will, in general rotate about a point on the line, produced if

necessary, which joins them. This point can be located for two vortices
of equal or unequal strengths or signs by imagining them replaced by
parallel forces acting normally to the line joining them (Fig. 8.12).
The magnitudes of the forces are made proportional to the vortex
strengths and their directions are made the same if the directions of
rotation of the vortices are the same. The position of the resultant of
the forces on the joining line is the point about which the vortices will
rotate. In other words the sum of the moments of the vortex strengths
about the centre of rotation is zero.
For example, with vortices of equal strength rotating in opposite
directions, the point is at infinity and the vortex pair, spaced a
268
VORTEX RINGS
distance d apart, moves in a direction normal to the line joining them

with a velocity
V=-
r
27Td
as shown in Fig. 4.10a.
A single vortex distant d/2 from a plane wall also moves with this
velocity, for the flow pattern for the vortex pair is the same as that
for the single vortex and its image in the wall.
Figure 8.13---Motion of a single vortex near a 90° corner
The motion of a vortex in a 90° corner can be determined by

considering its images. If the positive x- andy-axes represent the
boundaries (Fig. 8.13) the vortex will have velocity components
induced by its images in the x- and y-axes and by their common
image in the third quadrant. The three image vortices are required
to ensure that, by their resulting symmetrical arrangement the
co-ordinate axes are streamlines and hence can be regarded as solid
boundaries (see Problem 8.5).
8.8 Vortex rings

A sudden, or impulsive, injection of fluid through a submerged
orifice can produce a vortex ring such as a smoke ring blown into
the air (Fig. 8.14). This is an example of a vortex which does not end
at a boundary but satisfies the requirement that it shall not end in the
fluid by closing on itself.
The impulse provides the initial energy of translation but part of
this is transformed by the viscous drag that produced the ring on
entry, into irrotational vortex motion of both the injected fluid and
269
VORTEX MOTION
the host fluid. Examination of a smoke ring shows that, while

irrotational motion occurs across the plane of the ring and extends
to its axis, the injected fluid itself is confined to the tube form of the
ring and travels with it. The ring has a very narrow core of rotational
flow.
Figure 8.14---Formation and motion of a vortex ring
The translatory motion of the ring is the axially symmetrical

counterpart of the motion of a vortex pair, for each element of the
ring's length possesses a velocity induced by the remainder. If it
approaches a plane wall, consideration of the effect of its image shows
that the diameter of the ring will grad.ually increase and, as a result
the self-induced velocity decreases.
8.9 The finite wing

The pattern of flow past an aerofoil of infinite span was treated in
Section 5 .l 0 as a two-dimensional problem. The circulation developed
around the wing, equal to the total vortex strength of the boundary
layer surrounding it, is balanced by the circulation of the starting
vortex. The wing vorticity remains with the wing and is known as the
bound vortex. ·
Flow over a simple rectangular wing of finite span (Fig. 8.15) is
three-dimensional. The strength of the bound vortex decreases from
a maximum value at the centre of the span to zero at the wing tips.
However, vortices cannot terminate in a fluid nor can they decrease
in strength along their axial direction. The explanation of the para-
dox is that vorticity is being shed from the trailing edge of the wing,
the vortex lines turning as they leave the bound vortex, tending to
become parallel to the line of flight.
The trailing vortices can be regarded as a vortex sheet whose
270
THE FINITE WING
vorticity increases from zero at the centre to a maximum in the wake

of the wing tips. The directions of rotation of the vortices in the sheet
are as indicated in Fig. 8.15. Downstream of the wing, the sheet
tends to roll up into two large vortices a little inside the lines of the tips.
Figure 8.15-Finite wing. Distribution of circulation and formation of a trailing

vortex sheet (schematic)
An alternative approach to the same conclusion can be made from

a consideration of the flow over a finite wing. The existence of a
higher pressure beneath the wing than that above it-the reason for
Starting vortex
(b)
Figure 8.16--Finite wing. Effect ofspanwise flow in providing trailing vorticity
the lift it experiences-results in a spanwise flow around the ends of

the wing (Fig. 8.16a). This motion, superimposed on the normal
two-dimensional flow past the wing, deflects the lower streamlines
outwards and the upper ones inwards. As a result the air leaving the
271
VORTEX MOTION
trailing edge has a spiral motion which develops into a trailing vortex
sheet (Fig. 8.16b).
To satisfy the condition that these vortices may not terminate in
the air, they can be regarded as extending back to form a closed loop
with the starting vortex, although, in a real fluid, viscous effects will
have diffused its vorticity soon after it was shed by the wing.t
REFERENCES
(2) RousE, H. (ed.), Advanced Mechanics of Fluids, Wiley, 1959.
(3) DuNCAN, W.J., THOM, A. S. and YouNG, A. D., The Mechanics ofFluids, Arnold,
1960.
(4) STREETER, V. (ed.), Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1961.
(5) RoBERTSON,]. M., Hydrodynamics in Theory and Application, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
(6) GoLDSTEIN, S. (ed.), Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics, Oxford, 1938.
Problems
e,
8.1. (i) From the definitions of TJ and,, develop Eq. 8.8 and explain its
significance in terms of the flux of vorticity out of an elemental volume of
fluid.
(ii) Which, if any, of the following cases are possible?
(a) e=constant, '7 =constant, '=constant.
(b) e= x, TJ =constant, '=constant.
(c) e=x, '7=y, '=z.
8.2. (i) Sketch the pattern of two-dimensional flow represented by

U=2y, V=X.
(ii) Is it a possible flow pattern?
(iii) Determine the distribution of vorticity.
(iv) Find the circulation around the vortex tube bounded by y= I, y=2,
x=2, x=4 with its axis in the z direction.
8.3. For the case of two-dimensional laminar flow between parallel plane
walls (Fig. 1.2b), the velocity distribution is given by
U = __!_ ~ (b1 -y1 )

21" dx
Determine the maximum and minimum values of the vorticity and plot the
distribution of vorticity nondimensionally, that is, as u'IDIJ.
vs yfb.
8.4. Two anticlockwise irrotational vortices A and B are 3 ft. apart in

an infinite fluid. Vortex A has a strength K- 247T ft. 1fsec., which is twice
t A good introduction to finite wing theory is given in Reference 3.

272
PROBLEMS
that of vortex B. Determine the location of 0, the centroid of the vortices

and show that the vortices maintain constant distances from it. Find the
rate of rotation of the line AB, and the paths and speeds of the vortices.
Ans. AO- I ft.; w- 2 rad per sec.
VA= 2 ft.jsec., v8 - 4 ft./sec.
8.5. If the positive x- andy-axes be regarded as plane boundaries show

that a vortex filament in the region of the 90° comer formed by these
boundaries moves along a path defined by the equation
1 1
- + - - constant
x• y•
dy ys
(Show that, for the path of the vortex, dx-- ;s• and integrate. Note
that there are three image vortices, one in each of the remaining quadrants.)
8.6. Flow past a wing section of finite span is found to have a downward
component behind the wing, known as downwash, which effectively reduces
the angle of attack. Explain why this effect is found within a finite wing but
not with a wing of infinite span.
273
APPENDIX A
The Theorems of Green, Stokes, Cauchy and Blasius
IMPORTANT theorems upon which some of the sections of the foregoing
chapters were based, are dealt with in this appendix. They relate to
continuous differentiable functions of space. In order of treatment
theyare:-
(i) Green's theorem which can be regarded as a transformation
of a surface integral into a volume integral.
(ii) Stokes's theorem which transforms a line integral into a
surface integral. The following treatment is presented in connection
with a discussion of the line integral of the velocity vector, circulation
and rotation.
(iii) Cauchy's integral theorem, which yields important infor-
mation concerning line integrals of analytic functions around closed
curves and provides a valuable method of integrating line integrals.
(iv) Blasius's theorem which refers to the resultant forces and
moments on bodies in two-dimensional flow and provides a method
of derivation of the Kutta-:J oukowski equation for the lift force.
(i) Green's Theorem
Suppose that U, V and W are the x-, y- and .e;-components
respectively of any single-valued differentiable function of x,y and .e:
in a connected region; and suppose that the region is completely
bounded by one or more closed surfaces S ofwhich ~Sis an element and
l, m and n are the direction cosines of the inward normal to ~S.
Green's theorem states that-
JJ(lU+mV+nW)dS = - JJJ(~~+ ~;+ 00~) dxdyd.e: .... (1)

For the left-hand side, the integration is carried out over the
boundary surface while, for the right-hand side, the integration is
extended throughout the region. If, for example, U = pu, V = pv,
W = pw, where u, v and w are the components of the velocity V,
along the inward normal, across the surface element dS, then,
according to the theorem
ff (lu+mv+nw)pdS = -Iff (o(pu)

ax
+ o(pv) + o(pw)) dxdyd.e:
ay a.e:
274
APPENDIX A
and therefore, from Eq. 1.3 and l.7a
JJpVn dS = JJJ~ dx dy dz
that is, the rate of mass inflow across the boundary surface equals the
rate of increase in the mass within the region. The conclusion in this
instance is an obvious one. However, the application of the theorem
in Section 1.15 to the problem of kinetic energy in irrotational flow
leads to a useful expression for total kinetic energy which is not
obvious a priori.
In order to prove the theorem, let the dimensions of an elemental
volum~ at x,y, z within the region be 8x, 8y, 8z (Fig. AI). For the
Figure A.l-Definition sketch of Green's Theorem
two surfaces 8S = 8y8z normal to the x-axis at ( x- ~x) and ( x +8;),

U is normal and V and W are tangential hence l = 1, m = n = 0
and the total value of (l U + m V + n W) dS for these surfaces is
au
-ox .8x8y8z. The negative sign results from the fact that l refers
to the inward normal, which, for the face at x + 8;, is in the negative
x-direction. Addition of the corresponding expressions for the other
two pairs of faces yields
(lU+mV+nW)dS = - (au av oW\

ox+ oy +--az I 8x8y8z
The addition of the surface integrals for all such elements will result
in the values for adjacent elements on common interfaces cancelling
one another, since they will be of equal magnitude and opposite
sign. The integral of the left-hand side therefore reduces to the
integral around the boundary of the region, which is the first term
275
APPENDIX A
of Green's equation; and the integral of the right-hand side is the

other term of Green's equation.
(ii) Stokes's Theorem, line integrals and circulation
The line integral of the velocity vector taken between two points
A and B along a curves was defined in Section 4.3 as
=I... Vcosexds
B
L ...• (2)
where ex is the angle between the vector and the tangent to the curve
at any point on the curve. If the direction cosines of the vector and
Figure ..4.2-Circulation around the

boundary of a surface
the tangent are l, m, n, and l', m', n', respectively, co-ordinate

geometry texts show that
cos ex = ll' + mm' + nn'
L =I (Vll'ds+ Vmm'ds+ Vnn'ds)
L =I (udx+vdy+wdz) ...• (3)
which is an alternative expression for the line integral.
For any curve ABCD the line integral, written L(ABCD) equals
the sum of the component integrals
L(ABCD) = L(AB) +L(BC) +L(CD)
Also L(AB) = -L(BA), that is, reversal of direction reverses the
sign. If A and D coincide, the line is a closed curve and the integral
L(ABCA) is called the circulation (I') around that curve.
r= f Vcosexds = f (udx+vdy+wdz) .... (4)

Any surface can be divided by two families of intersecting lines
into infinitesimal elements (Fig. A2). The circulation around the
276
APPENDIX A
boundary of the surface is equal to the sum of the circulations taken

in the same sense (say, anticlockwise) around the individual elements,
for the line integrals along all sides common to two elements occur
twice but with opposite sign, so that they disappear from the sum.
The only remaining line integrals are those around the original
boundary.
An alternative expression can be obtained for the circulation
around an infinitesimal element, in terms of the area of the element.
Integration of this expression over the surface yields an alternative
form for the circulation around the surface. Suppose that the
y
C---+=-v_.....,.8
oy
z
Figure A.3-Circulation around a rectangular
element which is normal to the .c-axis
rectangular element ABCD of dimensions 8x8y has its centre at the

point x, y, ~ where the velocity components are u, v, w (Fig. A3).
The circulation taken in the anticlockwise direction is obtained by
addition of the separate line integrals
L(AB) = (v+~;;ax)8y L(BC) = -(u+~:;ay)8x

L(CD) = - (v -~ ;; 8x) 8y L(DA) = ( -8y) 8x
I ou
u--2oy
dF = L(ABCDA) = av ou) 8x8y =
(- (ov
- au)
- 88z
• ax - -
ay ax- ay
Similarly, for elemental surfaces normal to the x- andy-axes re-
spectively
dF =
,. (ow- OV) 8y 8-t',
oy a~ (au-
a-t' ow)
dF =
y ax 8-t' 8x
We infer, therefore, that for any elemental surface 88 the circulation
277
APPENDIX A
around its boundary equals the sum of the circulations about the
boundaries of the projections SSx, SSy and SSz of the surfaces on the
three planes normal to the co-ordinate axes x,y and z,
dF = (ov- ou) SxSy+ (ow- ov) SySz+ (au- ow) SzSx

, ox oy oy oz oz ax
Hence, the circulation around the boundary of the surface can be
obtained by integration of this expression. The alternative forms
for rare thus the line integral on the left side and the surface integral
on the right side of the following equation
f(udx+vdy+wdz) = JJ(~- ;;) dydz+ JJ(~:- ~~) SzSx

+ ff (~;- ~;)dxdy .... (5)
(This is a special case of Stokes's Theorem in which u, v and w are
any continuous differentiable functions of space, not necessarily
velocities. Another application of this theorem is given in the next
section.)
The bracketed terms on the right-hand side are the vorticities,
or twice the rotations, about axes parallel to the x-, y- and z-axes,
through the elements (see Section 1.8). If l, m and n are the direction
cosines of the normal to the elemental surface SS, dydz = ldS ... and
hence
r = 2 II (lwx+mwy+nwz) dS
r = 2II wndS .... (6)
where wn is the component of rotation about the normal to the
surface. This equation applies provided that the surface contains no
singular point, that is, wn exists and is continuous at all points on the
surface.
For irrotational flow, the rotation components are all zero and
hence the circulation is zero around every closed curve which does
not enclose a singular point.
If the circulation around any path enclosing a singular point is r,
that around any other path enclosing only that singular point is also
r, r
for the contribution to of the irrotational flow regions between
the two paths must be zero.
(iii) Cauchy's Integral Theorem
Cauchy's integral theorem has several important applications in
conformal transformation theory. It states that, if w =f(z) is an
278
APPENDIX A
analytic function of z in a simply connected region enclosed by any

curve C, then the line integral ofj(z) around Cis zero (Fig. A4).
~wdz = ~f(z)dz = 0 .... (7)

c c
Proof of this theorem involves the use of Stokes's theorem in the
two-dimensional form
f (Pdx+Qdy) = ff (~;- ~;) dxdy .... (8)
(a} (b)
Figure A.4-(a) Curve enclosing a simply connected region,
(b) curve enclosing a multiply connected region
and the Cauchy-Riemann equations
Proof:
~ wdz = ~ (c/>+ilf)(dx+idy)
= ~ (cf>dx-!fdy) +i ~ (!fdx+cf>dy)
= ff [(- ~:)-~;] dxdy+i ff [~: -~;] dxdy = 0
If the curve encloses one or more singular points it is no longer

simply connected and the integral ~wdz may no longer equal zero.
However, an important corollary of the Cauchy integral theorem
states that, in a multiply connected region such as that produced
between two closed curves with no singular points between them
~ w dz = ~ w dz ... (9)
c, c,
that is, if two curves enclosed the same singular points, their line
integrals ~wdz taken in the same sense are equal.
279
APPENDIX A
Proof: The two curves are made into one continuous curve by
means of the double path AB (Fig. A5). The space between the
curves is now simply connected for the new curve can be shrunk
c2
(a) (b)
Figure A.S-Conversion of a multiply connected region (a)
to a simply connected region (b)
to zero without leaving the region in which ~ is analytic. The line

integral around the new curve is zero
A' B
fwd~+fwd~+ wd~+ wd~ =
C1 C,
I
B'
I
A
0
and the last two terms are of equal magnitude and opposite sign
so that they disappear from the equation
fwd~+fwd~ = 0
c, c,
fwd~-fwd~,;, 0
c, c,
The functions w = _!._

Z'!'
The function w = ~ is analytic for any value of ~ except ~ = 0,
z
f f ~z
which is therefore a singular point. It might be expected then, that
the line integral w dz = around any curve enclosing the
origin may differ from zero. In fact, as is shown below, it equals 21Ti.
Consider first the more general case for which the origin is a singular
point
w =-
zn
and, for simplicity, adopt as the curve around which the line integral
280
APPENDIX A
is taken the circle of unit radius and centre the origin. Then~= el',
dz = ieiBdO
f d _
wz- f - -J- -
dz _
Z"
2,
i ei8 dO
eln8
0
2,
fwdz =if e <l-n)8dO

1
f J
2,
If n = I, w = ~ and w dz = i e0 dO = 2m.
0
If n = i, w = ~12 and the integral equals - 2i.

z
If n is an integer other than unity, the integral equals zero for
2,
,( wd~ =
j
if el< -n>8dO = -.t(I-n)
1 _,_·- [el(l-,)8]2,
0
0
I
=l-n(l-1)=0
This characteristic of the functions w = _!._ provides a means of

Z"
evaluating line integrals of functions by expressing them as a series.
Al All Aa
w = Ao+-+2+
z z ~-...s + ...
then
.... (10)
where A1 = 2~ f w dz is in general a complex number and is called

the residue of w at the point where the singularity exists.
This method of integration is employed in connection with the
Blasius theorem.
(iv) Blasius's Theorem, circulation and lift force

Blasius's theorem provides a general method of determining the
resultant force and moment exerted by a fluid in steady two-dimen-
sional flow past a cylinder of any cross-sectional form, provided that
the complexpotentialw =J(z) fortheflowpatternisknown (Fig.A.6).
281
APPENDIX A
The Theorem. The x- andy-components of the resultant force

being, respectively, X and Y,
.... (11)
and the moment of the resultant force about the origin is M, the
real part of the expression
.... (12)
where the integrals are taken around the contour of the cylinder.
Proof: The pressure in the undisturbed fluid, that is, at infinity,
has no effect on the forces and moments and it can be set for con-
venience at zero. From Bernoulli's equation, therefore, the pressure
at any point P on the cylinder where the magnitude of the velocity
is !VI is
dwdili
P = -lp !VI 2 = -lp----=
dz dz
since
dw.d~ = (u-iv)(u+iv) = u2 +v2 = !VI 2

dz dz
The force components acting on an element Ss of the boundary
are SX = -pSy and SY = pSx
d(X-iY) = dX-idY = -pdy-ipdx
= -ip(dx-idy) = -ipd.Z
1 . dwdw ...1:
= ytp--U<:.
dz dz
Since ifJ is constant and di/J is therefore zero around the boundary,
which is a streamline,
dili _ _ dw
dz dz = dw = de/> = dw = dz dz
d(X-iY) =lip (:;r dz
x-iY = !ipf (:;rdz .... (11)
282
APPENDIX A
The sum of the moments of dX and d Y about the origin is
dM = - ydX+xdY = p(xdx+ydy)
which is the real part ofp;:;d.f. since
p;:;d.C = p(x+ry)(dx-idy) = p(xdx+ydy) +i(ydx-xdy)

= d(M+iN), (say)
d(M+iN) -lpz(:;r d;:;

= p;:;d'£ =
M+iN = -lpfz(:;rd;:; .... (12)
In order to evaluate these line integrals, use is made of the Cauchy

Integral Theorem, the integrands being both analytic functions
of ;:;. Each integral is taken around a circular path of very large
radius, with the origin as centre, instead of around the cylinder
boundary, a procedure justified by the corollary of the Cauchy
theorem, since there are no singularities in the space surrounding
the cylinder.
For the integration ofEq. (11) let
.... (13)
For the integration ofEq. (12),
.... (14)
283
APPENDIX A
Emunples
(i). Flow PaJI a circular cylinder, with circulation
In Section 5.8 (ii) it was seen that, for this case
u(z+ ~)-
w-
.c
iK ln.c
21T
. :; - u( ~) 1- - ;:
iUK
whence
1T
' A•-
From Eq. (13)
X _,·y = -1Tp A1 - 1Tp---

iUK . UK
lp
1T
:. X - 0, Y - - pUK
that is, the drag force is zero and the lift force is - pUK. When U is positive
and K is negative (clockwise circulation), Y is positive, that is, upwards.
From Eq. (14)
M + iN - - i1rpA1 (wholly imaginary)
:. moment M is zero.
(H). Two-dimensional flow PaJt a projiu of any cross section, with circulation
The velocity at a great distance from the cylinder being U, the complex
velocity for the pattern of flow around the cylinder can be written
dw A B
- - Ue 1" +-+-+ ...
d.c .c za
where tX is the angle of incidence or angle of attack
B
:. w - Ue1" .c+ Aln .c--+ ...
.c
284
APPENDIX A
Since there is a clockwise circulation K, the resulting component in w

iK
must be- 27T In z
iK
.. A- - 27T
-
u
~----------------------_.X
0
Figur1 A.6-Two-dimensional flow past a cylinder
with circulation; X= 0, Y = - pUK
iKUeta.
From Blasius's theorem, since A1 -
7T
iKUe1a.
X-iY- -1rpA1 - 1rp---- iKpUe 1a.
7T
If ex - 0, irrespective of the shape or orientation of the profile

X- O, Y- -pUK- -pUF
This is the theorem discovered in 1902 by Kutta and, independently in
1906 by J oukowski.
285
APPENDIX B
A Summary of
~nential, Trigono~netric and Hyperbolic Functions
I I I
The number e = I+l!+2!+3!+ ... = 2·7I828 ...
x2 x3
ex= I+x+ 2 ,+ 3 ,+ ...
(bx) 2 (bx) 3
a"'= e_bx = I +bx+ ""2!+T+···
(xina) 2 (xina) 3
= I+xina+ 2 ! + 3 ! + ...
where a = eb, that is b = Ina
x2 x3 x4
In (I +x) = x-2+3-4+···
x3 x6
sinx = x-3!+5!- ...
x2 x4
cosx I-2!+4!
.elx-e-lx I ex-e-x
sinx = - - = -z sinhx =
cosecx 2 cosechx = - 2 -
elx+e-tx I &+e-x
COSX coshx = - - =-2--
secx 2 sechx
I .elx-e-lx I e"'-e-x
tanx = - -
cotx
-z
elx+e-lx tanhx = --h-
cot x
= ---
&+e-x
sinhix = isinx coshix = cosx cosh 2 x-sinh 2 x = I

sinhx = -isinix coshx = cosix I-tanh 2 x = sech 2 x
sinh(-x) = -sinhx cosh(-x) =coshx I-coth2 x = -cosech1 x
286
APPENDIX B
sin (x±y) = sinh (x±y)

sinxcosy ± cosxsiny sinh x coshy ± cosh x sinhy
cos (x±y) = cosh (x±y) =
cos x cosy+ sin x siny cosh x coshy ±sinh x sinhy
tanhx + tanhy
tan (x +y) = tan x ± tan y tan h (x+ y) = -
- 1 + tanxtany - I± tanhxtanhy
sin2x = 2sinxcosx sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cos2x = cos 2 x-sin 2 x2 cosh 2x = cosh 2x + sinh 2 x
2
= 2cos x-l = 2cosh2 x-I
= I-2sin 2 x = I +2sinh2 x
2tanx 2tanhx
tan2x=I 2 tanh2x = I +tanh 2 x
-tan x
d . d .
dxsmx = COSX dx cosx = -smx
d . h
dxsm x = coshx ! coshx = sinhx
d d
d/anx = sec2 x dx cot x = - cosec2 x
d d
dx tanhx = sech2 x -cothx = -cosech2 x
dx
sinz = sinxcoshy+icosxsin hy sinhz = sinh(x+b>)
= sinhxcosy+icoshxs iny
cosz = cosxcoshy-isinxsin hy coshz = cosh(x+b>)
= coshxcosy+isinhxs iny
sinh-1 x f dx
y'(x2+I)
= ln(x+y'(x 2 +I)] anyx
f
=
cosh-1 x dx = ln[x±y'(x2 -I)] x>

= ± y'(x2-I)
tanh-1 = f ~xx2
I
=!Ini+x
I-x
x2 <
sech-1 x -
s dx 2 )
xy'(I-x )J e Jc
= ln -+
x-
--I
x2
x<
cosech- x = -Jxy'(~+xZ) = ln [~+ J(~+I)]

1 anyx
= f I~x2
coth- x
1 = !Inx+l x2 > I
x-I
287
APPENDIX B
Values of z = cosh-1 t = I dt
y(tZ-l):
1ft= 1, z= cosh-1 (I), coshz = 1 = cosiz, iz = 0

z=O
'IT
t = 0, z= cosh-1 (0), cosh z =0 = cosiz, iz = ±2
I'IT
z = ±2
t = -I, z = cosh-1 ( -I), cosh z = -I = cosiz, iz = ±'IT
z = ±i'IT
cosh9 sinh9 tanh9

8 e-9 e8+ e-9 e8- e-ll el-e-9
rad. e8
--2- --2- - e8 + e-11
0·1 1·10 0·90 1·00 0·10 0·10

0·5 1·65 0·61 1·13 0·52 0·46
1·0 2·72 0·37 1·54 1·18 0·76
1·5 4·48 0·22 2·35 2·13 0·91
2·0 7·39 0·14 3·76 3·63 0·96
2·5 12·18 0·08 6·13 6·05 0·99
3·0 20·09 0·05 10·07 10·02 0·99
3·14 23·23 0·04 11·59. 11·54 1·00
288
APPENDIX C
Summary of Hyclrodynam.ic Equations for Incom.pressible
Non-viscous Flow
1 Two-di.m.ensional flow
Co-ordinate System
Cartesian Polar
( 1) Continuity
ou + OV = 0
ax ay
(2) Streamline
udy-vdx = 0 v,rd8-vsdr = 0
(3) ~and rp
a~ or/J
U=-=-
a~ 1 or/J
v =- = --
OX ay ,or roO
v =- = --
a~ or/J
oy ax
dQ = drp dQ = drp
(4) Irrotationality
ov- au= 0 1 o(vsr) 1 ov, - 0

ax ay ;a;--;· os-
(5) Laplace Equation
iJ2~ as~
ox2 + oy2 = 0
iJ2rp iJ2rp
ox2 + oy2 = 0
(6) Uniformflowatanan glecxtothex-axis; w = AzwhereA = lA Ie1«

~ = V(xcoscx+ysincx) ~ = Vrcos (8-a:)
rp = V(ycoscx-xsincx) rp = Vrsin (8-cx)
289
APPENDIX C
Co-ordinate System
Cartesian Polar
(7) Source (strength Q = 21rm); w = mlnz
cp = !mln (x2+y2) cp = mlnr
.p = mtan- 1 ~
X
.p = m8
(8) Irrotational Vortex (strength K = 21Tvor); w = -~~In z
t/> = K tan- 1 ~ cp = K 8
27T X 21T
K
.p = --lnr
27T
(9) Doublet (strength IL); w = 1!:.

z
/LX
t/> = x2+y2
ILY .p = _ ,.,.sinO
.P = - x2+y2 r
2 Three-dimensional axisymmetric flow

Co-ordinate System
Cylindrical Spherical
(I) Continuity
av,. I a 1a<v,r2) +~e~e
1 a< ·e)-o
-
ax+RaR(vRR) =O r2 ~
ur rs1n u vosm
(2) Streamline
v,.dR-vRdx = 0 v,rd8-vodr = 0
(3) cp and .p
v
acf> I a.p
, =or- = ---
r2 sin8 ae
290
APPENDIX C
Co-ordinate System
Cylindrical Spherical
(4) Irrotationality
avx_ avR = O ~ a(vor) _! avr = 0
aR ax T ar T a8
(5) Laplace and Equivalent
aztfo atfo aztfo 1 a(.· 8 atfo)
a;.a(aatfo)
1
ax2 +RaR+ aR 2 = 0 T • ar + sin 8 a8 SID a8 = O
aa"' 1 a"' as "'

aR -RaR+
2 axs = O ,s. a8 (-1-
!. _! a"')+-1-
sin 8. a8
as"'= 0
sin 8 ars
(6) Uniform flow at an angle ex to x-axis
tfo = Ux } (ex = O) tfo = Urcos (8-ex)
1/J = !UR2 1/J = !UrSsin2 (8 -ex)
(7) Source (strength Q = 4mn)
m
tP = --T
mx
1/J = -mcos8
1/1 = - v(Ra+xz)
(8) Doublet (strength p.)
tfo- /LX
- (R2+x2)312
p.RZ 1/1 = _p.sin 2 8
1/1 = - (R2+x2)3/2 r
(9) Line source (strength per unit length is q = 47rm')
1/J = -m'(r-r1)
291
INDEX
Acceleration, convective, 14, 36 Complex variable, 131

equations, 35 velocity, 149
local, 36 Conjugate of a complex number, 140
Aerofoil, flow past an, 174, 270 Connected region, 47
lift of an infinite, 177 Continuity equation, 6, 231-3
Analytic function, 144 Convective acceleration, 14, 71
Angle of attack, 174, 175 Coriolus forces, 256
Aperture, flow through an, 161 Corner, two-dimensional flow at a, 20,
Arc, flow past a circular, 172 143-50, 159-60
Argand diagram, 136 Couette flows, plane, 61
Argument, 137 Creeping motions, 61, 97
Artesian well, flow to, 86 Curved path, flow in a, 33, 78
Axisymmetric flow, 11, 231 Cylinder, flow past a, 30, 120, 122, 163
near a wall, 132
Bernoulliequation,37,39, 74 translation in an infinite fluid, 121
Betz, A., 96, 98 with circulation, flow past a, 122,
Birkhoff, G., 227 164, 284
Blasius, 66 Cylindrical co-ordinates, 231
theorem of, 281
Bluff body, separation behind, 73, 222 Displacement thickness, 66
Body force, 5, 36 Divergent channels, flow in, 61, 72
Borda's mouthpiece, two-dimensional, Doublet, two-dimensional, 110, 157
220 and uniform flow, 120
Boundary conditions, 8, 50, 88 vortex, and uniform flow, 122
Boundary layer, 63 three-dimensional, 242
equations, Prandtl's, 63 and uniform flow, 246
separation, 71 Drag, form, 78
thickness, definitions of, 66
Casagrande, A., 98 Electrical analogy, 96

Cauchy-Riemann equations, 147, 279 Ellipse, flow past an, 169
Cauchy's integral theorem, 278, 283 Energy equation for non-viscous fluids,
Channel, flow into a rectangular, 162, 46
206 Energy, kinetic, 41, 46-7
flow out of the end of a, 200-1 Equipotential lines, 26
flow out of the side of a, 202 Euler's equations of motion, 34
Circle, transformations of the, 164 Experimental analogies, 92
Circular arc, flow past a, 172 Exponential functions, 286
Circulation, 108, 257, 262
Circulation theory of lift, 178 Ferris, J. G., 98
Coefficient of lift, 125, 181 Flat plate in two-dimensional flow
Conformal transformation, conformal normal to the stream, without separ-
mapping, 142, 143, 148 ation, 30, 167, 204
Complex number, 136 normal to the stream, with separa-
operator, 147 tion, 222
potential, 147 parallel to the stream, 64, 167
293
INDEX
Flow net, principle of the, 32 Kutta, W. M., 125, 179, 183, 285
graphical construction of, 77
examples of, 78-86 Lamb, H. Sir, 50, 132, 184, 226, 253
Fluid, ideal, 4 Laminar boundary layer, 65
Newtonian, 3 Laminar flow, 55
real, 55 Laminar sub-layer, 65, 68
Forced vortex, 106 Laplace equation, 23, 77, 87, 144, 147,
Form drag, 78 238, 239, 251
Free streamline, 190 Lift, 123, 125, 177,281
theory, 208 circulation theory of, 179
Free vortex, 33, 78, 106 coefficient of, 125, 181
Function of a complex variable, 141, of an infinite aerofoil, 177-82
144 Liquid, 3
Line integral, 109, 276
Glauert, H., 184 Line, semi-infinite, 192
Goldstein, S., 76 Line source, three-dimensional, 243
Graphical addition of flow patterns, 113 Lubrication in a bearing, 62
Graphical construction of flow nets, 77
Gravity flows, free surface, 45 Magnus effect, 125
Gravity force potential, 37, 256 McNown, J. S., 98, 227
Green's theorem, 47, 274 Membrane analogy, 92
Milne-Thomson, L. M., 50, 227, 253
Half-body, two-dimensional, 118 Modulus, 137
three-dimensional, 244 Multiply-connected region, 47, 279,
Half-plane, 191-2 280
Hele-Shaw flow, 62, 97
Hubbard, P. G., 98 Natural co-ordinates, 28
Hydrodynamic equations, summary of, Navier-Stokes equations, 59
289 exact solutions of the, 60, 94
Hyperbolic functions, 286 approximate solutions of the, 61-2
Nod.e, 89
Image, 165 Normal stress, in non-viscous flow, 5
Images, method of, 128, 183 in viscous flow, 56
Inertial forces, 55 Nozzle, flow through at wo-dimensional,
Inverse point, 165 217
Inverse transformation, 152 Numerical analysis, two-dimensional,
Irrota tiona! flow, 17 86
theorems, 49, 178 three-dimensional axisymmetric, 251
Isovel, 94
One-dimensional analysis, 1
Jacob, C. E., 98 Optical reflection, 165
Jets, 72, 74 Oseen, C. W., 62
Joukowski, N., 124, 178, 179, 182, 285
aerofoil, 179-82 Parallel flows, 59
and Kutta, law of, 125, 179 Parallel plates, viscous flow between, 4,
hypothesis of, 177 61
profile, 171 Pathline, 16
Percolation, 81, 130
Karmfm-Prandtl equations, 70 confined flow, 82
Karman-Trefftz transformation, 177 through an isotropic material, 84-5
Karman vortex street, 267 unconfined, 82
Kelvin; circulation theorem of, 178 262 under a daxh, 83
Kinetic energy, 41, 46-7 Phreatic line, 86
294
INDEX
Piezometric head, 44, 80 Source--continued

Poisson equation, 94 three dimensional, 241
Polar co-ordinates, 28, 232 and sink combination, 242
Polygon, simple, closed, 190 and uniform flow, 244
Pope, A., 184 line-sink and uniform flow, 251
Prandd, L., 62, 70, 76 sink and uniform flow, 249
Pressure at a point, ideal fluid, 4 Southwell, R.V. Sir, 98
real fluid, 57 Sphere, viscous flow past a, 62
Pressure distribution in non-viscous non-viscous flow past a, 246
flow, 41 translation in an infinite fluid, 247
in a contraction, 43 Spiral vortex, 117, 157
in flow past a circular cylinder, 43 Stagnation point, 14
Pressure gradient, adverse, 71 pressure, 42
Standard patterns of flow
Ramsey, A. S., 227
two-dimensional, 102
Rankine body, two-dimensional, 126
three-dimensional, 239
three-dimensional, 249
Starting vortex, 178
Rectangular channel, flow into a, 162,
Steady flow, 15, 36
flow out of the end of, 201-2
Stokes's solution, flow past a sphere,
flow out of the side of, 202
62
Relaxation, 90, 251
stream function, 234
Reynolds number, 56, 61, 66
theorem, 274, 276, 278
Richardson, E. G., 76
Streaklines, 16
Rotation, 18, 278
Stream function, physical significance
Rotational flow, 17 of, 22,235 '
Rough wall turbulent flow, 69
Stokes's, 234
Rouse, H., 50, 75, 80, 98, 132
for two-dimensional flow, 20
Saturation, line of, 86 for three-dimensional axisymmetric
Schwarz-Christoffel theorem, 192-5, flow, 234
186 Streamline, 11
examples of application of, 195-226 Streamlined body, flow past a, 251
Schlichting, H., 63, 75 Streamlining, 72, 73
Seepage (see also Percolation), 81 Stream surface, 12
Separation, 14, 71-3 Stream tube, 12
Shearstre~,4,55,58 Streeter, V. L., 50, 132, 184, 226, 253
Shear velocity, 69 Strip, infinite, 191, 195, 198
Sign conventions for rfs and tft, 21, 27 semi-infinite, 191, 196
Simply connected region, 47, 279 Strut, flow past a streamlined, 171
Singular points, singularities, 7, 90, 144, Surface force, 5, 55
145, 149, 183 Surface resistance, 72
Sink, two-dimensional, 104, 106
three-dimensional, 241 Three-dimensional flow patterns, 231,
Skin friction drag, 72 239
Slot, flow through a plane, 211 Transformations, conformal, 142-3,
flow through a 90°, 214 148
Source, two-dimensional, 104, 155 inverse, 152
and sink combination, 114, 115, of the circle, 164
159 some simple, 153
and uniform flow, 118 successive, 152
and vortex, 117 Transmi~ion constant, 82, 85
between parallel planes, 130, 183 Trigonometric functions, 286
near a boundary, 128, 183 Turbulent boundary layer, 66
sink and uniform flow, 126 Turbulent flow, 55, 63
295
INDEX
Two-dimensional flow patterns, 13 Vortex, irrotational or free, 106, 157

line, 259
motion, 256-273
Uniform flow, 36 pair, 115, 267
two-dimensional, 103, 154 rotational or forced, 106
three-dimensional axisymmetric, 239 sheet, 204, 271,272
Unsteady flow, 15 spiral, 117, 157
Unsteady pattern, conversion to steady, starting, 178
15 street, 267
Uplift pressure, 84 strength, 107,260
tube,260
Wall angle, flow at a, 20, 143-50, 160
Velocity distribution, 2, 41 Well near a boundary, 130
in the boundary layer, 68 Weir, flow over a sharp-crested, 46
Velocity gradient and shear stress, 3, 4, Wing, finite, 270
57 two-dimensional, 174-83
Velocity potential function, 25, 238
Virtual mass, 121, 248 Yih, C. S., 98, 227
Viscosity, 1, 55
coefficient of, 3 Zarantonello, E., 227
296

H. R. Vallentine (Auth.) - Applied Hydrodynamics-Springer US (1967) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

H. R. Vallentine (Auth.) - Applied Hydrodynamics-Springer US (1967) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

APPLIED HYDRODYNAMICS

Professor of Civil Engineering

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

First Edition, 1959

Library ofCongress Catalog Gard number 67-29085

The continuing demand for this book by students of Engineering,

alternative methods of approach; the inclusion of the useful yet

flow-flow past a cylinder with circulation; Magnus effect;

5. CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-I 136

6. CoNFORMAL TRANSFORMATION-I! }89

7. THREE-DIMENSIONAL IRROTATIONAL FLOW . 231

8. VoRTEX MoTio::>~ . 256

APPENDIX A The Theorems of Green, Stokes, Cauchy and

slip tangentially, without resistance, along those boundaries. The

possesses, and some familiarity with modern developments in the

under many conditions, it is convenient and reasonable to regard

pressure, velocity and acceleration, if they vary with position, are

Figure !.~Forces acting on an element of fluid in

concerned. A surface force is an internal force with a magnitude

element and its acceleration, ax, in the x-direction, in accordance

1.4 Equation of continuity

- [o(pu) + o(pv) + o(pw)] 3x3y3z

which must equal the time rate of increase in mass :t (p3x3ydz) or

which is the Equation of Continuity. It is applicable throughout all

Figure 1.4-Equation of Continuity. Mass flows in the x-direction across

For incompressible fluids, with p constant, the Equation of

If the velocity component is constant in one direction say, the

One-dimensional considerations lead to the simpler form of the

Figure 1.5-Equation of Continuity. Mass flows across the faces of

The analysis consists of the application of the principles of fluid

particle's velocity components, u, v and w, and the normal drawn into

It is evident that fluid particles on a stationary or moving boundary

where u, v and ware the velocity components of the particle.

Solution.-The equation of the moving profile is y=k(x-Ut) 112 or

In addition to the above kinematical condition for solid boundaries,

P(x,y) is tangential to the velocity vector Vat P. If u and v are the

Figure 1.8-Definition of streamlines

For three-dimensional flow, the corresponding relationship is

It is evident that no flow occurs across a streamline. A surface

1.7 Two-dimensional flow patterns

By measurement of streamline spacings normal to the direction of

Figure 1.10-Effects of abrupt changes in boundary alignment on the

(2) The streamline spacing varies inversely as the velocity, so

(5) In steady flow, the configuration of the pattern of streamlines

However, in unsteady flow patterns, such as the instantaneous

and 1.12). Analytical and graphical methods of combining flow

Figure 1.13--Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines

positions of a succession of particles which have issued from the one

of smoke, at time tl> and a short interval later, at time t 2 • A varying

the irrotational forms of ideal fluid flow have their approximate

The average of the angular velocities of these two line elements is

'= axov- auay

Figure 1.15-Definition of rotation

The condition for two-dimensional flow to be irrotational is that

and the condition for irrotationality in three-dimensional flow is

There may be isolated points or lines in an otherwise irrotational

w -I (ou ow) i(yt- yt) - 0

1.9 StreaJD functions

If a is unity, the velocity components, u and v, and total velocity V,

If these values of u and v be substituted in the streamline equation

d!fo = oifl dx+ oifl dy = o

a constant, different constants defining different streamlines. This

Hence the flow rate between any pair of streamlines in two-dimen-