Bridge Structures

ISSN: 1573-2487 (Print) 1744-8999 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nbst20

A general method for nonlinear analysis of bridge

structures

Marcello Arici & Michele Fabio Granata

To cite this article: Marcello Arici & Michele Fabio Granata (2005) A general method
for nonlinear analysis of bridge structures, Bridge Structures, 1:3, 223-244, DOI:
10.1080/15732480500278236

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15732480500278236

Published online: 16 Feb 2007.

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 Bridge Structures, Vol. 1, No. 3, September 2005, 223 – 244

A general method for nonlinear analysis of bridge structures

MARCELLO ARICI* and MICHELE FABIO GRANATA

Università degli Studi di Palermo, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica,

Viale delle Scienze – Palermo, Italy

Modern bridge structures which are built by assembling slender arches, three-dimensional
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thin straight or curved members, and cable structures are often too deformable to be
treated with the first-order elastic theory. The analysis of such structures requires the
employment of large displacement theory. Additionally, a post-elastic nonlinear analysis
is required to control and evaluate damage without collapse in the seismic design
philosophies for bridge structures. Hence, it is essential to develop an effective procedure
that considers both geometric and material nonlinearities for the three-dimensional
analysis of bridges structural members.
A general procedure for the analysis of linear and nonlinear behaviours of curved
structures using the transfer matrix method (TMM) is presented. The procedure is a
TMM extension to geometric and material nonlinear formulations, with large
displacements, small deformations and localized plastic hinges. Some applications are
presented for the nonlinear analysis of slender arch-bridge structures.

Keywords: Transfer matrices; Large displacements; Arch; Bridge; Nonlinearity

in tensile structures, are too deformable to be treated with

1. Introduction
Arch and curved beam members frequently occur in highway
structures, particularly in arch bridges and in multilevel
interchanges on urban freeways. The analysis of such
structures has typically been carried out by modelling the
curved members as a sequence of short straight segments.
Since this approach utilizes three-dimensional beam frame
elements, which are commonly available in analysis computer
codes, it has widely been utilized among bridge designers.
Nevertheless, the errors in the approximations due to the
stress resultants evaluation obtained by means of straight
member idealisation can be substantial, even for a refined
mesh (Palaninathan and Chandrasekharan 1985, Tabarrok
et al. 1998). On the other hand, a post-elastic nonlinear
analysis is often required in seismic design of bridges to assess
inelastic structural behaviour under seismic loads.
Additionally, modern arch structures, especially those
made of steel or aluminium with slender sections, or cables
the first-order elastic theory. It is necessary to perform the
analysis using the large displacement theory.
During the last decade, practical static and dynamic
nonlinear analysis of structures has progressed, due to the
intensive use of computers and finite element models. The
possibility to utilize nonlinear geometric and material three-
dimensional elements can be very useful to allow general
nonlinear analysis for curved structures. From this point of
view the introduction of three-dimensional curved bar ele-
ments is important for applications to nonlinear analysis of
arch bridges or to curved members of other kind of structures.
The transfer matrix method, introduced in the field of
elasto-static and dynamic analysis (Pestel and Leckie 1963,
Becker et al. 2002), has already been extended to the field
of large displacement nonlinear analysis (Yoshida and
Imoto 1973, Fujii and Gong 1988). The method can be
very useful for simply connected structures, where a
section divides the structure into two independent parts.

*Corresponding author. Email: arici@diseg.unipa.it

Bridge Structures
ISSN 1573-2487 print/ISSN 1744-8999 online ª 2005 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/15732480500278236
 224 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

This kind of chain structures is typical of bridges.
A versatile procedure for curved structures is presented
herein for large displacement analysis with small strains
and inelastic material. It is an extension of an elastic
structural analysis, developed essentially as a mixed
method by using transfer matrices in the field of linear
analysis. The procedure for three-dimensional structures
leads to a nonlinear system of equations of sixth order
which does not depend on the number of elements. The
solution of the system is obtained by means of an iterative
modified Newton method.
2. Governing equations of the elasto-static problem
in small displacement field
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m(s) = (m1, m2, m3)T which can be assembled in the general-
ized external force vector fe(s). Then:
uðsÞ ¼ ðvT ; jT ÞT ; fe ðsÞ ¼ ðpT ; mT ÞT ð1a;bÞ
Let e(s) = (e1,e2,e3)T and k(s) = (k1,k2,k3)T denote the strain
and curvature sub-vectors, respectively. These can be
assembled in the generalized strain vector q(s). In the same
way the stress resultant vector Q(s) has six components, the
first three assembled in the sub-vector T(s) = (T1,T2,T3)T
and the last three in the sub-vector M(s) = (M1,M2,M3)T.
Then:
qðsÞ ¼ ðeT ; kT ÞT ; QðsÞ ¼ ðTT ; MT ÞT ð2a;bÞ
The total strain vector (2a) can be divided into two parts,
considering the elastic strain vector qi and, when applied,

With reference to a space curved bar (total axial length L), the external inelastic imposed strain vector qe (i.e. thermal
having low initial curvature and consisting of homogeneous strains):
isotropic material that displays linearly elastic behaviour, let
s be the curvilinear coordinate joining the centroids of the q ¼ qi þ qe ð3Þ
cross-sections, with respect to a fixed origin s = 0. Consider
Let f(s) be the non-singular and symmetric flexibility
a local coordinate system (figure 1) formed by the Frenet
matrix of the elastic bar, inverse of the stiffness matrix E:
unit vectors n(s) = i1, b(s) = i2, t(s) = i3; the normal,
binormal and tangent of the bar axis, respectively. The 2 3
principal axes of inertia of the cross section are assumed to w1 w12 xC
2
6 0 0 0 7
coincide with i1 and i2, and the warping of the cross-section 6 GA GA GJ 7
6w w2 C 7
x1 7
due to torsion can be neglected. The configuration of the 6 12
6 0 0 0 7
deformed bar is fully described by the generalized displace- 6 GA GA GJ 7
6 1 7
ment vector u(s); having six components. The first three are 6 0 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
written together in the sub-vector displacement v(s) = fðsÞ ¼ E ðsÞ ¼ 6

1
6
EA 7 ð4Þ
7
6 0 1
(v1,v2,v3)T; and the last are written in the sub-vector 6 0 0 0 0 7
7
6 EJ1 7
rotation j(s) = (j1, j2, j3)T. The bar is subjected to 6
6 0 1 7
6 0 0 0 0 7
7
applied distributed loads p(s) = (p1, p2, p3)T and moments 6 C EJ2 7
4x xC 1 5
2 1
0 0 0
GJ GJ GJ

where w1, w2, w12 are the shear factors, x1C, x2C are the shear
centre coordinates with respect to the centroid of the cross
section; G and E are the shear modulus and Young’s
modulus, respectively; while A is the cross-section area, Ji
(for i = 1, 2) are the principal inertia moments and J is the
torsional constant. If the cross section has one axis of
symmetry, w12 = 0 and one of the distances xiC between
shear centre and the centroid has zero value. When the cross
section has two axes of symmetry, the shear centre coincides
with the centroid and the flexibility matrix becomes a
diagonal one. In the general case, for compact sections
the terms of the flexibility matrix outside the principal
diagonal which are different from zero are usually much
smaller than the diagonal ones, so they can be neglected for
practical applications.
The elastic constitutive equations can be written as
follows:

Figure 1. Three-dimensional curved bar. qi ¼ E
1 Q ð5Þ

 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 225

The principle of stationary total potential energy, assuming The variational problem (6) can now be written in the new
d u(0) = d u(L) = 0, can be written as: canonical form (Lanczos 1964):
Z L
Z L d ðQT u0
HÞds ¼ 0 ð12Þ
dPp ¼ d Wds ¼ 0 ð6Þ 0
0
The corresponding system of the Euler – Lagrange
1 equation is now:
W ¼ qTi Eqi
feT u ð7Þ
2
W is the total potential energy density, a function of d @W @W @W @H

¼
¼
u0 þ ¼ 0;
arbitrary but suitable displacements and strains observing ds @Q0 @Q @Q @Q
the following field compatibility equation: ð13a;bÞ
d @W @W dQ @H

¼ þ ¼0
u0 ¼
Bu þ qi þ qe ð8Þ ds @u0 @u ds @u

This system is a canonical Hamiltonian system of 12

The symbol ( )0 represents the derivative with respect to the
differential equations governing the static behaviour. The
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curvilinear coordinate and the matrix B is a square matrix

Hamiltonian function can be written in an explicit form
representing the gradient matrix of the displacements;
obtained from (11b), (7*) and (5):
namely:
2 3 Hðu; QÞ ¼ 1=2 QT E
1 Q
QT Bu þ feT u þ qTe Q ð14aÞ
B0 B1
B¼4 5 ð9Þ which can be reduced to the compact form:
0 B0
HðzÞ ¼ 1=2 zT Az þ deT z ð14bÞ
where
The square symmetric matrix A of order 12, and the vectors
2 3 2 3 z and de, are defined by:
0
t0 k0 0
1 0


B0 ¼
BT0 ¼ 4 t0 0 0 5; B1 ¼ 4 1 0 05 0
BT

k0 0 0 0 0 0 A¼ ; z ¼ ðuT ; QT ÞT ; de ¼ ð feT ; qTe ÞT

B E
1
ð10a;bÞ ð15a;b;cÞ

In equation (10); t0 and k0 are the initial tortuosity and the It is worth noting that substituting the Hamiltonian
initial curvature of the bar axis (Arici 1989). Introducing (8) function expressed in an explicit form (14a) into (12), the
into (7), one obtains the total potential energy density W, as function that should be stationary takes on the mixed form
a function of the vectors u, u0 and of the vectors of the of the Hellinger – Reissner principle (Pian et al. 1983,
external actions fe and qe: Corradi Dell’Acqua 1992). The Euler – Lagrange system
(13) can be rewritten in the form:
Wðu; u0 ; sÞ ¼ 1=2ðu0 þ Bu
qe ÞT Eðu0 þ Bu
qe Þ
feT uð7 Þ
@H @H
u0 ¼ ¼
Bu þ E
1 Q þ qe ; Q0 ¼
¼ BT Q
fe
In the total potential energy principle for static problems @Q @u
the function W, written in the form displayed by Equation ð16a;bÞ
(7*), plays the same role as the Lagrangian function in the Expression (16a) shows the field compatibility equation,
Hamilton principle for dynamic problems. The variational also containing the constitutive equation; while (16b)
problem (6) can be transformed into a double set of displays the field equilibrium equation. In a more compact
first-order differential equations, by applying the Legendre form the system can be written:
transformation to the expression (7*). Assuming as active
variables of the transformation the components of the @H
z0 ¼ J or z0 ¼ JðAz þ de Þ ð16c;dÞ
vector u0 , and the new corresponding canonical variables @z
(momenta), @W/@u0 one obtains the dual Hamiltonian J is the skew symmetric symplectic operator, defined by:
function H of W. Considering (5) and (8), the new

corresponding canonical variables coincide with the com- 0 I
J¼ ð17Þ
ponents of the Q vector. It follows that:
I 0

When the Hamiltonian function does not explicitly depend

@W on the curvilinear coordinate, s, it proves to be invariant
Q ¼ 0 ; Hðu; QÞ ¼ QT u0
W ð11a;bÞ
@u and is a first integral of the canonical system.
 226 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

Finally, the complete system (16d) has the following

3. Integration of the equation system
solution obtained by using equations (22):
With reference to a three-dimensional slanting bar, having
 
   
constant tortuosity t0 and constant curvature k0, a solution uðsÞ YðsÞ DðsÞ uð0Þ Nu ðsÞ
zðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ
of the system (16d) is sought. First, consider the reduced QðsÞ 0 YT ð
sÞ Qð0Þ NQ ðsÞ
system (16a) that can be solved knowing the fundamental ð23Þ
matrix Y(s) = exp(7Bs) of the system. The solution takes
the form: Z where:
s Z s

1
1
uðsÞ ¼ YðsÞuð0Þ þ YðsÞ Y ðZÞE QðZÞdZ DðsÞ ¼ Yðs
ZÞE
1 YT ð
ZÞdZ ð24Þ
Z s o
0
þ YðsÞ Y
1 ðZÞqe ðZÞdZ ð18Þ Z s Z s
o
Nu ðsÞ ¼ Yðs
ZÞqe ðZÞdZ
Dðs
ZÞfe ðZÞdZ ð25aÞ
The first term on the right-hand side represents the 0
Z s 0

homogeneous solution of the system (16a), while the second NQ ðsÞ ¼
YT ðZ
sÞfe ðZÞdZ ð25bÞ
and third terms are particular solutions with zero initial 0
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conditions.
The homogeneous solution, which is obtained by setting Equation (23) shows that the matrix:
the total strain vector q(s) = 0, represents the set of

YðsÞ DðsÞ
functions that describe the rigid body displacements of CðsÞ ¼ ð26Þ
0 YT ð
sÞ
the element.
Hence the fundamental matrix can be directly obtained is therefore the field transfer matrix of the complete system
by writing the rigid displacement components of the bar (16d). When the bar has constant geometric and elastic
in the section having curvilinear coordinate s as a function properties, the matrix A considered in (15a) has constant
of the displacement components at the initial section. Then terms; therefore the matrix C equals the matrix exponential
the fundamental matrix takes the following form: function exp(JAs) and then C71(s) = C(7s). The influence

 of the external actions on the state vector z(s) is represented
Y0 Y 1 by the vectors Nu and NQ. A similar expression for the state
YðsÞ ¼ ; Yð0Þ ¼ I ð19a;bÞ
0 Y0
vector z(s) has been developed for plane arches in finite
displacement field (Fujii and Gong 1988). Equations
and can be assumed as the transfer matrix of the system
(22a,b) clearly show that the displacement u(s) in the
(Pipes and Hovanessian 1969). In (19a) Y0 is the matrix
generic section is the sum of one part due to the rigid body
that multiplied for initial values of displacements in 0, gives
motions and a second part due to elastic and imposed
rigid displacements in s while Y1 is the matrix that
deformations, while the vector Q(s) is obtained from the
multiplied for initial values of rotations in 0 gives rigid
equilibrium condition on the undeformed initial reference
displacements in s. The matrices Y0 and Y1 are given in
configuration.
Appendix A. The solution of the system (16b) can be
obtained directly because its homogeneous system is the For practical applications, in Appendix A the matrices
adjoint system of the homogeneous one corresponding to Y(s) and D(s) are given for a three-dimensional plane
(16a); hence its transfer matrix is YT(7s). Then: circular bar with constant cross sections. The same matrices
Z s are also derived for the three-dimensional rectilinear beam.
QðsÞ ¼ YT ð
sÞQð0Þ
YT ð
sÞ Y
T ð
ZÞfe ðZÞdZ ð20Þ In the case of plane bars loaded in the plane (plane
0
arches) the active degrees of freedom and the internal forces
Since the gradient matrix B does not depend on terms are only the six odd components of the state vector z;
the curvilinear coordinate s, the transfer matrix, Y(s), has while in the case of bars loaded perpendicularly to the plane
the following properties: (plane curved beams), they are the six even components.
Yðs
ZÞ ¼ YðsÞYð
ZÞ; Y
1 ðsÞ ¼ Yð
sÞ ð21a;bÞ The element transfer matrices and the state vector for
both the two-dimensional problems can be obtained by
Hence solutions (18) and (20) can be written more simply as: deleting the even or the odd rows and columns from the
Z s
general ones.
uðsÞ ¼ YðsÞuð0Þ þ Yðs
ZÞE
1 QðZÞdZ Through this approach it is also possible to obtain the
Z s 0
stiffness matrix of a three-dimensional curved bar for a
þ Yðs
ZÞqe ðZÞdZ ð22aÞ
0 Z s more traditional analysis. In Appendix B the stiffness
QðsÞ ¼ YT ð
sÞQð0Þ
YT ðZ
sÞfe ðZÞdZ ð22bÞ matrix is obtained for a bar having constant cross section
0 and constant initial curvature.
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges
4. Elastic analysis of complex structures
When a curved bar (total axial length L) is made up of
several elements of length li, having different but constant
geometric and elastic properties, the structure can be
divided into elements. For each element it is possible, with
equation (23), to express the state vector zi(s) in the generic
section (s coordinate) referred to the vector zi(0) in the
initial section of the element (figure 2).
Additionally, when a node I, between the elements 5i4
and 5i+14, presents imposed discontinuities DuI in the
geometric axis or applied concentrated forces DQI these can
be taken into account by considering the compatibility and
equilibrium of the actions on the left and right of the node.
One must have:
 
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DuI
ziþ1 ð0Þ ¼ zi ðli Þ þ DzI ; DzI ¼ ð27a;bÞ
DQI
which is also valid when DzI = 0. Internal releases or
additional supports in the nodes could also be considered.
An internal release located in an internal node I generates,
in that node, an unknown kinematical discontinuity DuI, j
( j = 1 to 6) and imposes a null value for the dual
mechanical quantity (i.e. QI, j = 0). By contrast, an addi-
tional internal support, applied at the generic node I,
produces in that node an unknown mechanical disconti-
nuity DQI, j ( j = 1 to 6) but imposes a null value for the
dual kinematical quantity (i.e. uI, j = 0). Hence it is possible
to consider these two cases in the structure simply by
considering in Equations (27) a suitable vector zi(li), having
a null jth component (in the Qi(li) subvector or alternatively
in the ui(li) subvector), and a suitable vector of disconti-
nuities DzI , having an unknown jth component (in the DuI
subvector or alternatively in the DQI subvector) together
with null values for all the other components.
To compact the expressions (23), it would be convenient
to add a unit component to the state vector zi(s), one row
and one column to the transfer matrices, taking their
dimension to 12 + 1. It is thus possible, by means of
Figure 2. Curved bar with several elements.
227
equation (23), to define the new expanded state vector Si(s)
and the relation:
Si ðsÞ ¼ Fi ðsÞSi ð0Þ ð28Þ
By introducing the new expanded field transfer matrix Fi
for the element 5i4, where:
2 3

 Yi ðsÞ Di ðsÞ Nui ðsÞ
z ðsÞ 6 7
Si ðsÞ ¼ i ; Fi ðsÞ ¼ 4 0 YTi ð
sÞ NQi ðsÞ 5
1
0T 0T 1
ð29a;bÞ
it is also convenient to introduce the nodal point matrix PI
for the imposed discontinuities in the node I:
2 3
I 0 DuI
PI ¼ 4 0 I DQI 5
ð29cÞ
0T 0T 1
Moreover, when an internal release is present at the node I,
the vector DuI, contains an unknown quantity DuI,j in one
of its six components and null values in the all other
components. Furthermore the nodal point matrix PI,
instead of the unit matrix I in the second block, has a
matrix containing a null value in the corresponding one of
the six terms of the diagonal and a value of 1 in the all other
terms. Now, node 0 is assumed to be at the left end of the
structure. Considering the first element and the initial
boundary conditions, it is possible to define the state vector
S1(0) of the section s = 0; this vector will have 6 + 1 known
components and 6 unknown components. In the element
5i4, the state vector Si(s) can be expressed by the
recursive formula:
Si ðsÞ ¼ Fi ðsÞ  PI
1  Fi
1 ðli
1 Þ  ::::::::::  P1  F1 ðl1 Þ  S1 ð0Þ
ð30Þ
Proceeding up to the final right node, N, and imposing the
six boundary conditions at the right end, the linear system
of equations on the six unknown quantities is finally
obtained:
Sn ðln Þ ¼ Fn ðln Þ  PN
1  Fn
1 ðln
1 Þ  PI  Fi ðli Þ::::::::::
ð31Þ
P1  F1 ðl1 Þ  S1 ð0Þ
Once the linear system is solved, the vector S1(0) is
completely known and by means of equation (30) it is
possible to calculate the state vector in each element, i.e. the
vectors ui(s) and Qi(s) for the entire structure. Any kind of
space curved bar can be subdivided into an appropriate
number of small cylindrical helix elements having constant
parameters, or more simply into three-dimensional small
plane circular bar elements, where Ri is the radius of the
initial curvature evaluated in the mid-section of the element
and suitable matrices PI. With the procedure outlined in
 228 M. Arici and M. F. Granata
Appendix B, it is also possible to obtain the stiffness matrix
for a bar having variable cross sections and/or variable
curvatures. In this case, after subdividing the structure into
small elements with constant radii, one must consider the
complete transfer matrix for the entire structure and extract
its sub-matrices. With reference to equations (51) and (52) in
Appendix B, using the sub-matrix [1,1] of the complete
transfer matrix instead of the matrix Y(l ), the sub-matrix
[2,2] instead of the matrix YT(7l ) and the sub-matrix [1,2]
instead of the matrix D(l ), one obtains the stiffness matrix K
for any kind of bar.
5. Extension to finite displacements
Assume the following hypotheses:
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(a) the constitutive laws are linearly elastic;
(b) the displacements and rotations of the sections can be
large;
(c) the deformations must be very small; so that they can
be approximated with the elastic ones, even if the
displacements are large.
These assumptions are verified when the length of each
element is small. Thus, every structure must be divided into
a suitable number of elements that are short enough to
consider linear elastic strains instead of the nonlinear
strains. Under these hypotheses, it is possible to extend the
procedure exposed in the previous section for small
displacements to nonlinear geometric problems with finite
displacements. The total Lagrangian formulation is con-
sidered for the solution of the boundary value problem in
the finite displacements field with small strains.
In this case, referring to equation (22a), the first term on
the right-hand side, which concerns rigid body displace-
ments, has to be modified through the introduction of a
matrix Yf (s) that can take into account the displacements
magnitude, rather than Y(s) which was defined only in
small displacement field. The matrix, Yf, can be directly
found through the relationship between the large rigid body
displacements of the generic section at s and the initial
displacement vector (for the section at s = 0). The
displacement magnitude, in fact, implies a change only in
the sub-matrix Y1(s) in equation (19a). This sub-matrix,
whose terms link the rigid body displacement components
in the section having coordinate s with the rotations of the
section in s = 0, must be substituted with the sub-matrix
Yf1(s) in which each term becomes a function of the
rotation components ji (0) (i = 1,2,3) in the initial section.
In the next subsection, the matrix Yf and the other changes
for the case of finite displacements are derived for a two-
dimensional circular plane arch. Additionally, the assumed
hypothesis of small deformations allows the approximation
of the real deformations with the elastic ones. Hence, the
second and the third term on the right-hand side of
equation (22a) only have to be modified to take into
account the initial rigid rotations, now no longer negligible.
Equation (22b) (equilibrium conditions) must also be
modified to take into account the rigid rotations of the
geometric axis on the components of the external and
internal force vectors. Modified expressions for (23), (24)
and (25) of the state vector, transfer matrix and load
vectors of each element for finite displacements must be
derived. In this way, the displacement vector u(s) takes into
account the large rigid body displacements, but also
considers the linear elastic deformation of the element
instead of the nonlinear one, that must be small under the
assumed hypotheses.
The vector Q(s) is obtained considering only the rigid
body configuration of the element neglecting the influence
of the deformations on the equilibrium. In order to reduce
the inaccuracies obtained in this way and to maintain
the small strain hypothesis, it is necessary to subdivide the
entire structure into much smaller elements. With these
changes in the matrix expressions, it is possible to apply
the procedure exposed in the previous section, obtaining
the six-order equation system (31), which becomes non-
linear when the displacements are large. The solution of the
system can be obtained by means of an iterative modified
Newton method.
5.1 Application of finite displacements procedure to
2D circular plane arch elements
In order to clarify the procedure using the finite displace-
ment, its application to the case of a two-dimensional
plane arch with constant cross section is shown. For a
two-dimensional circular plane arch element, with initial
curvature radius, R, the state vector is reduced to the six
odd components:
8 9 8 9
  < v1 ðsÞ = < TðsÞ =
uðsÞ
zðsÞ ¼ ; uðsÞ ¼ v3 ðsÞ ; QðsÞ ¼ NðsÞ
QðsÞ : ; : ;
j2 ðsÞ MðsÞ
ð32a;b;cÞ
The modified transfer matrix Yf (#) is now of order 3 and
considering the angular coordinate, # ¼ s=R, it can be
obtained directly considering rigid body motions of the
elements for finite displacements:
Yf ð#Þ¼
2
3
sin j2 ð0Þ ð1
cos j2 ð0ÞÞ
6 cos #
sin # R sin # j ð0Þ þ ð1
cos #Þ j2 ð0Þ 7
6
2
7
6 7
6 sin j2 ð0Þ ð1
cos j2 ð0ÞÞ 7
6 sin # cos # R ð1
cos #Þ
sin # 7
4 j2 ð0Þ j2 ð0Þ 5
0 0 1
ð33Þ
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges
The ratios sin j2(0)/j2(0) and (17cos j2(0))/j2(0) express
the influence of the large rotation component j2(0) on the
terms of the matrix without any limit about its amplitude.
In the case of small displacements, all the terms of the
matrix Yf become independent from j2(0), because the
ratios (since j2(0) ! 0) will simply be sin j2(0)/j2(0) = 1
and (17cos j2(0))/j2(0) = 0.
To derive the field matrix, Cf (y), for this case, it is
necessary to find the three-order matrices YT(7y) and
D(y). The first matrix can be obtained from equation (19a)
using the sub-matrices (38) and (41) in Appendix A. Trans-
posing the six-order matrix Y(y) and substituting y with
7y in the matrix, one obtains YT(7y). The matrix D(y) can
be obtained from equation (43) using (44), (45), (46) and (47).
Deleting the even rows and columns of the matrices
YT(7y) and D(y) and using the transformation matrix Tf,
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one can finally obtain the field matrix Cf (y) for finite
displacements:
" #
Yf ð#Þ TTf Dð#ÞTf
CfðyÞ ¼ ð34Þ
0 TTf YT ð
#ÞTf
In equation (34), Tf is given by:
2 3
cos j2 ð0Þ
sin j2 ð0Þ 0
Tf ¼ 4 sin j2 ð0Þ cos j2 ð0Þ 0 5 ð35Þ
0 0 1 PIY have the following expression:
For numerical analysis with large displacements of arches
it is convenient to express the state vector in each section
of the generic element (the displacement vector ui and the
internal force vector Qi) with reference to a fixed system
of rectangular Cartesian coordinates rather than to the
local system (i1(s), i2(s), i3(s)) depending on the coordinate
s. This can be done by using simple transformation
matrices.
6. Extension to material postelastic behaviour
It is possible to consider the material inelastic structural
behaviour introducing an elastic – plastic hinge (lumped
plasticity) analysis. Material inelasticity can be taken into
account using generalized concentrated ‘zero-length’ plastic
hinges in those critical sections where the material can
reach its plastic capacity. According to section 4, each of
these sections can be considered at a node I of the
subdivided structure into elements. When a section is fully
yielded, an internal release at that node is generated,
activating a plastic concentrated deformation vector DuI,
depending on only one unknown parameter lI 4 0. Thus,
when plasticity conditions depend on pure flexure due to
only one bending moment, an internal hinge is opened with
229
an unknown relative rotation about the barycentric neutral
axis. In this case, only one relative rotation Dj must be
calculated and only one moment is fixed at its ultimate
value. In the general case, when there is an interaction of
stress resultants, with Qp being the vector of ultimate stress
resultants values at each point of the yield surface
FI(Qp) = 0 (interaction domain), the internal generalized
release does not generate a simple relative rotation about
the barycentric axis of the section. In this case in fact, a
plastic concentrated deformation vector, DuI, is directed
along the external normal to the yield surface, FI(Qp) = 0,
at the point Qp on the surface, following the well known
rules for plastic flow of the plasticity theory (Martin 1975).
All kinematical components of DuI depend on the same free
parameter lI 4 0 and all the values for stress resultants
are fixed.
On the contrary, if the plastic generalized hinge is not
active at a section, the following values are realized;
FI(Qp) 5 0 and lI = 0. Thus, for each node in which a
generalized concentrated plastic hinge is active or not, it
must be lI  FI(Qp) = 0.
Maintaining all other elements of the structure in the
elastic range, equilibrium and compatibility equations at
yielded sections must be achieved on the base of the section
yield surfaces, introducing in the nodes special point
matrices PIY. Thus, in equation (29c), it must be assumed
that DuI ¼ lI @FI =@Qp , DQI = Qp, and substituting I with 0
matrix in the second block, the special nodal point matrices
2 3
@FI
lI
6 I 0
@Qp 7
6 7
6 7
PY
I ¼6 0 0 Qp 7 ð36Þ
6 7
4 5
0T 0T 1
where FI (Qp) = 0 is the yield surface equation of the
considered section, Qp is the vector of stress resultants
ultimate values, lI 4 0 (for FI (Qp) = 0) is the unknown
multiplier of the plastic deformations, and @FI/@Qp the
vector of the partial derivatives of the interaction function
with respect to ultimate stress resultants vector. The yield
surface equations for steel and concrete sections suitable for
the use in nonlinear analysis can be obtained from the
literature (Chen and Han 1995). Those equations can also
be derived using the elastic – perfectly plastic stress – strain
relationships. Generally, the influence of torsion and shear
stress resultants on the yield surface is not considered. It is
thus possible to use a suitable iterative procedure to take
into account the material inelastic behaviour, obtaining the
state vectors that observe both compatibility and equili-
brium conditions and the plastic conditions FI (Qp) = 0 in
the yielded sections.
 230 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

is pushed laterally in several load increments until failure is

7. Numerical applications
Four numerical examples are presented herein to validate
the analytical model described above. The examples cover a
wide range of applications.
reached.
The final purpose of such analysis is to determine the
displacement or ductility capacity of the structure under

Example 1: Inelastic analysis of a one-story portal frame.

A nonlinear static push-over analysis of a steel bridge bent
frame, consisting of a bent cap beam (I steel section) and two
columns fixed at the base, is considered. In recent years,
displacement-based design has been used in bridge seismic
design as a valid alternative approach to strength-based
design (Akkari and Duan 1999). The nonlinear static push-
over analysis is used to describe the lateral displacement
response when the structure, under tributary gravity loads, Figure 3. Portal frame, numerical example 1.
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Figure 4. Horizontal displacement diagram at node 2 for the seismic push-over analysis of a bridge bent frame.

Figure 5. Horizontal displacement diagram at node 2 for proportional loading.

 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 231

horizontal loads in comparison with the displacement or of the matrices and calculating the vectors Nu, NQ with
ductility demand obtained from linear dynamic analysis. equations (25a,b):
The selected bridge bent frame is a steel portal frame as
2 3
shown in figure 3. The proposed procedure is validated by s3 s2 s4
61 0 s
0 qw
comparing the response with the results reported in 6 6EJ2 2EJ2 24EJ2 7
7
(Nanakorn 2004), for the same portal frame. The idealized 6 s 7
60 1 0 0 0 0 7
bridge bent frame is analysed considering the material 6 EA 7
6 7
inelastic behaviour by an elastic-plastic hinge analysis, in 6 7
6 s2 s 3
s 7
60 0 1
0 qw 7
small displacement field, using 8 rectilinear elements 6 2EJ2 EJ2 6EJ2 7
6 7
(l = 500 cm) connected by N = 9 nodes. The yield surface Fb ðsÞ ¼ 6
60
7
6 0 0 1 0 0
qw s 77
F(MP, NP), which gives the interaction diagram between 6 7
ultimate moment and ultimate axial force for the I-steel 6 7
60 0 0 0 1 0 0 7
sections, is used. This diagram has been obtained as a 6 7
6 7
lozenge domain in the M0, N0 plane, neglecting the 6 2 7
60 0 0 0 0 1 qw s2 7
contribution of the web area of the section. The non- 6 7
4 5
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dimensional interaction equation is: F(MP, NP) = MP/

0 0 0 0 0 0 1
M0 + NP/N071 4 0.
For an I-beam with H = 100 cm and a steel strength of
Each rectilinear element of the columns has the same field
355 MPa, the ultimate flexural moment without axial load
transfer matrix Fc(s) except for the last matrix column. The
is M0 = +3696 kNm, and the ultimate axial load without
terms of this column are all equal to zero (qw = 0) except
flexural moment is N0 = +7670 kN. The value of the
for the last value.
total tributary superstructure dead load on the cap beam is
qwL = 2140 kN.
The expanded state vector of the generic element 5i4
for the case of plane frame loaded in plane has 6 + 1
components: Si = (u1, u3, j2, T, N, M, 1)T, where T is the
shear, N is the axial force, and M is the bending moment.
Each element of the cap beam under the vertical distributed
load (directed along i1) has the same field transfer matrix.
This matrix can be obtained from equation (29b), by means
of equations (48) – (50), deleting the even rows and columns Figure 6. Plane hinged circular arch, numerical example 2.

Figure 7. P–Dv diagram for circular arch.

 232 M. Arici and M. F. Granata
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Figure 8. P–j0 diagram for circular arch.

Figure 9. P–H diagram for circular arch.

The horizontal load Q applied on the top of the column

before node 2 gives the point matrix:
2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 7
60 1 0 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
60 0 1 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
Q 6 7
P2
¼ 60 0 0 1 0 0
Q 7
6 7
60 0 0 0 1 0 0 7
6 7
6 7
40 0 0 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Figure 10. Funicular rectilinear arch.
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 233

The variation of the structure line axis induces at the corner At node 0, the state vector S0 = (0, 0, 0, T(0), N(0),
sections of the frame (nodes 2 and 6) the point transforma- M(0), 1)T contains the three initial unknown quantities
tion matrices P2 = P6: T(0), N(0), M(0). The push-over analysis starts, considering
the lateral load with a value Q1 = m1 qw L, where m1 is a
2 3
cos 90
sin 90 0 0 0 0 0 non-proportional load multiplier. For this value, the elastic
6 sin 90 cos 90 0 0 0 0 07 state vector in the final node 8 is computed using the
6 7
6 0 0 1 0 0 0 07 general rule (31):
6 7
P2 ¼ P6 ¼ 6
6 0 0 0 cos 90
sin 90 0 077
6 0 0 0 sin 90 cos 90 0 07 S8 ¼ Fc ðl Þ Fc ðl Þ P6 Fb ðl Þ Fb ðl Þ Fb ðl Þ Fb ðl Þ
6 7
4 0 0 0 0 0 1 05
P2 PQ
2
Fc ðl Þ Fc ðl ÞS0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
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Figure 11. P–Dv diagram for rectilinear arch.

Figure 12. P–j0 diagram for rectilinear arch.

 234 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

The components of the state vector S8 contain the three
initial unknown quantities; hence the boundary value
problem can be solved by imposing the three assigned
boundary conditions at the right end of the structure. In
this way, the linear system is solved obtaining the three
initial unknown quantities of the state vector S0. Now, the
state vectors can be computed for all the nodes and along
the sections of the elements of the structure using equation
(30), and the actual values of displacements and stress
resultants at these sections can be obtained. To know if a
generalized hinge can be opened in any section of the
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structure, the value of the function FI(M, N) must be
computed, for each section or node, relative to the actual
values of M, N and verify if some of this values are greater
than 0. When all the values are negative it means that no
plastic hinges have been developed in the sections and the
response of the structure is still elastic. On the contrary, if
some of the F(M, N) values are positive some hinges can be
activated. In this case, sections with negative values will
be identified as the critical sections. The critical sections
must not be more than n, where n is the number of
redundancies. If these sections are localized in the already

Figure 13. P–H diagram for rectilinear arch.

Figure 14. P–Dv diagram for circular arch with shear deformation effects.
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 235

selected nodes, the special nodal point matrices, shown in
equation (36), have to be inserted at these nodes.
Conversely, if one of the possible yielded sections is along
an element subjected to distributed loads, a new node must
be introduced in that section and the previous element can
be subdivided in two different elements. When in a node I,
the section is yielded it must be: lI 5 0, FI(MI, NI) = 0. On
the contrary, if the hinge is still not active lI = 0 and
FI(MPI, NPI) 5 0.
To fulfil the plastic condition FI (MPI, NPI) = 0 at the
node, where FI (MI, NI) 4 0, one should consider, for the
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plastic flow rule (law of normality), a vector of relative
displacements, DuI = (0, Du3I = lI @FI/@NPI, Dj2I = lI
@FI/@MPI)T. An applied vector DQI = (0, NPI, MPI)T,
must also be considered and substitute, in the nodal point
matrix, 0 instead of 1 in those terms which multiply NI and
MI. The distance, yPI, between the plastic neutral axis of
the section and the centroid, when the ultimate values NPI
and MPI act on the section, can be expressed as:
@MPI @FI @FI
yPI ¼ ¼ : ; Du3I ¼ yPI Dj2I
@NPI @NPI @MPI

Figure 15. P–j0 diagram for circular arch with shear deformation effects.

Figure 16. P–H diagram for circular arch with shear deformation effects.
 236 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

Hence the special node point matrices to be applied at the resultants values MI(k), NI(k). Compute the values of
yielded nodes can be written in the form: FI(MI(k), NI(k)) at all the nodes.
2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Step (5) If some of the values FI(MI(k), NI(k)) 5 0 are
6 7 realized at any node, then close the hinge at that section
60 1 0 0 0 0 yPI Dj2I 7
6 7 assuming the special nodal point matrix coincident with
6 7
60 0 1 0 0 0 Dj2I 7 the identity matrix PIY(k)=I. Go to step 1 and repeat
6 7
Y 6 7 (k + 1) (k)
PI ¼ 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 7 the iterative procedure until MPI  MPI and
6 7 (k + 1) (k)
60 0 0 0 0 0 NPI 7 NPI  NPI .
6 7
6 7
60 0 0 0 0 0 MPI 7
4 5 Using this procedure, one can know the response of the
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 structure due to the applied load, Q1, with qw = 1.07 kNcm.
Increasing the load value, the structural response must be
To find the values of NPI, MPI and yPI at the yielded nodes, recomputed. The first hinge opens at node 6 for a value of
an iterative procedure is necessary. The kth iteration is the load multiplier m1 = 0.13. The second hinge opens at node 8
performed as follows:
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for a value of load multiplier m2 = 0.27, the third opens at

node 0 for m3 = 0.44. The last hinge is opened at node 3
Step (1) Let MI(k71) and NI(k71) be the actual values of
stress resultants computed at the previous iteration in each
node I. For those nodes in which FI(MI(k71), NI(k71)) 4 0
(k)
is found, assume NPI =NI(k71) and compute MPI(k)
from the
(k) (k)
condition FI (MPI , NPI ) = 0.

Step (2) For the selected nodes, compute the new values
(k)
of yPI from the condition


ðkÞ @FI @FI
yPI ¼ :
@NPI @MPI ðMðkÞ ; NðkÞ Þ
PI PI
Step (3) Assemble the special nodal point matrices PIY (k)
for the selected nodes.

Step (4) Solve the structure partially released with the

special nodal point matrices PIY (k) and find the stress
Figure 17. Curved circular bridge, numerical example 3.

Figure 18. Vertical displacement at mid-span section for horizontal circular beam (h/L = 0.25).
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 237
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Figure 19. Torsional rotation at mid-span section for horizontal circular beam (h/L = 0.25).

Figure 20. Bending moment at mid-span section for horizontal circular beam (h/L = 0.25).

under the collapse load multiplier m4 = 0.49. Figure 4
shows the diagram of dimensionless horizontal displace-
ment u2EJ2/M0L2 at node 2 as a function of the increasing
load multiplier m(Q = mqwL), until collapse. This diagram is
suitable to determine the displacement capacity of the
structure under horizontal loads in comparison with the
displacement demand obtained from linear dynamic analy-
sis of the frame.
To validate the results obtained with the proposed
procedure, another analysis was performed for the case
of proportional load Q = qwL, increasing the value of qw
and considering only pure flexure on the yielding
conditions neglecting the interaction with axial force. In
order to compare the results with those obtained by
(Nanakorn 2004), the analysis was performed neglecting
the axial flexibility of the elements. Figure 5 shows the
diagram of dimensionless horizontal displacement u2EJ2/
M0L2 at node 2 as a function of the increasing
dimensionless load qwL2/M0. The first hinge opens at
node 8 for a value of qwL2/M0 = 1.32. The second opens
at node 6 for a value of 1.54; the third opens at section 0
for a value of 1.63 and the last at node 3 for the collapse
value of 1.867, in agreement with values of (Nanakorn
2004).
 238 M. Arici and M. F. Granata
Example 2—Plane hinged arch subjected to centred vertical
force P (figure 6). The problem of the circular arch in the
context of large displacements was discussed by Huddleston
(1968). To compare the results, firstly shear deformations are
neglected and the following dimensionless parameters are
taken into account: h/L and C = J2/AL2 (the inverse of the
square of slenderness). As a function of the dimensionless load
parameter, PL2/EJ2, figure 7 shows the relationship with the
ratio, Dv/L (where Dv is the vertical displacement of the mid-
span section), figure 8 displays the relationship with initial
section rotation j0, whereas figure 9 depicts the relationship
with the dimensionless horizontal reaction H0L2/EJ2.
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Figure 21. Hinged parabolic arch with variable cross
section, numerical example 4.
Figure 22. Vertical deflection diagram D(y) for parabolic arch.
Only half a plane arch has been considered. The
numerical solution was performed solving the nonlinear
system of order three through an iterative, but non-
incremental method, assuming some initial attempt values
for the unknowns; j0, V0, H0 and imposing the following
nonlinear conditions (boundary conditions at the mid-span
section):
Dor ðL=2Þ ¼ f1 ðj0 ; V0 ; H0 Þ ¼ 0;
jðL=2Þ ¼ f2 ðj0 ; V0 ; H0 Þ ¼ 0;
VðL=2Þ
P=2 ¼ f3 ðj0 ; V0 ; H0 Þ ¼ 0:
The solution was obtained through a modified Newton
method (Ortega and Rheinboldt 1970). The calculations
were made considering the half-arch divided into 20 smaller
circular elements, giving the same results as given in
(Huddleston 1968). To overcome the problem of saddle
curves of the (P, Dv) diagram, it was necessary to impose
assigned values for Dv at the mid-span section and to
calculate the values V(L/2), rather than to impose values
for the load, P, because the iterative procedure converges
too slowly or does not converge. Another analysis was also
performed on a funicular arch with two rectilinear
elements. With the value h/L = 0 the case of an extensible
tie-rod was also considered, the same results being found as
for the circular arch with h/L = 0. The results coincide with
those obtained by Huddleston and Dowd (1979) for the
latter case. It is interesting to note that, for circular arches
with different values of the parameter C, the curves (PL2/
EJ2, Dv/L) intersect each other twice across the same points.
The same occurs for the curves (PL2/EJ2, j0) for the same
values of PL2/EJ2. This occurrence can also be observed for
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 239

rectilinear arches (figures 10–13). Since the horizontal
reactions H0L2/EJ2 are also equal for these load values,
arches with equal ratio h/L attain the same deformed
shapes. For this unexpected result no suitable explanation
has been reached. The computation was repeated taking the
shear deformation effects into account, and it was found
that these effects are considerable when the arch attains
very large displacements and when the horizontal reaction
diminishes (figures 14–16).
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Example 3—Curved horizontally circular beam subjected to
a concentrated vertical load. As a third example, a circular
bridge of radius R, as shown in figure 17, is considered
(Arici 1989). The bridge, whose length is gR, is simply
supported by cylindrical hinges having radial axes at the
two boundaries placed at a distance L. The bridge is
subjected to a concentrated vertical load acting at the
mid-span section.

Figure 23. Section rotation diagram j(y) for parabolic arch.

Figure 24. Bending moment diagram M(y) for parabolic arch.

 240 M. Arici and M. F. Granata
In the example, the width/length and width/radius ratios
are so small that the bridge can be considered as a circular
beam with small initial curvature. In this case, the state
vector is reduced to the six even components of the general
one. Neglecting shear deformation effects and introducing
the following dimensionless parameters: h/L and C = EJ1/
GJ, the diagrams of the ratio Dv/L, of the torsional rotation
j3 and of the dimensionless bending moment M1L/EJ1, all
computed at the mid-span section, as functions of the load
parameter PL2/EJ1, are shown in figures 18–20. It should
be noted that C = 1 corresponds to the case of box section
having torsional stiffness of the same value as the flexural
one, and C = 10 represents the case of a girder bridge with
a small torsional stiffness. For h/L = 0.25, the curves show
that the torsional stiffness strongly affects the buckling
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load, which is reduced by up to a factor of 4 for the girder
bridge case with respect to the box section bridge. On the
other hand, applying linear elastic analysis, for the
particular position of the restraints the stress resultants
are independent of the stiffness moduli, as was demon-
strated by (Arici 1989). This can be seen from the slopes of
the bending moment curves near the origin, figure 20,
which are the same for C = 1 and for C = 10. The bending
moment curves at the mid-span section show a particular
loop shape, as displayed in figure 20. Apparently, for
h/L = 0 the case of the straight bridge is found, while for
h/L = 1/2 the structure overturns.
Example 4—Hinged parabolic arch. To demonstrate the
suitability of the proposed method to consider the
variability of cross sections and of the curvature radius in
the small and large displacement fields, the hinged
parabolic arch solved in Benedetti and Tralli (1989) and
Haktanir (1994) was considered. Half of the arch shown in
figure 21 was subdivided into 10 arch (2-D) elements with
constant radius and constant cross section. A concentrated
load that is 100 times greater than those applied in
Benedetti and Tralli (1989) and Haktanir (1994) was
considered. The parabolic arch was solved in the linear
and nonlinear fields, assuming both the Bernoulli – Euler
and the Timoshenko hypothesis. The results for small
displacements agree perfectly with those of Haktanir
(1994), and are also in close conformity with the results
of Benedetti and Tralli (1989). Assuming the large
displacement hypothesis, no great differences are found
from the linear solution for the assumed load value.
Figures 22–24 show the vertical displacement, D(y); the
section rotation, j(y); and bending moment, M(y),
diagrams.
8. Conclusions
A procedure based on the transfer matrix method has
been developed in this paper. It allows the analysis of
one-dimensional elastic structures made of any kind of
space curved bar, including structures with variable cross
section and variable curvatures. The procedure works in
the small and large displacement fields; both in plane and
in space and for material inelastic analysis. The structure
must be subdivided into an appropriate number of
elements having constant mechanical and geometrical
properties. Each element can have axial, flexural, shear
and also De Saint Venant-type torsional flexibility. The
procedure is versatile and there are no differential
equations to be solved. For space curved structures with
finite displacements, only the solution of a nonlinear
equation system of the sixth order, which does not depend
on the number of elements, is needed. Additionally, there
are none of the pathologies exhibited by finite element
models for this kind of problems nor any kind of locking
phenomena.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the
Italian Ministry of Universities and Scientific Research
(M.I.U.R.) for this work.
List of symbols
A = cross-section area
A = symmetric matrix of quadratic form that gives the H
function
B; B0, B1 = displacements gradient matrix and its subma-
trices
C = dimensionless ratio
C(s) = transfer matrix of the complete system
Cf (s) = modified transfer matrix of the complete system
(finite displacement)
de(s) = generalized external actions vector
D(s); D0 . . . D3 = submatrix of C and its submatrices
E, G = Young and shear moduli
E(s) = stiffness matrix of the elastic element
fe(s) = external forces vector
Fi(s) = field transfer matrix for the element
h = rise of the arch
H0 = horizontal reaction of the arch
H = Hamiltonian function
i, I = index for the generic element and generic node of the
structure
i1, i2, i3 = local coordinate system unit vectors
I = identity matrix
J = torsional constant
J1, J2 = principal inertia moments
J = symplectic operator
k0 = initial curvature of the bar axis
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 241

k(s); k1, k2, k3 = subvector of curvature and its

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L = length of the bar 35, 1999 (CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL).
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and its components of helical compression springs. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2002, 44, 825 – 841.
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Fujii, F. and Gong, S.X. Field transfer matrix for nonlinear curved beams.
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components
PI(s) = nodal point matrix
PQ = nodal force vector
q(s); qe, qi = generalized strain vector, imposed and elastic
strain vectors
Q(s) = stress resultants vector
Qp = ultimate stress resultants values vector
s = curvilinear coordinate
Si(s) = generalized (expanded) state vector
T(s); T1, T2, T3 = internal forces subvector and its
components
Tr, Tf = transformation matrices
u(s) = generalized displacements vector
v(s); v1, v2, v3 = displacements subvector and its compo-
nents
V0 = vertical reaction of the arch
Y(s); Y0, Y1 = transfer matrix of the reduced system and its
submatrices
Yf (s), Yf1(s) = modified transfer matrix and submatrix for
finite displacements
W = potential energy density
w = nodal displacements vector
z(s) = state vector
DQI = mechanical discontinuities vector
DuI = kinematical discontinuities vector
Dv = vertical displacement of the mid-span section
Dzi = generalized discontinuities vector
e(s); e1, e2, e3 = strain subvector and its components
y = angular coordinate
lI = multiplier of the plastic deformations at node I
x1C, x2C = shear centre coordinates with respect to the
centroid
Pp = total potential energy
r = direction cosines matrix
t0 = initial tortuosity of the bar axis
j(s); j1, j2, j3 = rotations subvector and its components
f(s) = flexibility matrix of the elastic element
F(Qp) = 0 = yield surface (plastic conditions)
w1, w2, w12 = shear factors
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Appendix A
Three-dimensional circular plane bar
Derivation of the sub-matrices Y0 and Y1. For a circular
plane arch with radius R, length l = Rg, where g is the
angular coordinate of the extreme section, # ¼ s=R, the
sub-matrices, Y0 and Y1, can be obtained by imposing rigid
translations and rigid rotations on the initial section of the
bar.
Three rigid motions consisting of three translations of
the origin (s = 0) along the three local axes (i1, i2, i3):
v(0) = (v1(0), v2(0), v3(0))T, generate only the same
rigid translations (no rotations) of the generic section
(coordinate s, angular coordinate #). These translations,
 242 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

referred to the new local coordinate system, can be where

expressed as:
2 3
0 R sin # 0
Y1 ð#Þ ¼ 4
R sin # 0 Rð1
cos #Þ 5 ð41Þ
vð#Þ ¼ Y0 ð#Þvð0Þ ð37Þ
0 Rð1
cos #Þ 0
where The imposed rigid rotations also produce three rigid
2 3 rotations around the local axes of the generic section:
cos # 0
sin #
jð#Þ ¼ Y0 ð#Þjð0Þ ð42Þ
Y0 ð#Þ ¼ 4 0 1 0 5 ð38Þ
sin # 0 cos # where Y0(#) is the matrix given by equation (38).

The transfer matrix Y(#) can be obtained by assembling

Conversely, three small rigid rotations applied around the
the sub-matrices Y0(#) and Y1(#) in (19a).
local axes at the origin:

Derivation of the D(#) matrix

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T
jð0Þ ¼ ðj1 ð0Þ; j2 ð0Þ; j3 ð0ÞÞ ð39Þ
By applying equation (24) and considering a diagonal
flexibility matrix E71, one obtains the D(#) matrix for the
give three rigid translations along the three local axes of the three-dimensional curved bar. Considering the matrix
generic section: partitioned into four sub-matrices:


vð#Þ ¼ Y1 ð#Þjð0Þ ð40Þ D0 ð#Þ D1 ð#Þ
Dð#Þ ¼ ð43Þ
D2 ð#Þ D3 ð#Þ

The matrix D0(#) can be written as:

2 3
Rw1 Rw1
6 ð# cos # þ sin #Þþ
ð# sin #Þþ 7
6 2GA 2GA 7
6 R R 7
6 þ ð# cos #
sin #Þþ 0
ð# sin #Þþ 7
6 7
6 2EA 2EA 7
6 7
6 R3 R3 7
6 þ ð# cos #
sin #Þþ
½# sin #
ð2
cos #Þ 7
6 2EJ2 2EJ2 7
6 7
6 7
6 Rw2 7
6 #þ 7
6 GA 7
6 7
6 R3 7
6 7
D0 ð#Þ ¼ 6 0 þ ð# cos #
sin #Þþ 0 7 ð44Þ
6 2EJ1 7
6 7
6 R3 7
6 7
6 þ ð2# þ # cos #
3 sin #Þ 7
6 2GJ 7
6 7
6 Rw1 Rw1 7
6 7
6 2GA ð# sin #Þ þ 2GA
ð# cos #
sin #Þþ 7
6 7
6 7
6 þ R ð# sin #Þ þ þ
R
ð# cos # þ sin #Þþ 7
6 0 7
6 2EA 2EA 7
6 7
4 R3 R3 5
þ ½# sin #
2ð1
cos #Þ ð2# þ # cos #
3 sin #Þ
2EJ2 2EJ2
 A method for nonlinear analysis of bridges 243

2 3
R2
6 0 ð 1
cos yÞ 0 7
6 EJ2 7
6 2 2 7
6
R ½# sin #
2ð1
cos #Þþ

R
ð# cos #
sin #Þþ 7
6 2GJ 2GJ 7
D1 ð#Þ ¼ 6
6 2 0 7
7 ð45Þ
6
R ð# sin #Þ R2
6 2EJ
ð# cos #
sin #Þ 7
7
6 1 2EJ1 7
4 R2 5
0 ð#
sin #Þ 0
EJ2

2 3
R2
6 ½# sin #
2ð1
cos #Þþ 7
6 0 2GJ 0 7
6 R2 7
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6 þ ð# sin #Þ 7
6 2EJ1 7
6 7
6 R2 R2 7
D2 ð#Þ ¼ 6
6
EJ ð1
cos #Þ 0 ð#
sin#Þ 7
7 ð46Þ
6 2 EJ2 7
6 R2 7
6
ð# cos #
sin #Þþ 7
6 7
6 0 2GJ 0 7
4 R 2 5

ð# cos #
sin #Þ
2EJ1

2 3
R R
6 ð# cos #
sin #Þþ
ð# sin #Þþ 7
6 2GJ 0 2GJ 7
6 R R 7
6 þ ð# cos # þ sin #Þ
ð# sin #Þ 7
6 2EJ1 2EJ1 7
6 R# 7
6 7
D3 ð#Þ ¼ 6 0 0 7 ð47Þ
6 EJ2 7
6 R R 7
6 ð# sin #Þþ ð# cos # þ sin #Þþ 7
6 7
6 2GJ 0 2GJ 7
4 R R 5
þ ð# sin #Þ þ ð# cos #
sin #Þ
2EJ1 2EJ1

The field transfer matrix, C(#), can be obtained by assembling the matrices Y(#), YT-(#) and D(#) in (26).

The sub-matrices of the matrix D(s) become:

3D rectilinear beam
2 3
s3 sw1
For a rectilinear beam with length l, considering
6EJ þ GA 0 0
6 2
7
s = R#(R !: and # ! 0) in the previous matrices, one 6 s3 sw2 7
D0 ðsÞ ¼ 6 0 þ 0 7 ð49a; bÞ
obtains: 4 6EJ1 GA 5
s
0 0 EA

2 3 2 3 2 s2
3
1 0 0 0 s 0 0 2EJ2 0
Y0 ðsÞ ¼ 4 0 1 0 5; Y1 ðsÞ ¼ 4
s 0 05 ð48a; bÞ 6 7
D1 ðsÞ ¼ 6
4
s2
0 07
5
0 0 1 0 0 0 2EJ1

0 0 0
 244 M. Arici and M. F. Granata

2 3 2 s 3
0 s2
2EJ1 0 EJ1 0 0 PQ ¼ ð
QT ð0Þ; QT ðlÞÞT ; w ¼ ðuT ð0Þ; uT ðlÞÞT ð53a; bÞ
6 7 6 7
6 7 6
D2 ðsÞ ¼ 6 s2
6
2EJ 0 077 D3 ðsÞ ¼ 6 0 s
EJ2 07
7
4 2 5 4 5 PQ is the end force vector, K the element stiffness matrix of
s
0 0 0 0 0 GJ the curved bar, and w the end displacement vector, all of
order 12 for the three-dimensional problem.
ð50a; bÞ
To obtain the element stiffness matrix K* with respect to
a common reference system (X,Y,Z), it is necessary to
Appendix B apply the orthonormal transformation matrix Tr from the
local curvilinear coordinate system (i1, i2, i3) to the global
Derivation of the stiffness matrix K
system:
In order to obtain the stiffness matrix for the elastic curved
bar, equations (23) must be rearranged, after setting s = L
K  ¼ TTr K Tr r ð54Þ
(#= g) in equations (23) and (24) and assuming
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NQ = Nu = 0. Using properties (21), one obtains:

where Tr is a 12 6 12 matrix collecting the direction cosines
 
  lk, mk, nk (k = 1,2,3) of the global axes with respect to the

Qð0Þ KII KIJ uð0Þ
¼ ð51aÞ local axes at the two ends I and J:
QðlÞ KJI KJJ uðlÞ

" # " #
Equation (51a) could also takes the following compact TI 0 r 0
form: Trð12  12Þ ¼ ; TIð6  6Þ ¼ ;
0 TJ 0 r I
PQ ¼ Kw ð51bÞ 2 3
l1 m1 n1
where: 6 7
6 7
rð3  3Þ ¼ 6 l2 m2 n2 7 ð55a; b; cÞ
KII ¼ DðlÞ
1 YðlÞ; KIJ ¼ KTJI ¼
DðlÞ
1 ; KJJ ¼ YT ð
lÞDðlÞ
1 4 5
ð52a; b; cÞ l3 m3 n3