 F luid Definition and Properties

 Concept of Continuum
 Newton’s law of viscosity
 Classification of Fluids
1.

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 We define a fluid to be a substance which must continue to change shape as long as
there is a shear stress present, however small. By contrast, an elastic body undergoes a
definite displacement when subjected to a shear stress. For instance, the solid block
shown changes shape in a manner conveniently characterized by the angle Δα when
subjected to a shear stress. If there were an element of fluid there would be no fixed
Δα even for an infinitesimal shear stress. Instead, a continual deformation persists as
long as a shearing is applied. In materials which we sometimes call plastics, such as
paraffin, either type of shear deformation may be found, depending on the shear-stress
magnitude. Shear stress below a certain magnitude will induce definite displacements
similar to that of the elastic body, whereas shear stress above this value causes
continuous deformation similar to that of fluid. This dividing shear-stress magnitude is
dependent on the type of material and its state.

SOLID FLUID

Δα

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Fluids are composed of molecules in constant motion and collision. To be exact in an
analysis, one would have to account for the action of each molecule or group of
molecules in a flow. Such procedures are adopted in kinetic theory of gases and
statistical mechanics but are, in general, too cumbersome for the use of engineering
applications. In most engineering computations we are interested in average,
measurable manifestations of the many molecules- as, for example, density, pressure,
and temperature. These manifestations can be conveniently assumed to arise from a
continuous distribution of matter, which is called continuum, instead of the actual
complex conglomeration (a mixed collection) of discrete molecules. The continuum
concept affords great simplification in analysis and already has been used as an
idealization in earlier mechanics courses in the form of a rigid body or a perfectly elastic
body.

The continuum approach must be used only where it may yield reasonably correct
results. For instance, the continuum approach breaks down when the mean free path of
the molecules is of the same order of magnitude as the smallest significant length in the
problem. Under such circumstances we may no longer detect meaningful, gross
manifestation of molecules. The action of each molecule or group of molecules is then of
significance and must be treated accordingly.

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 A very important property will now be introduced as a consequence of Newton’s
viscosity law. For a well-ordered flow (Such a flow is called laminar flow and is free of
macroscopic velocity fluctuations) whereby fluid particles move in straight, parallel line
this law states that for certain fluids, called Newtonian fluids; the shear stress on an
interface tangent to the direction of flow is proportional to the distance-rate of change of
velocity in a direction normal to the interface. Mathematically this is stated as

∂V
τ∝
∂n

The figure below may further explain this relationship. An infinitesimal area in the flow
is chosen as shown. The normal n to this area is drawn.

n Velocity Profile

Tangent to profile at
δA

δA
Velocity
Axis
Fig. 1.1

The fluid velocities at point along this normal are plotted against a horizontal abscissa,

thus forming a velocity profile. The slope toward the n axis at the position

∂V
corresponding to the area element is the value
∂n
, which is related as stated above the
shear stress τ shown on the interface.

4
 Inserting the coefficient of the proportionality into Newton’s viscosity law leads to
the result

∂V
τ =μ 1.1
∂n

Where μ is called the coefficient of viscosity having the dimensions (F*t/L2). The
characteristics of this property are given in figure 1.2 for number of significant fluids. It
will be noted that the viscosity of a liquid decreases with an increase of temperature,
while, curiously, a gas does a quite the opposite. A plausible explanation of this
behavior is that viscosity varies widely with temperature, but temperature variation has
an opposite effect on the viscosities of liquids and gases because of their fundamentally
different intermolecular characteristics. In gases, where intermolecular cohesion is
usually negligible, shear stress, τ, between moving layers of fluid results from an
exchange of momentum between these layers brought about by molecular agitation
normal to the general direction of motion. The random motion of molecules thus carries
them across the direction of the flow from layers at one seed to layers at a different
speed. The molecules leaving a low speed layer collide with molecules in a high-speed
layer. In collision, the exchange of momentum tends to speed up the slower molecules
and slow the faster ones. The net effect is an apparent shear force tending to reduce the
speed of the higher speed layer. The reverse happens when a molecule from a fast layer
collide with a molecule in a relatively slower layer. Because this molecular activity is
known to increase temperature (fig1.2). In liquids, momentum exchange due to
molecular activity is small compared to the cohesive forces between the molecules, and
thus shear stress, τ, and viscosity, µ, are primarily dependent on the magnitude of these
cohesive forces that tend to keep adjacent molecules in a fixed position relative to

each other and to resist relative motion. Because these forces decrease rapidly with
increases of temperature, liquid viscosities decrease as temperature rises (fig 1.2).

5
 Viscosity of common fluids Fig. 1.2
Pressure, meanwhile, has only small effect on viscosity an effect usually neglected. It is
to be pointed out that all gases and most simple liquids are Newtonian fluids and hence

6
behave according to the above equation for the conditions outlined. Pastes, slurries and
high polymers are examples of fluids that cannot be considered Newtonian fluids.

Plastic Fluid

Solid
Ideal (Bingham) Plastic

Shear Stress, τ
Real Plastic

Shear thinning fluid (Non

Newtonian Fluid)

Newtonian fluid
τ
µ
Shear-thickening fluid
1 (dilatant fluid)
τ1
Inviscid & Ideal Fluid

Rate of Strain, ∂ v/∂ y

Fig. 1.3

Equation 1.1 may be usefully visualized on the plot of Newtonian Fluids on which µ is
the slope of a straight lone passing through the origin; as seen above ∂v is the
displacement per unit time and the velocity gradient ∂v/∂y is the time rate of strain.
Because of Newton’s suggestion, which led to equation 1.1 fluids that follow this law
are commonly known as Newtonian fluids. There is some concerned study of
deformation and flow of matter i.e. Plastics, blood, suspensions, paints, and foods,
which flow but whose resistance is not characterized by equation 1.1.

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 Densi
Type of Fluid Definition `Viscosity
ty
The fluid, which is incompressible and is
constan
Ideal Fluid having no viscosity. It is an imaginary fluid. zero
t
Ex-
A fluid, which possesses viscosity. All the
Variabl
Real Fluid fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. Ex- Non-zero
e
Kerosene, Petrol and Castor Oil.
A real fluid, which obeys Newton’s law of
Consta
Viscosity. (Shear stress is directly
Newtonian nt or ∂V
proportional to rate of shear strain or τ =μ
Fluid Variabl ∂n
Velocity gradient) Ex- Water, Air, Emulsions
e
and thin motor oil.
A real fluid, which does not obey Newton’s Consta
Non-
law of viscosity.(Shear stress is not directly nt or ∂V
Newtonian τ ≠μ
proportional to rate of shear strain or Variabl ∂n
Fluid
Velocity gradient) Ex- Cornstarch(Oobleck) e
Incompressible constan
- Non-zero
Fluid t
A fluid, in which shear stress is more than
Ideal Plastic the yield value and Shear stress, is directly
- -
Fluid proportional to rate of shear strain or
Velocity gradient.
Consta
nt or
Invisid Fluid - zero
Variabl
e

p Zero or non-
Perfect Gas -
RT zero

∂V
τ −τ 1 = μ τ > τ 1 --- Bingham Plastic (oil paint, tooth paste)
∂n

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 ∂v n
τ =k ( ) n> 1--- Shear Thickening fluid
∂y

n < 1--- Shear Thinning fluid

Pa
Dimensions of τ =Pa∗s
Dimensions of μ = = m
Dimensions of ∂ v /∂ y /m
s

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 Perhaps you have wondered why sponge soaks water so readily, whereas the treated
fabric of a raincoat is impervious to water. Water forms a thin on a clean windshield,
but it beads on the same surface after the use of a windshield treatment.

Water also beads on a waxed or oily automobile surface, but when a little detergent is
added, it will spread into a thin film. A jet of water tends to break up into a spray of
small spherical droplets. Liquids may either advance up a small tube against the force
of gravity or stubbornly refuse to enter the tube at all. These are all examples of surface
tension phenomena. What is responsible at the molecular level for the variety of
behavior associated with the presence of an interface between two fluids?

G
G G

As shown in the above figure, the molecules below the surface of a liquid have a
characteristic number of nearest neighbors. The total energy of the fluid system is

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minimizes when each molecule has the “correct” number of neighbors (determined by
the bonding characteristics of the atoms in the fluid). Molecules at the liquid surface,
however, have a different number of nearest neighbors. There are two ways to interpret
this observation. First, since the surface molecules have the “wrong” number of
neighbors, they will be at a higher energy state. The excess energy associated with the
molecules at the surface is known as surface energy. Surface energy, which is represented
by the symbol σ, has dimensions of energy per unit area, {FL/L2}, or equivalently, {F/L},
and is expressed in units of J/m2.

A different but equivalent model for a liquid-vapor interface recognizes that since
the surface molecules of liquid do not have identical molecules above them, they will be
more strongly attracted to their neighbors below and in the plane of the interface. The
result is a layer of surface molecules that at the macroscopic level behaves as an elastic
membrane. The corresponding net force on a molecule in the interface acts in the plane
of the surface in all directions and is referred to as the surface tension (as shown below).

Surface Tension
(F/L)

Liquid

Gas

Surface tension has dimensions of force/length, which is dimensionally equivalent to

surface energy. The units for surface tension are N/m.

Surface Tension, σ (N/m)

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Liquid When in Contact with Air When in Contact with Water

Benzene 0.029 0.035

Carbon tetrachloride 0.027 0.045

Glycerin 0.063 -

Hexane 0.018 0.051

Mercury 0.484 0.375

Methanol 0.023 0.023

Octane 0.022 0.051

Water 0.073 -

The magnitude of the surface tension is a function of the fluids on both sides of the
interface. Thus, the surface tension at an air-water interface is different from that an oil-
water interface. The influence of both fluids on the surface tension is a reflection of the
fact that atoms in the second fluid are serving as substitute nearest neighbors for the
surface atoms in the first fluid and vice versa. Surface tension values for several fluids
are given in the above table.

Since it is the near neighbors of a molecule at an interface that affect the resulting
surface tension, foreign molecules absorbed onto the interface will change the surface
tension. For example, soaps and detergents reduce the surface tension of an air-water
interface and thus allow the water to spread out on a surface.

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 To see how the concept of surface tension is used to analyze a practical problem,
consider a small spherical drop of one fluid at rest in another, such as a tiny fuel droplet
in the vicinity of a fuel injection nozzle. Since the drop is small, we can neglect the slight
hydrostatic pressure variation with height and assume a uniform but different pressure
inside and outside the drop. Imagine cutting the drop in half as shown below and

Liquid

Gas
Pgas Pgas

Pliq

Pliq

performing a force balance I the vertical direction on the hemispherical interface. If the
droplet is at rest then Newton’s second law tells us that the sum of the forces acting on
the interface in any direction must be zero. The only forces acting on the interface are
those due to pressure and surface tension. The interface itself s infinitely thin and
massless. Equilibrium requires that the net force up due to pressure inside, plus the net
force down due to pressure outside, plus the surface tension force pulling down on the
edge of the hemispherical interface, add to zero.

The net action of a uniform pressure inside a hemisphere is as if the same pressure
acted on the equatorial plane of area πr2. Surface tension acts on the circumference of

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the hemisphere, 2πr. If we let Δp be the pressure difference, inside minus outside, then
the force equilibrium condition just stated becomes

Δp(πr2) = σ(2πr)
Solving for the pressure difference (jump) across the interface yields

2σ
Δp = r

This result shows that surface tension causes the pressure inside a drop or bubble to be
greater than the pressure outside. Smaller drops and bubbles experience larger pressure
differences, and for a given drop or bubble size, a higher surface tension value produces
a larger pressure difference.

Perhaps you have enjoyed using a wand and a bubble solution to create soap
bubbles. A soap bubble has air inside and out, separate by very thin film of soap
solution having a surface tension σ. Can you explain why the pressure difference across a
spherical soap bubble is

4σ
Δp = r

that is, twice the value calculated for a fluid drop under the same conditions? [Hint:
How many liquid-gas interfaces are present in this case?] The formula suggests that the
pressure inside large soap bubbles must not be very different from that outside. The
tension in the skin of large soap bubbles is so small that they are easily deformed by the
slightest breeze.

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When a liquid contacts a solid surface the line at which liquid, gas, and solid meet is
called the contact line (see below Gas σ

ΘC<90o

Liquid σSL σSG

(A) Solid

Gas
σ
ΘC

Liquid σSL
σSG

(B) Solid

Gas ΘC>90o

Liquid

σSL σSG

(C) Solid

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When a liquid contacts a solid surface the line at which liquid, gas, and solid meet is
called the contact line (see above figure (B)). The effect of surface tension is evident in
the contact angle θC, defined to be the angle in the liquid between the solid surface and
the interface at the contact line. The net surface tension acting on a contact line depends
on all three materials- liquid, gas, and solid. A force balance on the contact line shows
that

σSG - σSL = σ cos(θC)

where σSG is the surface tension of the gas- solid interface, σSL is the surface tension of
the solid-liquid interface, and σ is the surface tension of the gas-liquid interface.
Experimental observations show that the contact angle for an air-water-glass interface is
~00, while the contact angle for a air-mercury-glass interface is ~ 140 0. If the contact
angle is less than 900(see above figure (A)), the surface is said to be wetted by the liquid.
Perfecting wetting occurs if the contact angle is ~ 0 0. If the contact angle is greater than
900(see above figure (C)), the surface is not wetted by the liquid.

Now consider what happens if a thin glass tube is inserted into liquid. If liquid wets
the glass, it will be prevented from entering the tube. Both effects are due to surface
tension. Let us analyze the case in which a liquid wets a round tube with a contact angle
θC as shown in below figure C.
θC
σ
d
h
pA
h

z W=ρ h

Liquid A gV
Liquid B
C
A B
pA

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The liquid will be drawn up a tube of diameter d to a height h. We will perform a force
balance in the z direction on the column of liquid shown in figure C, taking into account
surface tension, gravity, and pressure. The column is at rest, so the sum of all forces
acting on the fluid column is zero. The pressure acting on the top of the meniscus
formed in the tube is atmospheric. The pressure acting at the bottom of the liquid
column inside the tube is also atmospheric, because lines of constant pressure in a
stationary fluid in a gravity field are horizontal, and the tube is open. We are neglecting
the tiny change in atmospheric pressure over the height of the liquid column.

Since atmospheric pressure acts over an area equal to the cross section of the tube at
each end, the net effect of pressure on the liquid column is zero. The surface tension
force acting up on the contact line, plus the force of gravity on the liquid column acting
down must therefore add to zero. From he geometry at the contact line we find
2
σ π dcos θ c - π d ρgh = 0
4

Solving for the height of the capillary rise, we have

4 σ cos θc
h=
d ρg

Capillary action is often cited as causing the movement of fluid from the root of a
plant to its crown where the leaves are present. In Sequoia redwood trees, the capillary
rise would have to exceed 60 m. This seems unlikely. Alternate theories argue that the
minute water columns in the trees’ tissues are in a state of tension caused by
evaporation at the leaf surface.

Capillary action also explains the tendency of liquids to penetrate cracks even when there is
no differential pressure acting to drive the liquid into the cracks. A 2-D model for the rise of a
liquid in a crack of width w is shown below. A force balance indicates that the height of the rise
of a liquid in a crack which it wets is given by

2 σ cos Θ C w
h=
wρg
h
Notice that the height to which a liquid rises
in a round tube of diameter d is twice the
height to which the same liquid rises in a Liquid
crack of width w = d

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 For a crack or tube inclined at an angle ϕ from vertical, we replace g by cosϕ in the
appropriate formula. Thus, as ϕ approaches π/2, meaning the crack or tube is
horizontally, capillary action causes a liquid to penetrate deeply. If we wish to prevent a
liquid from entering a crack, and there is minimal differential pressure acting to drive
the liquid through the crack, we can employ surface tension forces to exclude the liquid.
This is accomplished by applying a surface treatment to ensure that the liquid does not
wet the solid. Fabric waterproofing treatments coat the fabric surface with a thin layer
of material that water does not wet. Unfortunately this approach will not ensure a dry
basement, because water in saturated soil is under several feet of hydrostatic pressure
in comparison to the air on the other side of the (cracked) wall. This is accomplished by
applying a surface treatment to ensure that the liquid does not wet the solid. Fabric
waterproofing treatments coat the fabric surface with a thin layer of material that water
does not wet. Unfortunately this approach will not ensure a dry basement, because
water in saturated soil is under several feet of hydrostatic pressure in comparison to the
air on the other side of the (cracked) wall. This pressure differential overcomes the
surface tension force which might resist the advance of water in larger cracks.

When a fluid is subjected to a pressure increase, the volume decreases, and the
density increases. For many fluids the pressure-volume relationship is linear and may
be characterized by a proportionality constant called bulk compressibility modulus, E v.
The relationship between a change in pressure, dp, and the corresponding fractional
change in specific volume, dv/v, is written in terms of Ev as:

dv
dp = - Ev
v

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The minus sign is necessary because a positive change in pressure (a pressure increase)
results in a negative change in volume (a volume decrease). Since –dv/v = dρ/ρ,

dρ
dp = - Ev
ρ

This equation can be rearranged to define the bulk modulus as

dp
Ev = dρ/ ρ

Since dρ/ ρ is a dimensionless ratio, the dimensions and common units for Ev are the
same as those for pressure, {FL -2}, and thus Pascals or psi. Values of the bulk modulus
for several liquids may be found in the following table.

Bulk Modulus Values Ev for several Common Liquids at 200 C

Bulk Modulus, Ev

Liquid SI(GPa)

Gasoline 0.958

Mercury 25.5

SAE 30W oil 1.38

Methanol 0.83

Water 2.19

Seawater (30% salinity) 2.33

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 For gases, the precise value of the bulk modulus depends on the type of compression
process which occurs. For a perfect gas undergoing an isothermal process dp = RT odρ.
Thus the isothermal bulk modulus of a perfect gas can be written as

dp RT o d ρ
Ev = dρ/ ρ = dρ/ ρ = ρTodρ = p
and we can write the isothermal bulk modulus of a perfect gas in two ways:

Ev = ρRTo
Ev = p
If a perfect gas undergoes an isentropic (frictionless and without heat transfer to the
surroundings) process, then it can be shown that the isentropic bulk modulus is given
by

Ev = γp
A material with a large value of bulk modulus, i.e., a liquid or solid, undergoes a
negligible change in density when exposed to the highest pressures normally
encountered in engineering. Such materials are incompressible. For example, a pressure
increase of over 21.37 MPa is required to increase the density of water by 1%. Since
liquid are virtually impossible to compress by using reasonable pressures, we will
assume that a liquid has a constant density unless otherwise noted.

Water hammer (or, more generally, fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused
when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or
change direction suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer commonly occurs
when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave
propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock.

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This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe
collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with
accumulators, expansion tanks and other features.

 Cause and effect

When a pipe is suddenly closed at the outlet (downstream), the mass of water before
the closure is still moving, thereby building up high pressure and a resulting shock
wave. In domestic plumbing this is experienced as a loud banging, resembling a
hammering noise. Water hammer can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is high
enough. Air traps or stand pipes (open at the top) are sometimes added as dampers to
water systems to absorb the potentially damaging forces caused by the moving water.

In hydroelectric generating stations, the water travelling along the tunnel or pipeline
may be prevented from entering a turbine by closing a valve. However, if, for example,
there is 14 km of tunnel of 7.7 m diameter, full of water travelling at 3.75 m/s, that
represents approximately 8000 Mega-Joules of kinetic energy that must be arrested. This
arresting is frequently achieved by a surge shaft open at the top, into which the water
flows; as the water rises up the shaft, its kinetic energy is converted into potential
energy, which decelerates the water in the tunnel. At some HEP stations, what looks
like a water tower is actually one of these devices, known in these cases as a surge
drum.

In the home, water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine, or toilet
shuts off water flow. The result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging (as the
shock wave travels back and forth in the plumbing system), or as some shuddering.

On the other hand, when an upstream valve in a pipe closes, water downstream of the
valve attempts to continue flowing, creating a vacuum that may cause the pipe to

21
collapse or implode. This problem can be particularly acute if the pipe is on a downhill
slope. To prevent this, air and vacuum relief valves, or air vents, are installed just
downstream of the valve to allow air to enter the line for preventing this vacuum from
occurring.

Other causes of water hammer are pump failure, and check valve slam (due to sudden
deceleration, a check valve may slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic
characteristic of the check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve and
tank).

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23
 In the mechanics of liquids, the physical property of vapor pressure is frequently
important in the analysis of problems. All liquids posses a tendency to vaporize, that is
to change from liquid to the gaseous phase. Such vaporization occurs because
molecules are continually projected through the free liquid surface and lost from the
body of the liquid as a consequence of their natural thermal vibrations. The ejected
molecules, being gaseous, then exert their own partial pressure, which is known as the
vapor pressure (pv) of the liquid. Because of the increase of molecular activity with
temperature, vapor pressure increases with temperature; for water this variation is
given in the below table

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Boiling (formation of vapor bubbles throughout the fluid mass) will occur (whatever the
temperature) when the external absolute pressure imposed on the liquid is equal to or
less than the vapor pressure of the liquid. This means that the boiling point of the liquid
is dependent on the imposed pressure as well as on the temperature.

Above table offers a comparison of the vapor pressures of a few common liquids at the
same temperature. The low vapor pressure of mercury along with its high density
makes this liquid well suited for the use in barometers and other pressure-measuring
devices. The more volatile liquids, which vaporize more easily, posses the higher vapor
pressures. If a liquid is placed in a sealed container with empty space above the liquid
surface, the vaporization of the liquid continues until the vapor exerts the vapor
pressure pv in the once empty space. At this stage the number of molecules escaping
from the liquid exactly equals the number that is returning. However, if the space is too
large, this equilibrium position is not reached and the liquid continues to vaporize or
evaporate until the liquid is gone and only vapors remains at a pressure less than or
equal to pv.

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