HISTORY OF LEATHER

Leather has always held a special place in man’s life.

Many primitive societies used leather for clothing,
shelter, transportation and hunting. But the main
problem that primitive man encountered was that after a
short time the skins decayed. Stone-age man discovered
that stretching out and drying them in sun and curing the
hides by rubbing them with oily substances could
improve the quality of leather. Their discovery of
soaking the hides in tarmic solution, which is obtained
from the decayed bark of some trees, converted the new
skins into what we recognize as leather. Another method
known since the earliest times in tarming, based on the use of alum, is a mineral, which is
fairly widespread in nature, particularly in volcanic areas. These methods, which gradually
become more redefined and efficient, allowed skins to be used in the ancient world and
continued to do so far century up to the present day. Man progressed from his earlier uses of
leather to the skills of making tents, drums, bov/strings, canoes and many other articles. The
civilization of Egypt, China, Greece, Rome, Isralel and Spain contributed to the development
of leather craft. The Egyptians achieves considerable skill for clothing, tools, arms and
ornaments. Chinese discovered the v/ater proofing qualities of leather and then used leather
for cups and bowls. Greeks and Romans used leather to make many different styles of
sandals, boots and shoes. Moroccans had remarkable skill in transforming goat leather
( Moroccan leather ) to intricate art. The Spaniards fashioned magnificent leather objects
embroidered and stamped in gold and silver. Arabs were the cleverest craftsmen in medieval
times. The American and Indian became prolific craftsmen in working with hide, especially
in producing buckskin, a soft flexible water -resistant leather. During the middle ages , there
were established what could be one of the earliest forms of labour unions. These associates
were known as craft guilds, established for people who worked in leather crafts. These
powerful associations not only protected their members but also imposed upon them strict
rules to ensure high-quality workmanship. Charles the sage, known as Fraternity of leather
workers, established one of the first of this guild in France in 1397. Although leather is not as
necessary a commodity today as it was in the earlier civilizations the varieties of leathers is
greater today than ever before and it is widely used for many purposes. Some of the most
beautiful leathers today come from Florence, Italy and Morocco due to its unique and
intricate designs.
TYPES OF LEATHERS USED IN FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY
Leather is an extremely versatile material and no other
clothing material can provide the service and durability of
genuine leather. It is warm in the winter and cool in the
summer. However, it is important to note that leather is a
natural product and each hide or skin is an individual piece.
The most common sources from which skins and hides are
obtained are cows, sheep, goats, pigs, calves, lizards,
alligators, whales, sharks and seals. Cowhide is probably the most popular and is relatively
strong. Crocodile, lizard, water buffalo and goat are other durable skins. Sheepskin and
especially lambskin, are relatively weak and will not last as long as the other leathers just
mentioned. However, they are especially soft. The terms “skin” and “hide” are differentiated
as skins applying to leathers obtained from small animals, such as skins normally weighing
less than 15 pounds, while hides come from the larger animals. Reference to the terms “kips:
refers to the hides from the young of large animals and normally weigh between 15 to 30
pounds.
CALF SKIN
Calfskin is the most common material used to make high
quality men’s shoes. As its name implies, it comes from the
skin of young calves which are usually older than 3 months
(and usually between 6-12). Another name for calfskin is
“vellum” that derives from Latin. North American calves differ
from European. The latter’s hide is typically twice as big and
better quality due to breeding standards and uses.

A leather of very tight grain and few imperfections, it is the perfect material for most higher-
end dress shoes. The grain in particular is very fine but is quite durable and pliable. This is
because calves have a dense fibre structure which is stronger than regular cowhide or older
animals. Calfskin’s thickness tends to be around 1-1.2 millimetres and one good hide can
provide enough leather for up to ten pairs of shoes depending on the model.
Although calfskin is prone to scuffing and scratching, using the proper polish and buffing can
cover these marks (if not too deep) and develop an excellent patina in the future. It can be
dyed easily so there are a lot of color options and finishes. Burnishing and aniline finishes
help create a high shine. It does not require heavy maintenance; it is important to polish and
nourish it so it does not dry up or crack.
BOXCALF
Boxcalf is a term that describes premium calfskin (or fine black calf) these days.
However, the term comes from Joseph Box, who was a leather shoe craftsman in 1890.
Luxury brand Hermès constructs their vintage bags from this premium material. In
another description, it means that the calfskin is tanned with chrome salts. Therefore, it
can become very confusing and kind of a marketing word. In most commercial
occasions.
VEAL
Veal is very similar to a calf, just a little bit older (three to six months). As with older
animals the leather is a bit coarser and less smooth than regular calfskin.
COW HIDE
Cowhide is the most common leather. Because of its strength, durability and “breath ability “,
it is the best material for shoes, bags, brief cases and many personal accessories. Another
important use of cowhide is in making upholstery. It is also the most common type of leather
used for motorcycle apparel. cowhide is thicker (about 1.6 to 2.5 millimetres) but goes
through similar tanning processes as calfskin. The thickness, added strength and fibrous
nature makes cowhide an excellent material for work boots or shoes for rougher use.
APACHE
Apache also known as Distressed or Crazy horse, this leather is treated with wax and oil
to create a very vintage “old” look even when brand new. Waxing gives a more
waterproof quality to the construction but also protects against scuffs. The waxy
protective layer is the one that takes the hit first. Apache cowhide can be lightly sanded
or aniline tanned and this creates a very unique character. This leather is great for utility
boots and outside use.
BULLHIDE
This is a thick part of leather that comes from the shoulder of cows. It is very thick and
sturdy so it will protect feet much better against danger. Apparently, during tanning
they shrink they hide quite often to put emphasis on the
wrinkles and imperfections.
PIG SKIN
It is inexpensive, tougher than cowhide for the same
weight. It has distinctive dot-like markings and is mainly
used for hand wearing items such as purses, wallets,
gloves and luggage. pigskin is a famous leather that has
many uses. Some of these are high-end gloves and of course, footballs.

Pigskin usually comes from peccary, a type of mammal belonging to the pig family species.
These are mostly common in South America and the most famous of them all come from
Peru. The peccary is a wild animal and does not live in farms. peccary leather is very thick
but extremely soft and pliable. It is hard-wearing, comfortable and flexible. It is very hard to
damage although they do require maintenance.
SUEDE
After removing the hair and trim down the grain & get to
the split-part of the hide, or simply the fleshy part. This
fleshy part is sanded and buffed to create a soft thin
texture with a unique nap. This makes it very easy to work
with and is perfect for more informal footwear. Suede is a
sponge for water and stains making it quite a fragile
leather. Most leathers called suede today are split suedes, then when it’s split to two or
three pieces with one side where fibres are rugged. The “real” suede is today called
reverse calf suede, there it’s a full hide with the flesh side rugged. If treated with
impregnation sprays.
COWHIDE SUEDE
This is the fleshy part of cows and calves. Calves produce a softer suede than older
cows like with calfskin but as always, depending on the process it can be coarser or
thicker.
SHEEPSKIN SUEDE
Suede that comes from sheep is possibly the softest, especially
if it comes from younger lambs. It is also very delicate and has
a velvety texture,
PIGSKIN SUEDE
Possibly the least popular of the three is pigskin suede. Coarser and tougher, it is a
stiffer leather with a short nap. Compared to the others it is more durable and less prone
to damage.

CHAMOIS
Chamois (or Shammy Leather) is made from the skin of
the Rupicapra rupicapra, a European mountain goat. however it
almost exclusively refers to the flesh part of sheepskin. T he process is to sand and buff
the skin, removing the grain and revealing the flesh split. It remains
soft though not like traditional suede with a thinner nap and is water
absorbent. More than often the cloths that used to polish shoes are
from chamois. Chamois is quite porous and goes through an
extensive oil-tanning process.
NUBUCK
Nubuck comes from cattle leather but the biggest difference
with suede is that it comes from the grain part of the hide. It is sanded lightly to produce
a similar soft nap, but coming from the grain means it is much more resistance and
water repellent.

SHELL CORDOVAN
Shell Cordovan is the cream of the crop when it comes to
luxurious quality shoe leather. Shell Cordovan is a very
dense, fibrous membrane cut from the hind quarters of a
horse one of the most expensive quality leathers comes
from horse butt. The name actually originates from the city of Cordoba in Spain.
It is a regular calfskin is porous, It also creases with use, usually around the vamp. Shell on
the other hand has no visible pores and instead of creasing, it ripples beautifully with time.It
is hard wearing, durable, generally water resistant and will last for decades with proper care.
The problem with Shell is that each horse can provide a limited amount. It then goes through
rigorous, long lasting (up to 6 months) vegetable tanning and multiple steps to be ready. Due
to its nature, it is very difficult to dye and usually only accepts a handful of colors. The most
famous of them all is burgundy, commonly referred to as “Color 8” which is a trademark by
Horween. Horween is a widely acclaimed tannery. These qualities make Shell very rare and
expensive, but one cannot deny how beautiful cordovan shoes are. Appropriate for both boots
and dress shoes.
HORSEHIDE
Shell Cordovan is not the same as regular horsehide. Companies can often use the word
“Cordovan” as a marketing buzzword but it is different. It often comes from the front
parts of a horse and is elastic but also very tough. Horsehide is perfect for rugged,
sturdy boots and while not as premium as its expensive counterpart, is still a viable
great solution.
PULL-UP
In a way we already mentioned Pull-Up leather during our coverage of the Apache. It is
a kind of leather that is heavily waxed and oiled. This
leather has the tendency to changes its colour and becomes
lighter colour when it is exposed to water. Very durable and
It requires little maintenance and will develop a rich patina.
While it can absorb scratches, and not scuff proof
CHROMEXCEL
The original pull-up is Horween’s Chromexcel (CXL). It is
very popular across the Atlantic since its introduction in the 1920s. The most common source
is horses and cowhide are also being used. This requires meticulous Vegetable retanning and
89 separate stages of preparation hard work to produce.

ROUGH-OUT
Rough-out is the rough flesh side of the cow hide on the outside, while the grain part
remains underneath. The fleshy part is quite rough, which gives it the name “ Rough-
Out“. Usually from cowhide, it is soft with a nice nap and requires little maintenance. It
is very durable and used during the older war times and
mountaineering as work boots due to the low upkeep.
Durability comes from the fact that the tough grain is
intact but it can absorb more water than usual.
SCOTCH GRAIN
Originating from Scotland, Scotch Grain is leather with an
added embossed texture. It has a very distinct texture that resembles pebbles and all the
work happens in the tannery. This is why Pebble Grain is another name for Scotch
Grain. Scots developed this age ago, shrinking the leather to create these patterns. It
requires a low maintenance, durable and weather resistant type of shoe leather. A less
formal than its smooth calf counterparts, Scotch Grain is increasing in popularity these
days and is duly represented by the abundance of classic British Country Shoes. Since
the texture is artificial, this kind of leather tends to be a little thicker while it is much
easier to hide imperfections or scratches. Just light
polishing is required, since too much can build up excess
wax and white residues inside the pebbles.
VEGETABLE TANNED LEATHER
A raw hide material is stiff and decay and decomposition
presents a real problem. Smoke, alum and oils were some
of the options, but vegetable tanning was the most reliant
and durable of them all. Ancestors in Ancient Greece and Rome were the pioneers of
vegetable tanning and it was for a long time a pillar of society. It is a long process that
uses tannins from various parts of trees such as bark, wood and leaves. The leather
retains its natural color which will darken up with time. As mentioned, it is a lengthy
expensive process where the hide sits soaked that requires multiple treatments.
It is an Organic, a little stiffer and with a wonderful patina, vegetable tanned products
do not like water very much and come in limited colors.
After a decline in popularity due to the cost and the
introduction of rubber, high quality leather goods mean
vegetable tanning is back in the spotlight.
PATENT LEATHER
Introduced in the early 19th Century, Patent Leather is the
process comes from Japan and uses a complex lacquering
method that smooths the exterior and give that high gloss finish. Unfortunately, this has
been largely replaced by plastics that mirror the effect.
BUFFALO LEATHER
Buffalo, Bison or Water Buffalo is an interchangeable term these days. Some hides
come from Africa while others from the US and Asia. It is porous and grainy with
natural imperfections and boasts an impressive 40% more tensile strength than
traditional calf. It comfortable and soft.
PULL LEATHER
The last of the bunch of the normal types of shoe leather is PU. Pull Up - PU Leather is
one of the few choices for vegans. This means it is not really “leather”, but instead
bonded leather or purely synthetic material like polyurethane, this is very low quality.
EXOTIC & UNUSUAL LEATHERS
ALLIGATOR & CROCODILE LEATHER
The leather are made of fearsome reptiles. Alligators and crocodiles are often synonymous
with luxury lifestyle and a deep pocket. Alligators and Crocodiles are different speciesThere
are 4 main species that produce different types of shoe leather these days
American Alligator
Caiman
Freshwater Crocodile
Saltwater Crocodile
Each has its own characteristics and they are hard to differentiate. They generally are
strong and durable, but also very hard to stretch. Leathers come from the belly area
which is quite soft and the top which is protected by an Armor plate of scales. Both
Alligator and Crocodile leather is very expensive but the former is considered much
more premium. They also have a high sheen and if cared
properly will last for decades.
THE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
Reptilian leathers are luxurious Leather. Weighting almost
half a ton and up to 4-5 meters long, the American Alligator
produces top quality leather for dressier shoes. Their leather
is sources from special farms especially in the Southeast
USA.
Their leather is very durable but also soft since it is not so
bony as the other reptilian counterparts. Often comes in grey and olive green colors but
is available in much more. Softer leather means it is much easier to process and work
with, thus making it better to make shoes and bags.
Alligator leather is so premium and commands the highest prices in the fashion
industry. It has a very high sheen and very distinct rectangular scale pattern that is not
uniform. The umbilical scar is also a way to recognize real alligator skin from fake
reproductions, since it cannot be replicated.
THE CAIMAN
Present in Central and South America, the caiman is a smaller cousin to the alligator. A
famous species that donates its name to both the Porsche Cayman and the Cayman
Islands, the Caiman has many different properties. For starters, their size means that
each hide is substantially smaller and more hides are required per item. However, they
are readily available and for a much smaller cost than crocodile and alligator leather.
Regardless, they do cost more than regular calf. The biggest problem faced with Caiman
Leather is that it is very bony compared to all other reptiles. Therefore, it is very stiff
and hard to work with. The bony nature of the hide however is excellent for someone
that wants to showcase the natural pattern in a pair of shoes. Calcium deposits in the
ridges of each scale create this pattern effect and
can take color very well.
THE SALTWATER/FRESHWATER
CROCODILE
These are distinct species, of salt water crocodile
often comes from the Indo pacific and Australia
The Freshwater counterpart however comes from Africa with the  Nile crocodile  being
the largest freshwater predator in the region. Both are powerful carnivores with rather
large hides that are perfect for bigger items such as upholstery. The pattern is very
similar to alligator to the untrained eye with minor differences such as the umbilical
mark and uniformity of scales. Generally, they produce hides of good quality, although
they are less expensive than alligator leather in most cases.
ANTEATER
The Anteater is a mammal with a long snout that feeds on ants and termites. It is an
exotic, rare leather with unique properties. Very durable and scaly in the forms of tiles
that have a diamond shape which is different from alligator leather. Since this is an
endangered species, hunting has to be strictly regulated and most hides come from Asia
or Africa. Colors include brown, cherry, black and beige. It is a very uncommon, unique
type of shoe leather and mostly used to make cowboy boots.
CAMEL LEATHER
Camels are valuable animals. The leather is scuff and scratch
resistance with a little bit of texture, however it is often suede
to soften it up. It can be quite soft and resistant and mostly
seen it in coats. The rarity means that Pure Camel shoes are
extremely scarce and chances are you will never see any.
Camel Leather has 10 times more fibres per square centimetre
than cow hide. Camels usually in desert extreme climates and this is important for their
protection. As for colors, tan, caramel and desert orange seem to be the natural options.
DEERSKIN
The term “Deer” includes a lot of animals in the same family.
It includes from Caribus, to elks and moose. Generally, Deer
Leather is very soft. It is one of the softest leathers.
Additionally, the skin is pliable and prone to scratching and
tearing which makes it unpopular with many shoemakers. It is
from a wild animal living in forest areas with dangerous
environments everywhere. Elks in particular have a reputation of extreme softness. This
leather is also breathable and thin which clearly states that it is not waterproof.
EEL LEATHER
Eels are elongated slick fish of various sizes. People eat
them, but also make leather goods out of them. Most Eel
skins come from Asia and more specifically the Philippines
and Korea. It has no scales and seems to be very thin and
fragile. Due to how thin and relatively small the fish is,
multiple skins have to be used to create shoes.
A unique pattern of strips is visible on the vamp, but I personally find hideous all the
designs I see out there. Don’t forget that this is a fish, so the leather needs moisturizing
and conditioning.
ELEPHANT LEATHER
When I was at Chopin Airport in Poland, I saw a
little glass vitrine that caught my eye. Inside, there
was a whole elephant foot that someone tried to
smuggle. Right next to a polar bear hide, tiger and
whole snakes in a jar.
Poor elephants are illegally poached for their tusks
and although rarely, their hides. While regulated, it
is possible to find legal elephant leather for making
shoes and bags. It is a massive animal and it really shows in the properties of its leather.
It is incredibly scuff and scratch resistant with a very dull color. The pattern and feel are
very unique and looks like parts of triangle and square grooves into the skin.
Elephant skin has a crackled, dullish, hard finish and is one of the most durable and
scuff resistant skins. Elephant skin boots are much more comfortable and breathable
than sharkskin boots although having superior scuff resistance.
GIANT BASS
This is material acquired from massive fish with proper scales and a huge pattern. It is
used for cowboy boots and the most famous maker is Anderson Bean.

GIRAFFE LEATHER
The tallest land mammal on the planet. Giraffe comes from south Africa. However, it is
an extremely rare leather that can only be procured after the animal dies of natural
causes. Additionally, it requires a lot of permit to import the hide which makes it very
costly. The coating is the most important part of Giraffe skin and it is not sanded out. It
has trapezoid patterns with a white background and a medium soft touch and grain to it.
Long lasting and quite stiff.
HIPPOPOTAMUS LEATHER
One of the most important leather among all leathers
that is hippopotamus, hippo leather comes from a strong
and fearsome animal. Battle scared in the wild with a
strong grainy texture, Hippo Leather is sanded to
smooth out the finish. Apparently it is also super soft
while at the same time comfortable and strong.
 KANGAROO LEATHER
Kangaroos have a large population in Australia, it
is not a leather that one see as often as calf for
men’s dress shoes. It is very popular for durable
footwear in the athletic industry due to its
properties. Strong, soft and with minimum break-in
period, Kangaroo leather is one of the most
comfortable leathers around. It has a lot of
qualities that make it better than calfskin. For starters, it has 10 times the tensile
strength of calf and 50% more than goatskin. Additionally, it is light with a very tight
fibre concentration but it is still prone to scratches. The fibres of Kangaroo leather
interlock as opposed to regular calf which is in horizontal layers.
KUDU
Kudu is a fascinating leather that comes usually from
African Antelopes .A beautiful material for tougher boots
due to its looks and rugged properties. These are wild
animals that run around, have scratches and graze bushes
and thorns that impact the skin. This creates a very distinct
pattern on the hide with a light grain and medium weight.
Every hide will be different because of this. Suede Kudu
on the other hand is extremely smooth and blemish free.
Tricker’s and Viberg make some very famous Kudu boots
and it is something I want to try in the future.
LIZARD LEATHER
A broad category that involves a few different kinds.
Famous lizard leather comes from Iguanas, Tejus and the
giant Komodo Dragons.The hides typically come from the
belly of the animal and have a small tile-shaped pattern.
Lizard leather also has a nice sheen and uniformity and can
take color rather well. Some use the back of the skin
(hornedback) and overall make fashion statement boots. The
advantage of Lizard leather is that it looks a bit like
crocodile and alligator but costs much less.
OSTRICH LEATHER
Ostrich leather are one of the strongest leathers. Super strong
due to its fibre structure (crossed instead of parallel), Ostrich
leather is possibly the most recognizable type of shoe leather.
This is due to the visible “bumps” on the surface of the
leather.
SHARKSKIN
Sharkskin is the toughest, most abrasion and scratch
resistant leather of them all. A leather with a very unique
grain that varies from the shark it comes from. Some skins
are stiffer than others but the general consensus is that
Sharkskin is hard to break in and not optimal for hotter
weather.

On the surface you will see some kinds of “raised” sections which receive the dye in
different ways. Lighter on the top than the bottom, it creates a mottled effect with a
linear grain. Sharkskin has incredible tensile strength with long fibre structures and
makes excellent work boots.
SNAKE LEATHER
Another convoluted category is snakes. It comprises of
multiple species but the most common ones are python,
rattlesnake and anaconda.
Python is popular and the most durable with a unique scale
pattern and color. You can dye it in multiple colors but natural snakeskin tends to be a
mix of white, black and brown. Depending on cut of the leather, it has different
characteristics. An example is cutting from the back or the belly of the snake. On
rattlesnakes the latter method is often preferred to showcase the diamond pattern of the
skin. Mostly prominent in women’s shoes, snakeskin has crawled its way to the men’s
fashion world too. It is Quite comfortable and soft; snakeskin is commercially farmed. It
is a very big fashion statement.
TINGRAY LEATHER
One of the toughest leathers of them all, the Stingray is
a majestic fish with a very recognizable shape.
Available in multiple colors with an amazing texture
feel, Stingray leather is premium and rare. Mostly used
on accessories and small items it is also an option for
making shoes. Texture wise, it looks like marbles or
small tiny pebbles and has a distinctive “star” shape like an opal in the middle of the
vamp.
It is incredibly tough and hard and will not stretch. Not the shoemaker’s favourite
leather though as it is so strong it can break needles. This means it is scratch resistant
and since the stingray is a sea creature, water resistant.

TOAD LEATHER
The Cane Toad is one of Australia’s most unpopular
animals. The reason for that is that it is a major
environmental pest whose population must be controlled.
These days humans use the skin of the Cane Toad to make
different leather goods ranging from bags to jackets and
shoes. Cane Toad leather is durable and strong with unique
properties and comes in a variety of finishes. The lining is
from pigskin and the poisonous sacks are very distinctive. A shoemaker needs more
than six hides to make a pair of shoes, which makes it very expensive.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF LEATHER
RAW MATERIAL

Leather is a natural protein polymer treated with tanning agents to make it resistant to
enzymatic attack and putrefaction and to improve its several physical properties. Leather is
made from hides and skins, which are by-products of slaughterhouses. Hides and skins are
obtained from fallen animals too. The outer covering of a small animal like sheep, goat etc. is
referred to as skin while that of the bigger animal like cow, buffalo, etc is hide. These raw
materials are obtained from a variety in size, shape, substance and structural characteristics
depending upon the animal, its age, sex, breed, food, climate and the care of the live animals.
The raw skin readily putrecises but not the processed leather. Leather is more resistant to
heat, hydrolysis and micro-organisms. The raw hide or skin is composed of about 60% water,
35% proteins (fibrous as well as non-fibrous) and the rest lipids, carbohydrates and mineral
salts (Buljan et al 1997). The fibrous protein collagen is the leather making material. The
various components of the animal skm 72 except the fibrous network of collagen are no more
useful and often detrimental to the making of good quality leather. These unwanted
components are therefore removed and skin brought into a condition by suitable processes
when it can resist bacterial, thermal, chemical and hydrolytic influences. The protein collagen
is retained with minimum of physical alterations while its reactivity is suitably modified by
tanning agents. In the conversion of hide or skin to finished leather about fifty different
operations are involved each affecting the previous and the next step. They are washed,
depilated, fed in various liquor, oiled, given massages, coloured and painted, decorated and
even scented. Unlike other finished materials/products, which are normally made from
standard raw material, leather needs careful and meticulous control during processing in
order to obtain a finished product of acceptable quality and requirements.

STAGES IN THE LEATHER PROCESSING

The processing of leather involves three distinct sets of unit operations. These are
i. Beamhouse or pre-tanning operations
ii. Tanning process
iii. Post-tanning operations including finishing.

BEAMHOUSE
In the beam house operations, the skins and hides received mostly in the wet salted
conditions in the tannery are processed to remove unwanted materials such as hair, flesh and
other proteinous materials and conditioned suitably for the tanning process. Tanning process
is the operation in which the skins and hides are converted into semi-finished leather. In
other words, the tanning process imparts resistance to the putrescible skins and hides against
bacterial degradation. Apart from this basic function, the tanning materials also impart
specific characteristics to the leather, many of which are unique to the nature of the tanning
materials used. In the post-tanning operations, the tanned semi-finished leathers are dyed to
give a colour determined by the fashion demand and fat liquored to impart the degree of
softness needed in the final leather and retanned to impart the filling, grain tightening and
improve the uniformity in substance. Before doing these basic post-tanning operations, it
might become necessary especially in the case of mineral tanned leathers to condition them
by adjusting the pH to suitable level m neutralisation process to get uniform results in
dyeing, retanning and fat liquoring.
PRE-TANNING OPERATIONS
Soaking
The skins and hides are received mostly in the wet salted conditions in the Indian tanneries.
So, the first operation performed in the tanneries is the soaking operation in which the salt is
removed and the goods are rehydrated to their original condition. In this process, the
adhering blood, dung and other soluble protein such as albumin and globulin are also
removed. Soaking is normally performed either in pits or 75 paddles. In the case of pits, the
skins and hides should be trampled in order to remove the salt and other adhering materials
and hence the first change of water is usually referred to as dirt soaking. Two or three
changes of water are necessary to bring back the raw material to the original condition. Wet
salted goods soak back easily whereas som* difficulties may be encountered in the case of
dry salted and dried skin and hides. 300-400 % water is used in each stage and it is a
common practice to use a non-ionic wetting agent to accelerate the process of soaking and a
bactericide to prevent bacterial damage. Sometimes, an alkaline soaking aid such as soda ash
or sodium sulphide might also b used in soaking process. Duration of soaking may vary from
3 hours f overnight depending on whether the material is skin or hide and nature of curing
the stock has undergone. Still longer soaking may be necessary in the case of sun-dried
stock.
LIMING PRIMARY
OBJECTIVES OF THE LIMING PROCESS
i. To remove the hair and flesh and
ii. to open up the fibre structures of the skins and hides by suitable plumping and
swelling.
Apart from these, a part of the natural fat or grease and other unwanted proteins such as
sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve tissues etc are also removed during the liming operations.
The important properties expected in the final leather can better be controlled in liming
process This fact is emphasised by the saying that the leather is made in the liming yard. The
liming process is carried out in two stages. In the first stage, which is called unhairing
process, the soaked stock is treated with a mixture of lime and sodium sulphide. This is
performed either in pits or 76 paddles for hides whereas a paint liming system is employed
for sheep and goatskins as a hair shaving method. In the pit or paddle unhairing process, 300-
400% water is employed whereas in the case of paint liming, only 10-15% water is used to
make a paste of suitable consistency. In the traditional pit method, a part of the old lime
liquor is recycled in the unhairing bath for the subsequent lot.
After the removal of the hair, the goods are relimed in order to open up the fibre structure
suitably depending upon the type of finished leathers to be made from them or the type of
tanning system to be employed. Reliming is carried out either in pits or paddles mostly with
300- 400% water and lime. Soda ash or sodium hydroxide may be used in small quantities to
improve swelling to obtain better opening up of fibre structure in shorter duration. After the
reliming, the goods are fleshed and scudded to remove short hair and dirt.
Deliming
After washing of the limed pelt to remove lime from the surface, they are delimed with
mostly ammonium salts viz. chlorides or sulphates to bring down the pH to 8 - 8.5. Usually a
complete deliming is performed for soft types of leathers whereas in the case of heavy and
firm types of leather like sole leather, it is customary to leave a streak of lime in the middle.
This process is carried out in drums with about 100% water and the subsequent operation,
bating is continued in the same bath.
Bating
The important objective of this unit operation is to purify the pelts by removing the
unwanted components consisting of the proteinous products, epidermis, short hair and the
scud. Interfibrillary proteins are also removed during the process to obtain proper grain
texture and achieve softness and flexibility in the finished leather. In bating, the proteolytic
enzymes based on mostly trypsin are used. After the deliming and bating, the pelts are
thoroughly washed to remove the salts formed during the process. They are then scudded and
washed.
Pickling
Pickling is carried out to bring down the pH to 2.5-3.0 so as to get quicker penetration and
more uniform distribution in chrome tanning. In the case of rapid method of vegetable
tanning, a partial pickling is done to a pH 4-4.5. The pelt is treated with a mixture of formic
and sulphuric acids, and sodium chloride is used to suppress the acid swelling due to drop in
pH and 10% salt concentration is considered necessary to suppress the swelling. 80% water
based on pelt weight is used in pickling process.
Degreasing
Though part of the fat and natural grease is removed during the liming process by
saponification, with skins like wool sheep skins which contain lot of fats, it might become
necessary to carry out degreasing process separately. The process may be carried out either
after deliming or after pickling, though it would be more effective after pickling. Due to
washing, the pH of pickled pelt increases and hence repickling is done to bring down the pH
to 2.8 before commencing chrome tanning.
TANNING PROCESS
Tanning process is the most important unit operation involved in the leather processing not
only because it imparts the resistance against bacterial degradation and improves the
durability but because of the fact that it imparts specific characteristics to the leather like
hydrothermal stability, fullness, the charge characteristics and hence the affinity for post-
tanning chemicals and auxiliaries. The materials that are used for tanning of skins and hides
are chrome, vegetable tanning materials, aluminium and zirconium salts, aldehydes like
formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, oils such as fish oil etc The most popularly used materials
are chrome and vegetable materials Chrome tanned leathers and vegetable tanned leathers
form the important raw materials for the manufacture of different types of finished leathers.
CHROME TANNING
The chrome tanning is done using wooden drums. The process is continued in pickle bath
itself after draining the float. 8 - 10% chrome in the form of Basic Chromium Sulphate
(BCS) is offered along with a cationic or multicharged fat liquor. Now acid and electrolyte
stable fat liquors (Rajamani et al 1998) are also employed in place of cationic fat liquors.
Chrome tanning is started at a pH around 2.8 and finally after ensuring complete penetration,
the pH is raised to 3.8-4.0 during basification to complete chrome tanning. A mixture of
sodium formate and bicarbonate is used for basification. Total float volume at the end of
chrome tanning is about 100-150% and total duration of tanning process is about 6-8 hrs.
VEGETABLE TANNING PROCESS
 In vegetable tanning, the pelts are treated with extracts of bark, nuts, leaves or heartwoods
of certain plants. The most commonly used tanning materials are wattle, avaram, konnam,
myrobalan, babul, quebracho, cutch, etc., The vegetable tanning materials are polyphenohc
compounds and form colloidal dispersions in water. In the conventional method, the tanning
used to be carried out in a series of pits containing the liquors in the increasing order of
concentrations and the goods used to stay in each pit for 2-3 days and the total duration of
the vegetable tanning alone used to take around 30-60 days for completion. Today, mostly
the rapid method is followed by many tanners A short pre-tanning at a pH 4.2 for 6 days
followed by drum tanning is the usual tanning method followed nowadays. Some tanners
also follow only drum tanning method to cut down the time and drudgery. In the rapid
method, a treatment with phenolic pre-tanning syntan is given before commencing vegetable
tanning to quicken the penetration and it is also customary to use sulphated vegetable
fatliquor during tanning (Chandra Babu 1998). In the case of drum tanning method, the float
employed is very minimal ranging from 20-40% whereas in the case of pit tanning it may go
upto 300-400% on the pelt weight. In the El making, the vegetable tanned leathers are given
a bleaching with oxalic acid and a bleaching syntan to remove the iron stains and to impart
uniform colour and treated with an infusion of myrobalan nuts to obtain a light colour and
light fastness characteristics. Oiling with pungam oil or groundnut oil is carried out 82 before
drying to avoid grain crackiness and imparting lightfastness Epsom salt and glucose are used
to increase the weight of the El leathers
POST-TANNING OPERATIONS

Wet blue leathers and El leathers are the raw materials for the production of many finished
leathers. Vegetable tanned leathers possess many good qualities but lack in hydrothermal
stability and affinity for dyes and fatliquors. So usually a retanning with chrome is carried
out to improve these properties before they are processed into different finished leathers.
This is called semi-chroming. The unit operations involved in semi-chroming are as follows:
1. Stripping to remove unfixed or unwanted tannins from the leather and also to remove oils
and greases from the leather using alkalis such as borax or sodium bicarbonate with sodium
sulphite and degreasing agent. Float employed is about 500% of the dry El weight basis. 2.
Stripping is followed by a thorough wash with about 600% water and bleaching with oxalic
acid and bleaching syntan with about 300 to 400% float to remove iron stains formed during
the shaving operation and to get a uniform ColourWashing with 600% water is done after
bleaching. 3. Souring to pH 3.0 - 3.3 with 300% water and formic acid is carried out and the
chrome tanning is commenced in the same bath. Cationic or muliteharge fatliquors are also
used along with chrome and the tanning is completed at pH 3.8 83 4.0 using sodium formate
and sodium bicarbonate mixture during the basification stage.
RECHROMING OF WET BLUE LEATHERS
The chrome tanned semi-finished wet blue leather is split into two parts. The grain part is
used for quality leather and the split is used for lining purposes. These splits also are further
shaved and trimmed before wet finishing operations. The double width shaving machine
used for big hides. The wet blue leathers, after splitting/shaving are rechromed again for
equalisation of chrome in a pack of leather and in different layers of the same leathers before
the post tanning operations. The sequence of unit operations for wet blue and semi chrome
leather would be the same
NEUTRALISATION
The primary object of neutralisation is to neutralise the excess acid present in wet blue/semi-
chrome leathers, which interferes with subsequent operations like dyeing, fatliquoring and
retanning. The extent of neutralisation would depend on the desired properties of the finished
leathers. The agents commonly used for neutralisation are sodium formate, sodium
bicarbonate, sodium sulphite, ammonium bicarbonate, neutralising syntan, etc. Float
employed is 100-150% shaved
RETANNING

Retanning is done to impart

i. filling of the loose portions
ii. ii. fullness, round feel and body to the leather and
iii. iii. tightness of the grain.
The main retanning materials are
i. vegetable tanning materials
ii. Phenolic syntans
iii. Acrylic and other resin tanning materials
 iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
iv.
protein based tanning agents
v. whitening syntans
vi. polyurethane syntans.

DYEING
Leathers are dyed to impart colour as demanded
by the fashion. The dyes used in leather can be classified into
Acid dyes, Direct dyes , Basic dyes ,Metal complex dyes ,Reactive dyes.
The most commonly used dyes are acid, direct and metal complex dyes. Sometimes basic
dyes are used for darker shades like blacks and some browns. Reactive dyes are seldom
used in leather processing. The leather dyes are recently coming under close scrutiny of the
environmental authorities. Germany has recently come out with a ban on use of benzidine
and related aromatic amines based dye stuff.
FATLIQUORING
Fatliquoring of leathers are performed to impart softness, flexibility, feel, drape, run, etc.
The strength properties are also improved by fatliquoring. Fatliquors are oil in water
emulsions. The oils and fats are converted into emulsions by a process of sulphation,
sulphonation, sulphitation or sulphochlorination.

The fatliquors, based on their charge characteristics are classified into

1. anionic
2. cationic
3. non- ionic and
4. multichar
ged

fatliquors.
They are also classified based on the origin of the oils as
i. vegetable oils
ii. ii. animal oils which include marine based oils and
iii. iii. synthetic oils based on long chain hydro carbons, long chain fatty esters and
long chain fatty alcohols etc.
All the three unit operations are carried out together in the same bath mostly and the dyes
and fatliquors will have to be fixed by the addition of formic acid. The float volume
employed is about 100%. After these unit operations, the leathers are dried.
FINISHING

Finishing of leather consists in the application of a firm forming material to the grain to
provide aesthetic appeal and to improve the sale value of the leather. It also provides
surface protection against rubbing, abrasion and staining. The defects of the grain are
covered by the protective coat and hence the cutting value is also very much enhanced
Finishing formulations contain pigments and dyes for colouring, binders based on casein or
acrylates or polyurethane for binding, wax emulsions for feel modification, fillers for
readjustment in optical property and nitro cellulose or cellulose acetate butyrate or other
hard resins for surface coat protection. Formaldehyde is used for fixing for casein based
finishes.