MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 General

T h e re a re a n im m e n s e n um b e r of g o vern m e n t b u ilding s, w h ic h in clud e th e h o spitals,

g o v ern m e n t sch o ols a n d co lle g e s, q u a rte rs for go v ern m e n t w o rke rs, e tc. T he se
b u ilding s ra n ge fro m sing le store y h ou s es to a p artm e nts of s ev e ra l sto re ys, a n d v a ry
in a g e s, b ut a re alm os t alw a ys of R C fram e d co n stru ctio n. T he y a re o w n e d a n d
m ainta in ed b y v a rio us g o v ern m e n t d e p artm e nts.

Problems in building are rather common in Malaysia and often hit the news
headlines when the problems led to loss of lives or when large sums of public
funds were involved in their remedies. Problems in government buildings are
often referred to JKR regardless of whether JKR was involved in the planning,
design, award of tenders or supervision of these buildings in the first place. The
investigation of this problem is often carried out by JKR personnel from the
Districts, States or KL HQ, who acquire the knowledge and skills in inspection
“on the job”, rather than through a formal training.

T o da y, th ere m a y b e a hiera rch y of roles an d res p o nsib ilities alre a d y e xistin g in JK R

in b u ild in g m ainte n a nc e , b u t th ere is still a te nd e n c y for m o st b uild in g p ro b le m s,
com plex o r sim ple, to b e refe rre d to JK R H Q . T h e m a in re a s o n s for th is u n d e sira ble
p h e n o m e no n are:

• La ck of a form a l bu ilding m a inten an ce m an a g em e n t syste m w ithin JK R an d

th us n o cle ar in stru ctio n s to th e D istricts a nd S tates o n bu ildin g insp e ctio n
• N o training prog ram for D istrict a nd S tate in sp e ctors;
• N o stan da rd or w e ll-define d gu id eline s for the inspe ctio n of b uildin gs a n d
re po rtin g of p roblem s in building s.

The Manual and its companion handbooks attempt to provide an answer to these
shortcomings. The Manual, meant for civil/structural engineers in JKR HQ,
presents an overall concept of the new arrangement in building maintenance
management for JKR. It outlines an inspection plan that defines clearly the
respective roles and responsibility of District JKR, State JKR and JKR HQ in
building inspection. Under this plan, the principal role of JKR HQ is to coordinate
the building inspection and maintenance activities train District and State
inspectors; and carry out investigation of the reported building problem when the
problem is too complex for the Districts and States to handle. The materials in
the Manual and handbooks can be useful for conducting training.

T h is M a nu al is de ve lo p e d to ge the r w ith tw o in sp ectio n h a n d b o o ks: o ne for D istrict

JK R (H a nd bo ok 1) an d th e oth er, S tate JK R (H an d b o o k 2). T he ha nd bo ok s co ntain
in spe ction proce d ure a n d sta nd ard che cklist a n d su m m a ry rep ort form s for re co rding
an d rep ortin g. They also contain information on common problems in RC

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

buildings, why they occur, and how to remedy them? Th e tw o ha n d b o oks a re

com pile d in se pa ra te volum es for distribu tion s to th e S tate s an d D istricts. F o r th e
sake of com p leten ess, the co nte nts are also in clud e d in th e A pp e n dice s of this
M a n u a l.

T h is M a n u al co nsists of 5 ch a p te rs. C h a pte r 1 e xp lain s th e sco p e co v ere d a n d

d efinitio ns for som e of th e m ore im p o rtan t te rm s us e d in th e M a n u al. C h a p te r 2
d iscu sse s th e in sp ection p la n a n d th e va rio u s typ e s of b uild in g in sp ection in th e
co n te xt of th e p la n. In C h a pter 3, de scription of d iffere nt typ e s of pro blem s
com m o n ly fou n d in R C b uild in g is m a d e. D iscu ssio n of com m o n ca u s es of th e
p ro b le m s is vital for d ia gn osis du rin g b uilding insp ectio ns. C ha pter 4 o utlin es th e
re pa ir a n d othe r re m e dies to th e prob le m s. C h ap ter 5 gives th e con clud ing re m arks,
re co m m e nd in g im p le m e ntation of the bu ilding insp ectio n p ro gra m . T he A pp en dice s
con sist of full size d insp e ction form s an d d u p licatio n of th e H a n d b o o ks.

1.2 Scope

This Manual covers the following aspects:

i. Building fabric
ii. Government buildings
iii. Appraisal of condition

It does not cover inspection of the facilities such as air-condition, lifts, electrical
networks and plumbing: for such services a Mechanical/Electrical engineer shall
be engaged. The inspection shall involve appraisal of the physical condition of
the building fabric based on visual inspection. It does not cover structural
investigation for severe damage; nor strength evaluation of the structural
members. These shall be carried out by JKR HQ.

Further, this Manual applies solely to inspection in response to complaints

received, and not periodic inspection required under the Ministry of Housing
Drainage Act [1]. The inspection focuses on the element in question rather than
on each and every element (as for periodic inspections).

1.3 Definitions

The definitions used in this Manual either follow international publications or

existing JKR practices, notably terms used in the JKR bridge management
system.

Building distress
Condition of the building fabric that suggests loss of structural integrity

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Building fabric*
Elements and components of a building other than furniture and services

Building inspector
Person carrying out an inspection or examination of the area or item concerned,
and reporting on its condition

Building maintenance*
Work, other than daily and routine cleaning, necessary to maintain the
performance of the building fabric and its services

Building problem
Any performance shortfall that has manifested in the form of irregularities like
defect, deterioration or damage

Client*
Person responsible for the running and maintenance of a building, who may or
may not be the legal owner or the legal owner’s agent or representative. The
client will be the person to whom a professional adviser will report, and who will
be able to order maintenance works to be carried out

Damage
Physical damage caused by mechanical means. It is also used to describe all
irregularities that arise from defect, deterioration or physical damage; as used in
REAM bridge inspection guide [2]

Defect
Irregularities due to faulty construction or poor workmanship

Deterioration
Irregularities that arise from time dependent mechanism resulting in a loss of
material, which may or may not cause reduction in structural capacity

Owner*
Person or body having a legal interest in a building. This includes freeholders,
leaseholders or those holding a sub-lease which both bestows a legal right to
occupation and gives rise to liabilities in respect of safety or building condition

Remedial work*
Redesign and work necessary to restore the integrity of a construction to a
standard that will allow the construction to perform its original function

Repair*
Restoration of an item to an acceptable condition by the renewal, replacement or
mending of worn, damaged or decayed parts
*
Definitions follow BS 8210: 1986 [3]

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Chapter 2 The building

maintenance management
and
types of building inspection

2.1 General

Considering the fact that a building is an asset which needs to be maintained to

ensure that its value is not eroded, the UK had published a British Standard BS
8210:1986 [3] to provide guidance on a systematic approach to the management
of building maintenance in the UK. Much like the better known pavement
management system and bridge management system, the so-called “systematic
approach” is useful in coordinating bridge management activities: inspection and
reporting on building, archiving of building records; and maintenance, etc.

JKR has yet to establish a building maintenance management system to assist in

the management of inventory, periodic inspection and maintenance of
government buildings. Pending creation of such a system an inspection plan
identifying and defining the roles of each party within JKR that is involved in
building maintenance is needed.

2.2 JKR set-up for building maintenance

In the existing JKR set-up, three parties are involved in the management of
building problems: District JKR, State JKR and the Forensic Unit of JKR HQ in
KL (JKR HQ). Though there may be slight variations from state to state, the
traditional role of each party is thus: the District plays the role of the “site agent”,
being the first party to be at the site in case of any building problems and also the
party to implement any instructions from the State or JKR HQ; the State, the role
of advisor in dealing with the Clients and the authorities. The JKR HQ provides
technical advice. These roles need to be redefined as described below.

A complete surveillance of a building would entail the following phases:

i. Detection of problem
ii. Appraisal of problem and
iii. Diagnosis of problem and recommend remedial actions

Without a building maintenance management system, detection of problem is

hitherto achieved by taking complaints from the Clients, Owners or public
members. When such a system is in store in the future, building problems would
also be detected in a routine periodic inspection.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

2.3 The Inspection plan

Appraisal and diagnosis of a problem and recommendations for remedies are

carried out during a building inspection. These activities shall be carried out at
three levels, each inspection filters out building problems to be attended to at the
next level: District level, State level and HQ level. The new scheme of building
inspection, stating clearly the role of each party, is depicted in the flow chart in
Fig. 2-4.

Client reports problems

District JKR conducts Conditions insp.

Structural No District JKR District JKR

problem? recommends documents
solutions

Yes
District JKR reports to State JKR
State JKR conducts Confirmatory insp.

State JKR State JKR

Complex No recommends documents
problems? solutions

Yes
State JKR reports to JKR HQ JKR HQ JKR HQ
JKR HQ conducts Special recommends documents
investigation solutions

Fig. 2-4 Inspection plan

2.3.1 Conditions inspection

Upon receipt of a complaint from the Client, the District inspector shall conduct a
Conditions inspection. The main aim is to determine if the problem is critical or
not; and whether the problem should be referred to the State or JKR HQ.
Further, pending instruction from the State or JKR HQ, what temporary measure
should be carried out?

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Conditions inspection is a visual inspection aims at determining the condition of

the building component in question. The inspector shall determine the severity
and extent of the damage against the checklists and assign a rating (see Table
2-1). Conditions Inspection Handbook or Handbook 1, meant for the District,
provides further details on the procedure of inspection, description of common
damage/defects on RC buildings; as well as simple remedies to problems on
architectural elements.

Table 2-1 Condition rating for Conditions inspection

Rating Description

1 No damage found and no maintenance required.

2 Damage detected and it is necessary to record the condition for observation

purposes.

3 Damage detected is slightly critical and thus it is necessary to implement routine

maintenance work.

4 Damage detected is critical and in large part and thus it is necessary to implement
repair work or to conduct a detail inspection to determine whether any rehabilitation
works are required.

Being heavily and critically damaged, possibly affecting the safety of the building, it
5 is necessary to implement an emergency temporary repair work immediately or
rehabilitation work without any delay after evacuating the occupants and cordoning
off the area.

* It is important to note that in appraising the degree of damage account must be

taken of the location in the building where it occurs, and also of the function of
the element.

Checklists and summary forms for Conditions inspection (Form JKR/BuI/1-06)

are given in Appendix A. The damage codes used in the checklists are adopted
from the ‘Bridge Inspection Guide’ published by Road Engineering Association
Malaysia (REAM) [2]. The reasons for using the same codes are:
i. familiarity of the District technicians with these codes
ii. need for a uniform damage code within JKR

Besides assigning condition rating, the inspector has also to make a judgment
about the severity of the problem. Guidance on this is given in Handbook 1. The
simple rule of thumb is: determine if the damage is structural. If it is structural, is
it critical? If it is critical, is there a need to evacuate the occupants and/or cordon
off the area? The District will only tackle non-structural problems. Structural
problems should be referred to the State.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Conditions inspection shall be carried out by technicians or technical assistants

trained in building inspection. The Building Engineer and District Engineer shall,
however, take full responsibility in the inspection and provide all the necessary
supports to the inspectors. Both Engineers must countersign on the inspection
forms.

2.3.2 Confirmatory inspection

The State inspector shall respond to the District by conducting a Confirmatory

inspection. It is a visual inspection aims at determining if the problem is indeed
critical and whether the problem should be reverted to the District, to resolve at
the State level or be referred to the JKR HQ. The State inspector must also
assess the situations and to decide if there is a need for temporary measures,
evacuation of occupants and/or cordon off the area. The conditions are
categorized in six grades (see Table 2-2).

Besides appraising the severity of the problem reported, the inspector must also
carry out diagnosis to establish the source of the problem. If necessary,
monitoring of the condition shall also be carried out to support the diagnosis and
to determine if the problem has progressed.

Confirmatory inspection handbook or Handbook 2 provides guidance on the

procedures for carrying out an inspection and reporting the damage. The
handbook contains description of common damage/defects on RC buildings; as
well as structural repair techniques. Form JKR/BuI/2-06-Confirmatory Building
Inspection Report is given in Appendix B.

Table 2-2 Grading system for Confirmatory inspection

Grade Condition* Recommended action to be taken
A Good Condition Do nothing.
B Minor Resolve problem at State level.
C Moderate Resolve problem at State level.
D Severe Remove all heavy live loads e.g., Furniture, safe. Install
temporary measures e.g., props, scaffolding etc. Cordon off area.
Inform all relevant authorities. Inform JKR HQ.
E Potentially Remove all heavy live loads e.g., furniture, safe. Install temporary
Hazardous measures e.g., props, scaffolding etc. Cordon off area. Inform all
relevant authorities. Inform JKR HQ.
F Unsafe Evacuate the occupants. Cordon off the area. Inform all relevant
authorities. Inform JKR HQ.
* It is important to note that in appraising the degree of damage account must be
taken of the location in the building where it occurs, and also of the function of
the element.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Confirmatory inspection shall be carried out by civil/structural engineers trained in

building inspection. The State Director shall, however, take responsibility in the
inspection and provide all the necessary supports to the inspectors. He shall
countersign on the inspection forms.

2.3.3 Diagnosis

The root cause of a problem cannot always be determined with absolute certainty
from a single visit. Inspection may have to be repeated at intervals. Diagnosis
can be achieved by studying the crack patterns (see guidelines given in
Handbook 2). Sometimes testing (NDTs or material tests on cored samples)
and/or monitoring must be carried out to support visual observations. A thorough
knowledge of the history of the components and of the buildings is also helpful.

A good understanding of structural behaviour and material properties is

indispensable for an accurate diagnosis. Fundamental concepts in these areas
are presented in Chapter 3. A few general observations taken from Ref. [4] and
Ref. [5] are included here for ease of reference as they can be of great help in
diagnosis:

• Cracks due to foundation movements are relatively uncommon. Only a

proportion of foundation movements produce appreciable cracking.
• Foundation movement will normally cause damage to all structural
elements supported including floors.
• Cracks from foundation movements are often very large: widths of 5 to
25mm are not uncommon.
• Cracks from thermal and moisture movements are generally between
0.5mm and 5mm wide.
• Random cracking of concrete slabs, concrete units or cement-based
renderings can be the result of a number of mechanisms; chemical,
petrographic or x-ray analysis of the affected material is usually needed to
establish the cause.
• Cracks due to thermal contraction are characteristically of uniform width
throughout the length and located at points of greatest restraint or at
changes of section. These characteristics are also shared by moisture-
induced contraction and should therefore consider first whether the
material concerned is susceptible to moisture-induced movement.

The above points are merely pointers. Since cracks caused by foundation
movements are not common, the logical first step in any diagnosis is to seek
causes that originate within the building rather than within the ground. In the
case of checking if cracking is indeed due to differential settlement of supports,

i. Look and study at crack patterns (see Handbook 2 )

ii. Ask questions:

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

• Is it replicated on the inside of the building?

• Does it extend below dpc (damp proof course) level?
• Is the width of the crack tapered?
• Is the crack located where maximum structural distortion and
structural weakness or change of section coincide?

If the answer to any of the first three questions is no, differential foundation
movement is an unlikely cause. The possibility that it is the cause increases with
each successive “yes” answer to all four questions. Further questions to ask are:

• Is the crack less than about 5mm wide of longstanding?

• Is the crack location related to possible causes of differential foundation
movements?
• Is the building on ground that could give rise to differential settlement?

2.3.4 Monitoring

Monitoring movements and monitoring crack width changes can be useful as a

means of confirming any supposed cause besides checking if the damage is
dormant or progressive. If the cracks or movements are progressive, an
immediate action must be taken.

The inspector must decide on location, frequency and type of monitoring to be

carried out. Some of the common monitoring devices are:

i. Tell-tale crack glass strip

A piece of thin glass strip is glued with rigid epoxy over the crack. Any
movement will cause the glass to crack.
ii. A thin straight line is drawn across the crack (use a thin permanent
marker). Any movement will cause the line to skew. Measure the gap
with a crack scale to determine if the movement is large.
iii. 2 stud pins are fixed across the crack and the distance measured (e.g.,
using a “Demec gauge”). Any movement will change the distance
between the 2 pins.
iv. Direct measurement across the crack with a steel rule.

Ref. [6] and Ref. [7] provide further information on monitoring.

2.4 Referencing system

A referencing system is necessary for making sure that personnel of the

inspection and maintenance team will have a common understanding in locating
a problem in the buildings.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

The referencing system is based on an imaginary clock placed centrally in the

plan of a building with the 12:00 o’ clock position referring to the wall facing the
inspector as he enters a building or a room. Subsequently, the right, rear and left
wall shall be referenced as 3:00, 6:00 and 9:00 o’ clock positions respectively i.e.
following the clock orientation. Each floor of a building shall be identified as
‘level’ with Level 0 defined as the level where the main access is situated.
Basement floor (if there is) shall bear a name with negative number.

Wall at 12oclock ROOM 1

12
Wall at 12 oclock

9
9 3

12
6
6

3
Wall at 3oclock
Main door

Wall at 6oclock

Fig. 2-5: Example of referencing system

Fig. 2-5 shows an example of a referencing system for a building and its rooms.
The building components that the inspector faces as he enters a building or room
shall be taken as 12 o’clock position. The reason for adopting this system is that


buildings could be in all sorts of shapes such as rectangle, octagon, hexagon etc
or having several blocks interconnecting one another. In such cases the
inspector may loose his orientation as he is conducting his inspection.

2.5 Qualification and training of a building inspector

It is imperative that a department-wide building maintenance team be set up

comprising relevant personnel from JKR HQ, the States or Districts. Suitable
candidates need to be selected and trained as building inspectors. In general, a
good inspector should possess the general traits as follows:

i. Reliability
ii. Technical and communication skills
iii. Health
iv. Attitude
v. Inquisitive mind

Training by personnel from the JKR HQ or a consultant must be carried out

regularly to achieve three main objectives:

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

i. transfer of knowledge
ii. sustain interests of regional inspectors
iii. maintain coherence of the overall building maintenance management
procedure

2.6 Equipment

Building inspector needs to have equipment to help him access for close
examination of the problem, to take measurements, to appraisal, to record
findings and to ensure his own safety during the inspection. Some equipment
may be expensive. Some of them require special training for their use and
interpretation of the results. It makes sense that the State and District inspectors
should possess knowledge in the use of the equipment.

Basic equipment is enlisted in Table 2-3 through Table 2-7.

Table 2-3 Access equipment

No. Types of equipment Functions
1. Ladder For accessing to a height of 3m
2. Binoculars For viewing long distance in lieu of
gaining access

Table 2-4 Safety equipment

No. Types of equipment Functions
1. Safety helmet For protection of the head
2. Safety boots For protection of the feet
3. First-aid kits For first-aid treatments
4. Goggles For protection of the eyes
5. Overalls For protection of the body

Table 2-5 Measuring equipment

No. Types of equipment Functions
1. 5m measuring tapes For measuring short dimensions
2. 50m measuring tapes For measuring longer dimensions
3. Distometer For measuring longer dimensions
4. Vernier callipers For measuring plate thickness
5. Crack scale For measuring surface crack width
6. Spirit levels For measuring degree of tilting
7. Plumb bob For measuring degree of tilting

Table 2-6 Recording equipment

No. Types of equipment Functions
1. Camera with flash For taking photographs

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2. Clipboard For filling up forms

3. Paper For drawing sketches
4. Markers, pens and pencils For marking and writing
5. Blackboard, chalk & duster For identification in photographs

Table 2-7 Assessment equipment

No. Types of equipment Functions
1. Tapping hammer For checking voids or delaminations
2. Schmidt hammer For checking hardness or
consistency of concrete
3. Phenolphthalein and spray For determining occurrence of
bottle carbonation

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Chapter 3 Problems in buildings:

Why do they occur?

3.1 General

Common types of problems that JKR is often called upon to tackle are:

• Cracks on structural elements

• Cracks on architectural elements
• Leaking problems
• Spalling or delamination of concrete
• Settlement of apron due to soil subsidence
• Differential settlement

These problems can be due to error in design or construction, defective

workmanship, deterioration of material or physical damage. Though each of
these problems is sometimes referred to as defect, deterioration or damage (to
indicate the cause of problem – see Definitions in Chapter 1) they are all
identified in this Manual and handbooks as “damage”. Description of common
damage found in government buildings is given in Handbook 1 under the names
and codes (in brackets) of:

i. Cracks in concrete (6)

ii. Spalling of concrete (7)
iii. Exposed reinforcements (12)
iv. Delamination (14)
v. Water leak (16)
vi. Tilting of column (18)

It is clear, from earlier discussions in Chapter 2, that an inspector must be

sufficiently knowledgeable to carry out his duties in appraisal and diagnosis of a
building problem; and recommending a remedial solution. Notwithstanding
guidance already given in the Manual, a building inspector must have
fundamental knowledge in structural behaviour of an RC structure under load as
well as concrete properties, notably, the mechanisms of deterioration in concrete.
This chapter aims to discuss a few important fundamental concepts as a
precursor to discussion and categorization of damage.

3.2 Behaviour of RC buildings and load-induced problems

The government buildings which JKR has often attend to are largely of concrete
frame construction (Fig. 3-1).

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Fig. 3-1 Structural elements in a standard

RC frame building [Adapted from Ref: 8]

The components of the building can be broadly divided into structural elements
and architectural elements. Structural elements are those needed to carry the
loads while architectural elements are those for aesthetics or protection and not
for load-bearing. Examples of structural elements are beam, column, wall, and
stairs. Cladding, apron, render or plaster to the wall, screed on the floor are all
examples of architectural elements. Structural elements and architectural
elements are collectively known as building fabric, as distinct from building
services such as air-condition ducts, plumbing, etc.

Beams are structural members designed to withstand load that is transverse to

their main axis. The load effects induced in a beam are mainly bending, torsion
and shear. Columns are structural members expected to carry compression
(parallel to their axis) and bending forces. The behaviour of beams and columns
under uniformly distributed load can be seen from Fig. 3-2 and Fig. 3-3,
respectively.

Note that in both cases, the tension sides of the members can be predicted from
the deflected shape of the member under load; or more objectively, from the
bending moment diagrams. Concrete is known to possess high resistance in
compression but weak in tension. This is why engineer provides steel reinforcing
bars in the tension zone of the structural member of an RC construction.

Slab and Wall are also structural members. Floor slab which spans over the
beams is known as a one-way slab. Its behaviour can be reckoned as individual
strips of beams. In the case of the two-way slab, which has beams in an
approximately square grid, the behaviour may be more complex. Yield-line

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theory* offers some ideas on how a concrete slab, either one-way or two-way
would fail under a load (see Fig. 3-4 and Fig. 3-5).

Bending Moment Diagram

Fig. 3-2 Bending effect of a continuous beam under a udl

Bending Moment Diagram

Fig. 3-3 Bending effect of a column under vertical load

*
Yield-line theory is a plastic method of analysis based on Upper bound concept. The reader is referred to standard text books
on structural mechanics. Only limited knowledge is required by building inspectors.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Free edge

Free edge
Fig. 3-4 Yield lines in one-way slab

Free edge
a) Four simply supported edges b) Three simply supported edges
Fig. 3-5 Yield lines in two-way slab

In order that a building is safe every structural element is designed such that it is
of such a size that its resistance in terms of a certain load effect (R) is larger than
the expected effect caused by an expected action (S) during its design life. An
action is anything that gives rise to stresses in a structure. It includes load which
are forces acting on the structural elements or movement or deformation, which
does not result from the applied loads but which causes stresses in a structure.
Movement can be internal, due to shrinkage, temperature change or creep. It
can also be externally applied, as in the case of differential support settlement.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Logically, when the resistance in a structural member is less than the load
effects, that is R<S, failure will take place. In the more severe situation, the
member will exhibit signs of distress, commonly in the form of cracks. We call
this a load-induced crack and often regarded this type of problem as a “Structural
problem”.

As mentioned earlier, the requirement of structural safety is ensured by keeping

R>S. There can be many ways that this inequality is reversed:

• Design error: wrong estimation of R or S in design calculations

Induce S or reduce R
• Construction error or defect
Induce S or reduce R
• Change of use
Induce S
• Change of environment, for example, ground movement
Induce S
• Deterioration
Reduce R

In regard to ground movement, there is a need to make a distinction between

settlement and subsidence. Settlement is defined as the downward movement
of a structure caused by compression of the ground by foundation loads. A total
settlement of the structure is usually of no immediate concern. It is the
differential settlement of the supports that is likely to induce stresses and
damage to the structure. Subsidence is the downward movement of the soil
caused by activity in the ground; which may or may not cause settlement of the
structure. A common subsidence problem involves cracking of the apron. While
it may initially be an architectural problem it may be sign of problematic soil
conditions. As such this should be monitored on a regular basis.

3.3 Mechanism of concrete deterioration and corrosion-induced

problems

The concrete and steel components in a RC member work in “perfect harmony”

not only in terms of load sharing: concrete taking compression and steel, tension.
Concrete has a pH of 12.5 which provides an alkaline environment that protects
the reinforcement bars from corrosion. However, when carbon dioxide
penetrates into the concrete (and in the presence of water) the pH value is
reduced to about 9.5 and the passivating or protective layer is destroyed.
Corrosion due to carbonation can then commence.

Chloride-induced problem usually happens in marine or coastal areas. In the

presence of chloride, corrosion of reinforcements can take place even for
concrete in alkaline environment.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Corrosion of steel from carbonation or chloride will cause it to expand and induce
cracks in concrete. Cracking often leads to spalling of concrete if left unattended.
Spalling is a fragment which has been detached from a larger concrete mass.
This happens when small isolated areas of steel develop pitting which have
expansive forces during the corrosion process. The expansive forces cause the
concrete to break in small pieces. As corrosion spreads, the reinforcing bars
which are tied in a grid-like position will break in a large panel. This is termed as
delamination.

Another common aggressive agent is sulfates. In DEF (delayed ettringite

formation) and ISA (internal sulfate attack) sulfate (e.g., sodium and calcium
sulfates) in the soluble form reacts with hydrated lime in the cement to form
ettringites and gypsum. These will then expand and cause disintegration in the
concrete. Cracks of map-like pattern are often the results.

Problem due to deterioration of material is an entirely different type of problem

from the load-induced problem. We call this corrosion-induced problem. This
type of problem, there is often no immediate concern for structural safety.
However, though it is not a structural problem, it may lead to one when corrosion
has caused too much loss of section.

3.4 Intrinsic properties of concrete and intrinsic problems

Quite independent of the load-induced problem and corrosion-induced problem

we discussed above, there is yet another type of problem associated with RC
construction. This time the intrinsic properties of concrete themselves are the
source of problem. Concrete shrinks when the temperature drops or when it
dries up. When this shrinkage is restrained tension stresses are induced and
cracking occur. This is normally known as intrinsic problem.

Non-structural cracks due to intrinsic movement in concrete can be in the

following forms:

• Random pattern
• Following line of reinforcement
• Fine vertical cracks at regular interval in beams
• Fine vertical or horizontal cracks at regular interval in columns
• Transverse cracks at regular interval in slabs

Crack pattern and the time of crack appearing give a broad guide in diagnosing
the type of cracks.

Intrinsic cracks affect only the aesthetics and do not endanger the stability of a
structure. However, in some situations when left unattended may lead to
structural problems. For example, a shrinkage crack may allow water to leak and

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

lead to corrosion problems in the reinforcement bars that will then reduce the
carrying capacity of a structural member.

There are several types of intrinsic cracks:

• plastic shrinkage cracks

• plastic settlement cracks
• thermal cracks (internal restraint and external restraint cracks)
• long term drying shrinkage cracks
• crazing or map cracks

A good description and discussion of intrinsic cracks is given in Concrete society

report No.22 [6]. For the convenience of building inspectors, a few important
notes are summarized in Handbook 2.

3.5 Other causes of problem

Mechanical damage, for example, impact damage by a vehicle or vibration

damage sometimes does occur to a building. Depending on the building
elements involved and the severity of the damage this type of problem can lead
to a structural collapse of the building. It is important that a thorough inspection
of the building, not restricted to conspicuous damage, be carried out. It often
requires much experience and knowledge to appraisal the extent of mechanical
damage. If in doubt the matter must be quickly reported to a higher authority.

Fire damage is not in the scope of this Manual. Problems must be immediately
referred to JKR HQ.

3.6 Categorization of damage

Different types of damage are summarized in a “tree” as shown in Fig. 3-6. As a

general rule of thumb: damage to structural elements needs special attention;
damage to architectural elements often is of no immediate concern. However, it
is prudent for building inspectors to regard damage as a signal that the building
sends us to notify us that it is in distress. Thus, they must take heed of the
warning as small, seemingly insignificant damage such as the jamming of doors,
may be precursors to a structural collapse.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Damage

Stability damage Aesthetics damage

(to structural elements) (to architectural elements)

Load Non- Others Load Non- Others

induced structural induced structural

Corrosion Intrinsic Corrosion Intrinsic

induced induced

Fig. 3-6 Categorization of damage

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Chapter 4 Recommended remedies

to building problems
4.1 General
An important outcome of a building inspection is the recommendations from the
inspectors. The recommendations must be definitive: whether a remedial action
is needed or not. If a remedy is required, what is it? This chapter is intended to
summarise common remedies to assist District and State inspectors in making
such recommendations.

It must be acknowledged that concrete repair is a complex process and requires

specific skills. The work is often outsourced to competent short listed repair
contractors. This Manual will only provide a brief material selection guide and
repair techniques for common problems.

Repair in concrete fundamentally involve replacing damaged concrete with repair

materials. The materials and techniques to be used in a remedy depend on the
type and extent (in terms of area or volume) of the damage, the costs and
whether the problem is still active. A general guide is given in Handbook 2.

4.2 Repair material selection

The majority of repair materials are either cement based or resin based (epoxy or
polyurethane). Cement based materials is a blend of binder/cement, aggregates,
polymer modifiers (e.g., latex and acrylic), fibres and special fillers (silica fume,
fly ash). Epoxy based materials consist of epoxy (2 part resin) and aggregates.
Below is a table to assist in the selection of repair materials.

Table 4-1 Selection of Repair materials

Properties Cement and Polymer Epoxy based
modified based Materials Materials
1 Compression Good Good
strength
2 Bond strength Good Very Good
3 Strength Slow Fast
development
4 Shrinkage Yes No
5 Thermal Similar to concrete Not similar to concrete
Expansion
6 E-modulus Similar to concrete Slightly different to concrete
7 Permeability Permeable Impermeable
8 Heat Resistant Yes No. Turns soft at 70Û&

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

9 Exothermic Yes Yes but not critical

10 Curing required Yes No
11 Pourable Yes Yes
12 Pumpable Yes No, only low viscosity epoxy.
13 Cost Low High

4.3 Repair techniques

Repair techniques refer to the method of application of repair materials.

Common techniques that have been used are:

• Crack injection
• Hand patch
• Form and place/ “letterbox” method
• Form and pump (neat and pre-pack technique)
• Dry packing technique
• Full depth repair
• Overlays
• Shotcrete (Guniting)

Crack Injection
Cracks can be repaired structurally or non-structurally by injection of special
materials directly into the cracks. The 2 classes of injection material are:

i. Structural Injection Material

• Epoxy
• Superfine cement

ii. Non-Structural Injection Material (usually for leakages)

• Polyurethane (PU) Foam

• Acrylic

Hand patch
This is a simple method where repair materials are hand applied in a towelling
action. Mortar used can be polymer modified cementitious material or epoxy. A
common polymer used in such materials is SBR (Styrene Butadiene Resin),
commonly called latex/rubber. This is often used to repair small, localised
damaged areas.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

Form and place/”letterbox” method

Here a formwork is placed over a wall to be repaired. Repair grout material (e.g.
non-shrink grout) is poured into the form via the “mouth on the top” until the
entire formwork is filled above the topmost of the repair area. The “mouth” is cut
off the next day.

Form and Pump

Formwork is erected over the defective area and repair grout is pumped into the
cavity. This is usually carried out by pumping from a low spot to the highest spot
to ensure the cavities are completely filled. The formwork is then removed the
next day.

The repair grout can be neat (or with some aggregates such as 10mm
chippings). In large and deep repairs, pre-pack or pre-placed technique is
recommended. This involves placing large single-sized aggregates (e.g. 20mm
to 40mm) inside the formwork to dissipate heat generated by the cement-rich
grout. The sequence of pumping is similar to the form and pump technique.

Dry packing Technique

A dry repair mortar (polymer modified cementitious material or epoxy) is placed
on the area and is compacted manually using a hammer.

Full Depth Repair

The defective area is fully removed and mortar (grout or concrete) is poured into
the member.

Overlays
These are thin mortars (epoxy, polyurethane or polymer modified cementitious
material) applied over a defective layer.

Shotcrete
This technique, sometimes known as guniting, involves “shooting” a special
concrete mixture in slurry form onto the area to be repaired using pneumatic
machines. This technique is usually for large area repairs.

Selection of the right material and appropriate technique is important to ensure a

durable repair. A more elaborate description of these repair techniques is given
in Handbook 2.

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Chapter 5 Concluding remarks

The Manual had discussed the building maintenance procedures for RC
buildings. It is important that the respective units and sections in JKR will set up
the maintenance teams and acquire the necessary equipment. In this respect,
the roles of State Directors and District Engineers are very important to ensure
that the inspection plan is followed.

Notwithstanding, it remains the duty of the JKR HQ to kick off the inspection
program by instituting a training program for the inspectors at the regional levels.
The handbooks should be distributed to the states and districts to promote
interests in the subject.¸

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

REFERENCES

1. Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Guidelines on the Periodical

Inspection of Buildings, Kuala Lumpur, 1995.
2. Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM). A Guide for Bridge
Inspection, The Road Engineering Association of Malaysia, Shah Alam,
2004.
3. British Standards Institution, Guide to building maintenance management.
British Standard BS 8210:1986, London, 1986.
4. Building Research Establishment, Why do buildings crack? BRE Digest
361. Garton, Construction Research Communications Ltd, 1991.
5. Bonshor, R, B. and Bonshor, L, L., Cracking in Buildings, Construction
Research Communications Ltd., London, 1996.
6. Building Research Establishment. Simple measuring and monitoring of
movement in low-rise buildings. Part 1: Cracks. BRE Digest 343, Garton,
Construction Research Communications Ltd, 1989.
7. Building Research Establishment, Simple measuring and monitoring of
movement in low-rise buildings. Part 2: settlement, heave and out-of-
plumb. BRE Digest 344, Garton, Construction Research Communications
Ltd, 1989.
8. MacGregor, James, Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 1997.

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MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL INSPECTION AND APPRAISAL FOR BUILDINGS

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Checklists and Summary Forms for Conditions Inspection

Appendix B: Forms for Confirmatory Inspection
Appendix C: Handbook 1: Handbook for Building Conditions Inspection
Appendix D: Handbook 2: Handbook for Building Confirmatory Inspection

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