BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

POPULAR MUSIC
OF THE WORLD
VOLUMES VIII–XIV: GENRES

VOLUME XI
GENRES: EUROPE

Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 11.indb i 01-09-2017 18:06:29
 Principal Editors
David Horn, Institute of Popular Music, University of Liverpool

John Shepherd, FRSC, Carleton University, Ottawa

Founding Editor
Paul Oliver, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford

International Advisors
Sean Albiez, Southampton Solent University, UK
Christopher Ballantine, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa
Nimrod Baranovitch, Haifa University and Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Israel
Rafael José de Menezes Bastos, Universidade Federal
de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Theo Cateforis, Syracuse University, USA
Juan Pablo Gonzalez, Universidad Alberto Hurtado
SJ, Santiago, Chile
Dai Griffiths, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Jocelyne Guibault, University of California,
Berkeley, USA
Bruce Johnson, University of Turku, Finland;
Macquarie University, Sydney; University of
Glasgow, UK
Steve Jones, University of Illinois, USA
Dave Laing, University of Liverpool, UK
Peter Manuel, City University of New York, USA
Portia Maultsby, Indiana University, USA
Richard Middleton, University of Newcastle, UK
Toru Mitsui, Kanazawa University, Japan
Svanibor Pettan, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Paolo Prato, Luiss Creative Business Center, Rome
Motti Regev, Open University of Israel, Israel
Raquel Z. Rivera, University of New Mexico, USA
T.M. Scruggs, University of Iowa, USA
Chris Stapleton, London, UK
Martin Stokes, King’s College, London, UK
Jim Strain, Northern Michigan University, USA
Will Straw, McGill University, Canada
Paul Wells, Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Peter Wicke, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Germany

Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 11.indb ii 01-09-2017 18:06:29
 BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

POPULAR MUSIC
OF THE WORLD
VOLUMES VIII–XIV: GENRES
EDITED BY DAVID HORN AND JOHN SHEPHERD

VOLUME XI
GENRES: EUROPE

EDITED BY
PAOLO PRATO AND DAVID HORN

Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Inc

N E W YO R K • LO N D O N • OX F O R D • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 11.indb iii 01-09-2017 18:06:29
 Bloomsbury Academic
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Tuna
The Portuguese term tuna refers to a musical group
in which plucked string instruments predominate
(Oliveira 1966), although one of the main features of
these musical groups is the flexibility of its instrumen-
tal structure, and they may include bowed string and
wind instruments, percussion and even a vocal sec-
tion. Tunas operate in multiple contexts, performing
widely varying musical repertoires and thus support-
ing the diffusion and development of various genres.
Groups and musical associations named tuna have
been documented in Portugal since the last decades
of the nineteenth century, primarily related to uni-
versities and other educational institutions. The first
of them was Tuna Académica da Universidade de
Coimbra, founded in 1888, which was followed by
Tuna Académica do Liceu de Évora (1890), Tuna
Universitária do Porto (1900) and Tuna Académica de
Lisboa (1905). In the early years of the twentieth cen-
tury several tunas emerged in Lisbon and Oporto, the
two main Portuguese cities. Many of them brought
together individuals who shared the same occupation,
such as traders or barbers, the most famous being
Tuna Comercial de Lisboa (1903), Tuna do Ateneu
Comercial de Lisboa (1905) and Tuna-orquestra da
União dos Empregados de Comércio do Porto (1907).
These groups consisted of between 40 and 150 instru-
mentalists, all of them men. The only known excep-
tion is Grande Tuna Feminina (1907), which was
composed exclusively of women. Rehearsing and
performing publicly under the baton of a conductor,
these tunas presented concerts in the main Portuguese
concert halls, playing rhapsodies, marches and passa-
calles as well as arrangements of European art music
from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Capela
and Cruz 2010). In the years preceding the fall of the
monarchy, several tunas emerged within Republican
clubs. Some of them subsisted autonomously after
the implementation of the Republican regime in 1910
(Ribeiro 2011).
During the first half of the twentieth century tunas
were disseminated across cities, towns and villages all
over the country, and even to Portuguese communi-
ties based overseas in Mozambique, Angola, Brazil
and the USA. Overcoming centralization in the musi-
cal life of many localities, these musical groups played
an important role with regard to social commitments,
offering cultural and recreational activities to local
communities, creating public spaces which led to the
creation of libraries, reading rooms and schools, and
even providing health care to disadvantaged people.
Integrated into cultural and leisure associations with
a strong local presence, tunas performed in different
Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 11.indb 785
Tuna
spaces promoting concerts, participating in solidarity
gatherings or animating parties and balls. This variety
of performative contexts was reflected in the diversity
of the music they played. In the mid-twentieth century
a typical tuna’s repertoire included its own anthems,
arrangements of symphonies and operatic selec-
tions, rhapsodies of fado and Portuguese folk music,
marches and pasodobles, as well as dance music from
Europe (such as waltz or mazurka), North America
(foxtrot, swing, one-step) and South America (samba,
tango, bolero, rumba). Tunas also played pieces from
the national musical theater and international hits
produced by the record industry and broadcast on
the radio. Given the flexibility of tuna’s instrumental
structure, it fell to the conductor to make the arrange-
ments or to purchase them in musical instruments
stores specializing in the production of handwritten
music scores.
In the second half of the twentieth century the
emergence of other fields of musical practice and ris-
ing access to radio and television contributed to the
tuna’s loss of relevance (Capela and Cruz 2010). Some
were transformed into smaller groups called ‘The Jazz’
(i.e., groups comprising a drum set) and others went
out of existence. In the decades following the fall of
the Portuguese dictatorship in 1974 some tunas were
reorganized and several new ones emerged (Castelo-
Branco et al. 2003). Pursuing the aim of represent-
ing local traditions, most based their repertoires on
Portuguese folk music and directed their activity
mainly towards performances in local and regional
festivals.
In the 2010s most tunas include a vocal section,
although some remain exclusively instrumental.
Composed of a variable number of musicians (usu-
ally between 15 and 30), most involve both men and
women and either have an autonomous existence or
are integrated in cultural and recreational associa-
tions. Tunas promote concerts in the localities where
they are based and often participate in events held
by local authorities, other musical groups or welfare
institutions. Their repertoires mirror the goals that
guide their activity, such as the preservation of tra-
ditional music or the musical education of children
and adults. Many tunas hold music schools, which
are important centers of music education at the local
level.
In the late 1980s and during the 1990s tunas prolif-
erated within academic contexts, accompanying the
increase in the number of higher education institu-
tions in Portugal. These tunas (usually named tunas
académicas) bring together students and former stu-
dents of a particular educational institution (Capela
785
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 Genres: Europe
and Cruz 2010). They consist of a wide range of musi-
cal instruments (the most common being mandolin,
guitar, accordion, flute and tambourine) and a vocal
section (ibid.). Most of them perform standing up,
identifying themselves with an ensign and the cos-
tume of the institution to which they belong (Coelho
el al. 2012). This kind of tuna has recently received
increased attention, especially in the study carried out
by the group CoSaGaPe (ibid.).
Bibliography
A Arte Musical: revista publicada quinzenalmente
(The Musical Art: A Bi-Monthly Journal]. 1899–
1915. Lisbon.
Capela, Conceição, and Cruz, Leonor. 2010. ‘Tuna.’
In Enciclopédia da música em Portugal no século
XX [Encyclopedia of Music in Portugal of the
Twentieth Century], ed. Salwa El-Shawan Castelo-
Branco. Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores, Vol. 4, 1281–4.
Castelo-Branco, Salwa El-Shawan, Neves, José Soares
and Lima, Maria João. 2003. ‘Perfis dos grupos de
música tradicional em Portugal em finais do século
XX’ [Profile of the Traditional Music Groups in
Portugal at the End of the Twentieth Century].
In Vozes do povo: A folclorização em Portugal
[Peoples’ Voices: Folkorization in Portugal], eds.
Salwa El-Shawan Castelo-Branco and Jorge Freitas.
Oeiras: Celta Editora, 73–141; Lisbon: Edições
Tinta da China, 353–65.
Coelho, Eduardo, et al. 2012. Quid Tunae? – A tuna
estudantil em Portugal [Quid Tunae? Student Tuna
in Portugal]. ]. Porto, Viseu e Lisboa: CoSaGaPe.
Coleção de Programas de Espectáculos Musicais
[Collection of Programs of Musical Spectacles].
1736–1916. Collected by Miguel Ângelo Lambertini.
Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal.
Illustração Portuguesa. 1903–93. Lisbon.
Oliveira, Ernesto Veiga de. 1966. Instrumentos musi-
cais populares portugueses [The Folk Instruments
of Portugal]. Lisbon: Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian.
Ribeiro, Lia. 2011. A popularização da cultura
republicana (1881–1910) [The Popularization
of Republican Culture (1881–1910)]. Coimbra:
Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra.
RUI MARQUES
Turbofolk
Turbofolk is a pop-folk genre that emerged in the
1990s as a Serbian development of the commercial
neofolk genre novokomponovana narodna muzika
(newly composed folk music, hereafter NCFM)
that had come to prominence across the Socialist
786
Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Volume 11.indb 786
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) in the 1980s.
The product of a dynamic pop culture production
unparalleled in Eastern Europe, NCFM came to
dominate both domestic pop (zabavna; entertain-
ment) and rock music. Arising in the southeastern
parts of the country (Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Macedonia), NCFM’s national reach was evident in
the highest record sales ever achieved in Yugoslavia’s
music market. A decade later, with the disintegra-
tion of Yugoslavia, NCFM branched off in Serbia
into a potent pop-folk form called ‘turbofolk.’ In the
process, NCFM was transformed from a genre that
was designed essentially for listening into a visual
dance spectacle. Iconoclast artist Rambo Amadeus
coined the catchy ‘turbofolk’ phrase in 1988, as
he parodied the ‘newly composed culture’ in his
unique fusion of funk rock and Balkan themes (‘O
tugo jesenja’ [Oh Autumn Sorrow]). Musical con-
tinuities notwithstanding, turbofolk culture within
1990s Serbian society brought about institutional
changes without precedent in the country’s social-
ist past.
For many cultural commentators ‘turbofolk’ is a
pejorative term, suggesting corrupted values and
pop culture excess. Within Serbia, two groups at
opposite ends of the ideological spectrum both
see the turbofolk subculture as a threat to Serbian
culture: for nationalists, the problem lies with the
music’s ‘Turkish’ identity, while proponents of
urban cosmopolitan culture and democracy take
issue with its iconography glorifying violence,
wealth and unbridled power (Dimitrijević 2002).
Musicians themselves avoid the term, preferring
neutral English labels: folk and pop-folk. The con-
troversy derives chiefly from the music’s association
with the ultranationalist government of the 1990s
led by Slobodan Milošević. In the course of Serbia’s
military campaigns in Croatia and Bosnia and its
resulting international isolation, Belgrade (the for-
mer capital of Yugoslavia, now the capital of Serbia)
saw an upsurge in folk music production. A cohort
of regime loyalists and pop/folk music profession-
als organized themselves around a few media and
recording outlets, notably television stations Palma
and Pink and record companies Grand Production
and City Records. As rave culture reached Belgrade,
dance music provided an impetus for the first
techno-folk videos. With ‘turbo’ currency on
the rise, the music became a potent signifier of a
monopoly of folk entertainment in a city previously
reputed for a vibrant rock scene that now had now
all but vanished from media circulation. The turbo
formula was easy to come by since local folk music
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