LISR 16, 105118 (1994)

Problem Statements in
Research Proposals and Published Research:
A Case Study of Researchers’ Viewpoints

Cheryl Metoyer-Ruraa
Unive~i~ of ~~~~-~ve~i~

Peter Hemon
Simmons College

This study examines and compares the purpose, content, and form of the
problem statement by researchers in disciplines other than library and
information science (LIS). Their assessments of the attributes of a problem
statement were compared to the literature and an evaluation of problem
statements evidenced by researchers within LIS. Differences of opinion will
(and do) emerge within and among disciplines and fields of scholarly inquiry.
Studies such as this one increase knowledge about (and awareness of) the role
of problem statements and encourage research into a topical area that has
cross-disciplinary implications and applications.

Research methods textbooks tend to emphasize methodologies for data collection and
to ignore (or provide cursory coverage of) problem statements. These textbooks might
explain that problems come into focus as researchers gain experience and expertise in
a particular field of inquiry. They encourage neophyte researchers to select significant
problems for investigation. At the same time, those persons who evaluate research
proposals may regard the lack of a clearly stated problem that defines and guides the
inquiry as a serious deficiency---one lessening the possr&iity of funding that proposal
or gaining approval from a doctoral committee to conduct the research.
Two important questions arise:

l What exactly is a problem statement?

l Which disciplines and fields view research as based on problem solving and frame
that research through the use of problem statements?

A problem statement, one might assume at least for this exploratory research,
establishes the existence and importance of a situation in which there is interaction

Direct corwspondencc to Cheryl Metoycr-Duran, Rupert Cost0 Chair in American Indii History,
Department of History, Library South Blvd., Room 4259, University of California, Riverside, California
92521.

105
106 Metoyer-Duran 81Hernon

between two or more factors. That interaction “yields (1) a perplexing or enigmatic
state, (2) an undesirable consequence, or (3) a conflict that renders the choice from
among alternative courses of action moot” (David Clark, personal communication,
1976). In library and information science (LIS), the relationship between or among the
factors is generally expressed as a knowledge void---the absence of knowledge on that
problem situation (Hemon, 1994). In other disciplines that relationship might assume
another form, for example, contradictory evident-he purpose of the research is to
resolve or abate that conflict.
What form might a problem statement+he interaction of factors producing one
of these three outcomes--take? Can the interaction be stated as a question, a goal
or purpose statement, or a hypothesis, or does it assume another form? No published
study has examined these questions by ascertaining the viewpoints of researchers
outside LIS and comparing their responses to the viewpoints of those within the
discipline. Such research provides greater insights into problem statements as the first
stage of reflective inquiry and, at the same time, underscores the role and importance
of these statements. Funding agencies as well as scholarly journals can use the findings
to review the function of problem statements in the funding and publishing of research.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study are to:

l Elicit the opinions of academic researchers outside LIS about the function,
significance, form, and attributes of problem statements;

l See if there are differences of opinion among disciplines and fields within
disciplines;

l Review and refine a list of attributes that characterize problem statements, thereby
creating a checklist of possible elements to include in such statements; and

l Compare the fmdings between this study and a study of LIS researchers.

Similar to Hemon and Metoyer-Duran (1!993), there was no attempt either to

propose or to present an ideal problem statement; “research problems differ
greatly, and . . . there is no one ‘right’ way to state . . . a good problem
statement” (Kerlinger, 1973, p. 17).

PROCEDURES

To ascertain the viewpoint of some faculty members from the sciences, social and
behavioral sciences, and humanities, the researchers used a case study design involving
a self-selected sample, one in which all of those interviewed had conducted published
research, been the recipients of research fundmg outside the university, and reviewed
research-based manuscripts submitted to journals in their fields for possible
publication. Because one of the authors is affiiated with the University of California,
Riverside, that institution became the site of the case study.
 Problem Statements 107

The investigators checked citation indexes to obtain the names of faculty members
from that university who are cited for their research. They also asked department
chairs for the names of researchers at the University who met the previously
mentioned criteria. The two lists were compared and the first interviews were set up.
During each interview, the faculty members were asked to name colleagues in the
same or other departments who met the specified criteria.
Thirty-one faculty members who were available during fall 1993 were interviewed.
Some faculty members were named by their colleagues and dep~ent chairs but
were either on sabbatical or conducting research away from the University. The 31
researchers represented the disciplines of anthropology, chemistry, English, ethnic
studies, history, literature and languages, mathematics, philosophy, psychology,
religious studies, and sociology. However, 19 of them were from three disciplines:
anthropology, ethnic studies, and history. The reason for this concentration was to see
if differences based on fields within a discipline might emerge.
In December 1993, the investigators provided the 15 faculty members who
requested a summary of the fmdings with a draft of the article. The purpose of doing
this was twofold to verify the accuracy of comments offered during the interviews and
to solicit additional comments about the form that problem statements assume. The
faculty members believed that the draft article accurately reflected their viewpoints,
and the ad~tion~ comments of 4 respondents are included as part of the study
findings.

FINDINGS

Role of the Problem Statement

The problem statement, as one cultural anthropologist observed, represents “the

crystallization of the issue--the essence of what I am doing.” Furthermore, the
statement is succinctly stated and becomes a tool for assisting researchers in avoiding
preconceived ideas and for providii direction to the study. Some faculty members,
such as one sociologist dealing with ethnic studies, do not use the term; instead, they
ask an overarching question.
The term p&tern sfatement might be viewed from the perspective of a continuum
ranging from no role to an essential one. The discipline, field, and subfield in which
the person functions appear to suggest where faculty members fall along the
continuum. For humanistic anthropologists, for instance, the role might be minor,
whereas a cognitive psychol~t might regard a statement as a critical component of
research in his or her field. A qualitative historian might “work on a topical area,”
whereas a quantitative historian might study problems. Economists, according to one
economic historian, examine hypotheses but economic historians do not defme problem
statements in a similar way: “A problem statement should exist, but as an historian, I
don’t want to be tied down too tight.”
The paradigm to which faculty members subscribe might also influence the
placement of problem statements along the continuum. For example, a faculty member
in English literature noted that his field follows two competing paradigms. In one, the
researcher makes an assertion about a problem and tries to support that assertion with
evidence. The other paradigm (the “linguistic paradigm”) deals with theoretical
assertions that cannot be proven.
108 Metoyer-Dumn & Hernon

The respondents noted that the role of problem statements might be more
important in getting grants funded than in the preparation of a manuscript for
publication or in the actual conduct of the research. As one historian remarked,
because the problem changes as the research progresses,‘there must be some flexibiity
as to the extent to which the researcher is accountable for the study as initially laid out.
The specifications of a funding organization might include a problem statement as part
of a research proposal and award a specified number of points for the presence, clarity,
and significance of the problem. Instead of asking for a problem statement, the
National Science Foundation (NSF) (1!292), as one respondent pointed out, calls for
“a topical sentence stating the project’s major thesis” (p. 37) and coverage of the
objectives and “expected significance” (p. 4).

Role of the Problem Statement in Rendering an Editorial Decision

About Publication of a Manuscript

For some respondents, the problem statement provides the “punch” or “clarity.”
Without its presence, a manuscript lacks fxus. A sociologist mentioned that she does
not use the term, problem statement, but, rather, views research in the context of a
guiding question, a statement of focus, or a statement of purpose. Researchers in some
fields and subfields, such as social psychology, may not be expected to include a formal
statement of the problem. As a result, such statements could play a minor role in
editorial decision making.
In those fields expecting the inclusion of a problem statement, the absence of one
or the implicit statement of a problem, by itself, may not result in a recommendation
for rejection of a manuscript. Authors may be given the opportunity to revise the
manuscript and develop a “better statement.” For some faculty members, for example,
one chemist, an implicitly stated statement is acceptable as long as the focus of the
study is “obvious.” An historian agreed but added that the statement should be “early
on, up-front in the article.” A philosopher, however, explained that a paper in the
history of philosophy may place the statement later in the paper. Au anthropologist
speciahzing in archaeometry, the application of the physical sciences to archaeology,
noted that his field relies on implicitly stated problems.

Presence of Problem Statements in Proposals and Published Studies

Twenty-eight of the respondents (90.3%) agreed, either very stronglyor strongly,that

a research proposal in their field must contain a problem statement; the mean was
13871 and the median was 1 (vev stronglyagree). There was less consensus that
published research in their fields must contain a problem statement. Twenty (64.5%)
of the respondents concurred, either very strongly or shungty. Five (16.1%) merely
agreed, and the remaining 6 (19.4%) &&Feed. The mean was 2.2903 and the median
was 2 (stronglyagree).

Problem Statements as Expressions of Uniqueness, Significance, or

a Study’s Theoretical Framework

In response to the assertion that a problem statement conveys a study’s uniqueness,

responses ranged from very stronglyagree to stronglydisagree. Twenty-one (67.7%)
 Problem Statements 109

respondents agreed, with 12 of them (38.7%) doing so either sbvngly or very sbvngly.
Ten respondents (323%) disagreed. The mean was 2.8837 and the median was 3
(agree). Two respondents would have preferred “originahty”to “uniqueness.”
There was more agreement that a problem statement suggests a study’s
signiIi~ce. Twenty-six researchers (83.9%) either strongly or very sbongly agreed.
Three (9.7%) uped and 2 (6.4%) disagreed.The mean was 1.8065and the median was
1 (very &mg& ape).
As to whether or not the problem statement explains a studys theoretical
framework, 23 (74.2%) agree4 29 (64.5%) did so strongly or vev strongiy. On the other
hand, 8 (25.8%) disagrvee 4 (12.9%) strongly or very s&onglydisagreed. The median
was 2.4194 and the median was 2 (smug& agree).
Looking only at the mean and median, respondents were most likely to believe that
the problem statement suggests a study’s significance and least likely the study’s
uniqueness. Conveyance of the theoretical framework was placed between the other
two choices. It seems that an expression of a theoretical framework increases in
importance if a funding organization identities the framework as part of the problem
statement.

Form IIIWhich Problem Statement Appears

When asked about the form in which problem statements appear, most of the faculty
members (30 or %.g%) believe that it takes the form of a question. Over three fourths
of the respondents (24 or 77.4%) maintain that the statement might be a statement of
purpose, whereas 21(67.7%) suggest that the statement might reflect the study’s focus
(i.e., “it examines . . .“). Four identified other forms for the statement: expression of
goals (1 mathematician and 1 historian), a statement of objectives (1 historian), or the
formulation of hypotheses (1 historian and 1 anthropologist). Depending on the
perspective, the hypotheses might be phrased implicitly or explicitly (i.e., “testable”).
Most researchers viewed problem statements as questions or questions in combiition
with either a statement of purpose or of focus. As 1 respondent explained, “my
problem statements tend to be clusters of questions. I normally ask one overarching
question and then state my purpose for what follows.”

Attributes of Problem Statements

Table 1 presents the responses of the 31 faculty members to nine attributes associated
with problem statements:

1. Clarity and precision: a well-written statement that does not make sweeping
generalizations and irresponsible statements, and that is not wordy;

2. Identification of what would be studied while avoiding the use of value-laden

words and terms;

3. Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables;

4. Definition of key concepts/terms;

110 Metoyer-Duran & Hernon

5. Articulation of study’s boundaries or parameters;

6. Some generalizability;

7. Conveyance of study’s importance, benefits, and justification (addresses the

question of “so what?“);

8. No use of unnecessary jargon; and

9. Conveyance of more than the gathering of descriptive data providing a “snapshot.

TABLE 1
ResDonse to the Nine Attributes

Very Somewhat Not

Important Important Important

1. Clarity and precision 25 2 4

2. Identification of what to study 16 4 11

3. Identification of an overarching
question 21 4 6

4. Definition of key concepts/terms 18 3 10

5. Articulation of study’s
boundaries/parameters 19 6 6

6. Some generalizability 13 11 7

7. Conveyance of study’s importance,

benefits, and justification 21 2 8

8. No use of unnecessary jargon 16 2 13

9. Conveyance of more than descriptive

data providing a “snapshot” 20 1 10

When asked to identify other attributes, none did so. Table 2 summarizes comments
that the respondents made about each attribute. In brief, the researchers were least
likely to identify five attributes as belonging in the third category, not important; in
other words, no more than one fourth of the respondents mentioned each attribute as
not important. The five were Numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7.
 Problem Statements 111

TABLE 2
ResPondents Comments about the Nine Attributes

Clarify and Precision

1. “In some instances you can overlook poor language if the science is
compelling.”
2. “In cultural anthropology, precision may not always be possible.”
3. “Sweeping generalizations can be useful when they are combined with
concrete information. Sweeping generalizations based on nitty gritty
research and good concrete data are fine.”

identification of What Would Be Studied

4. “Everything is value-laden.”
5. “Only with some paradigms are some things value-neutral.”
6. “It may be hard to avoid value-laden words and terms.”
7. “Value-laden words may be necessary for judgment. In some sense, some
economists consider ‘free market’ as a value-laden term.”

Identification of An Overarching Question

8. “This attribute might be better placed elsewher-esearch design or
methodology [or reflective inquiry].”
9. “There is nothing wrong with being narrowly focused.”

Definition of Key Concepts/Terms

10. “This attribute does not belong as part of the problem statement.”
11. “There is no need to define terms that are common to the field.”
12. “Terms are usually implicit.”

Articulation of Study’s Boundaries or Parameters

13. “We may not know the study’s boundaries.”
14. “This attribute does not belong as part of the problem statement.”
15. The boundaries may expand during completion of the study.”

Some Generalizability
16. “This attribute does not belong as part of the problem statement.’
17. “It is not always important to have some generalizabil’ky.”
18. “It is not always feasible to achieve this attribute.”

Conveyance of Study’s Importance, Benefits, and Justification

19. “This attribute does not belong as part of the problem statement.”
20. “This attribute is most important in writing grant proposals.”
21. “The question of ‘so what’ may vary; so what 50 years ago is not
necessarily so what today.”

(continued)
112 Metoyer-Dumn81Hernon

TABLE 2 (Continued)

No Use of Unnecessaly Jargon

22. “One person’s jargon is another person’s ABCs.’
23. “You can get away with jargon if your science is strong.”
24. “Economists use jargon.’
25. ‘It is not always possible to avoid the use of jargon.”
26. What is unnecessary jargon?”
27. “Jargon can be technical information in one field and jargon to the
outsider.’
26. “Jargon may bs necessary and understandable by a technical audience.”

Conveyance of More Than The Gathering of Descriptive Data

Providing a ‘Snapshor
29. “Some research involves the gathering of such data.”
30. ‘There is nothing wrong with conducting such research.”

Examples of Problem Statements

When asked to provide a good example of a problem statement in their field, 27

(87.1%) were able to do so. One historian referred to Znsritutions, Znstitutionul
Change
and Economic Performance (North, 1990) and the following passage:

. . . neither current economic theory nor cliometric history shows many signs
of appreciating the role of institutions in economic performance because there
as yet has been no analytical framework to integrate institutional analysis into
economics and economic history. The objective of this book is to provide such
an underlying framework. (p. 3)

Without exception, the other faculty members identified a question that guided the
research from its inception to conclusion, or a statement of purpose or of focus (see
Appendix). One anthropologist volunteered a question as an example of a problem
statement: “How long have people been in the new world?” An historian referred to
UncriticalTheory (Norris, 1992) and the question, “How far wrong can a thinker go and
still lay claim to serious attention?” (p. 11) and “two reasons for not ignoring” that
person (pp. 25-31).

Research Methods Textbooks

When asked to identify a textbook in their field that provides good coverage of
problem statements, l.3 (41.9%) did so. Some respondents explained that their field
does not rely on research methods textbooks, and a European historian explained that
history, as a discipline, “is held togethedespite differences over theo+y what
constitutes ‘good craftsmanship’--the craft of writing history.” As a result, most
textbooks on historical methods seem to focus on craftsmanship as opposed to the
conduct of scientific or social science research.
 ProblemStatements 113

Rubm and Babbie (1989), and Neuman (1991), viewed the problem as a question;
“the research question and its inherent concepts are progressively sharpened to be
made more specific, relevant, and meaningful to the field” (Rubm & Babbie, 1989, p.
72). Johnson (1978, p. 36), a cultural anthropologist, maintained that the problem
statement explains what will be studied and what the contribution of the proposed
research to knowledge will be. For instance,

the proposal is to study the process of technological change in a community

of subsistence farmers. of central concern will be the circumstances
surrounding the increased production of foodstuffs for sale. The research will
contribute to our understanding . . . (p. 36)

As one respondent noted, Kerlinger (1986) provided an extensive discussion of

problem statements and noted that “a problem . . . is an interrogative sentence or
statement that asks: What relation exists between two or more variables? The answer
is what is being sought in the research” (p. 16). The problem expresses that
relationship “clearly and unambiguously in question form” and implies “possibilities of
empirical testing” (Kerlinger, 1973, p. 18). Furthermore, “a problem that does not
contain implications for testing its stated relation or relations is not a scientific
problem” (p. 18).

COMPARISON OF FINDINGS TO OTHER LISTS OF ATTRIBUTES

Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1985, pp. 47-49) identified four conditions useful in
evaluating the significance of a problem. First, “ideally, the problem should be one
whose solution will make a contribution to the body of organized knowledge . . . .”
Second, “the problem should be one that will lead to new problems and so to further
research.” Third, “the problem must be one that is researchable.” And, fmally, “the
problem must be suitable for the particular researcher.” The final attribute
encompasses “genuine interest” and enthusiasm for the problem, “knowledge [of] and
some experience” with the problem, feasibility of data collection, and abiity to conduct
the study within the “allotted time.”
In an analysis of graduate student research, Dvorak (1963, p. 20) identified the
following shortcomings associated with problem statements appearing in theses and
class papers:

l Failure to state a problem and clearly delimit its boundaries;

l The statement is “treated so lightly or . . . [it is] so widely scattered in the report
that it is extremely difficult to determine what problem the researcher set out to
solve;”

. Failure to define key terms and explain “the merit of the problem;”

l “The problem is too bii to permit solution by one person with limited resources;”
and
114 Metoyer-Duran & Hernon

l “[The] statement of the problem is ambiguous, wordy, too long and involved . . . ,
or not in keeping with the findings reported.”

Tuckman (1990, p. 25) suggested that a problem statement should be “stated

clearly and understandably,” include “the necessary variables,” be “workable” but have
“‘critical mass’ for impact,” and have both “theoretical” and “practical value.” Babbie
(1992, p. 110) equated the problem in a research proposal with objectives, but
maintained that the problem explains what will be studied, the value of conducting the
research, the practical significance of the proposed study, and the contribution to
knowledge and “the construction of social theories.
According to Bernard (1988, p. ill), the problem must interest researchers, be
“amenable to scientific inquiry,” and be theoretical. Furthermore, researchers must be
aware of ‘unresolvable ethical problems” and whether or not they have adequate
resources to conduct the investigation.
Park (1993, p. 11) added that the problem statement defines the scope of the
problem and sorts “out the dimensions to be explored.” To investigate “the magnitude
and the contours of a problem,” it is necessary to establish the central question, for
example, “how many and who in the community are suffering from inadequate health
care and how does the consequent suffering manifest itself?”
It is impossible to compare the nine attributes of this study to the list provided
elsewhere, except for the one contained in Hemon and Metoyer-Duran (1993, pp. 83-
84). They developed a list of nine attributes from the literature and survey responses,
and then shared the list with some prominent LIS researchers, who viewed five
attributes as most important (clarity and precision, identification of what would be
studied, definition of key concepts/terms, some generalizabiity, and conveyance of
study’s importance, benefits, and justification). The researchers suggested that a
problem statement identifies key factors or variables (part of one attribute,
identification of an overarching question, and key factors or variables).
In both that study and this one, researchers stressed the importance of one
attribute, clarity and precision, over the others. The researchers outside LIS were more
likely to view problem statements as the identification of an overarching question and
key factors or variables, or as articulation of a study’s boundaries or parameters.
Researchers in both studies tended to expect some generalizabiity of the fmdiugs and
conveyance of the study’s importance, benefits, and justification.
Researchers within and outside LIS believe that research proposals must contain
problem statements, but there is less agreement that published research must do so as
well. In response to the assertion that a problem statement suggests the study’s
uniqueness, there was a broad distribution of responses. There was more agreement
in both studies that a statement suggests the study’s significance. Researchers outside
LIS are more likely to maintain that a problem statement explains a study’s theoretical
framework.
The relationship between and among factors is viewed as typically expressed in the
form of a question. However, that expression might be placed within au explanation
of the study’s purpose or focus. Other forms of expression were infrequently
mentioned; however, some LIS and other researchers maintain that it might include
a statement of goals or hypotheses. Two LIS researchers maintain that problem
statements might convey study objectives.
 ProblemStatements 115

TOPICS MERITING FURTHER INVESTIGATION

Because funding organizations mandate which elements will appear in research

proposals and the relative weight of each element, researchers might conduct case
studies among key organizations. Do differences of opinion emerge within and
across Buxling organizations? Have organizations requiring the inclusion of problem
statements in proposals been consistent, over time, in their interpretation of what
comprises such statements? How do reviewers for these funding organizations score
problem statements: What attributes do they look for, and how are points assigned?
How consistently do reviewers apply the criteria?
In-person or focus-group interviews of journal editors and members of editorial
boards might ascertain the role of problem statements in determining the acceptance
of a manuscript. It might be useful to determine whether or not all published
research should be expected to include such statements?
The scope of the research reported here should be extended to other universities
and a broader cross-section of disciplines, fields, and faculty members. That research
might ask respondents to rate the attributes on a 5-point scale ranging from very
unimportant to vev important. As well, the respondents might be asked to comment
on each attribute from the perspective of their disciplines and fields. They should have
the opportunity to suggest other attributes. The research might also view problem
statements from three perspectives:

l Faculty expectations for graduate students;

l Faculty competition for grants and other research monies; and

l Faculty conducting and reporting research in the scholarly literature.

Do the attributes shift in priority depending on the perspective, and to what extent can
the problem be implicitly stated? The research might also extend beyond university
settings and study consulting organizations and others in the private sector.
It would also be interesting to show researchers different articles, ask them to
identify the problem statement, and test the extent of concurrence about what
comprises the problem statement. They might also comment on the problem statement
in the context of the previously identified attributes.
A number of researchers in this study, even ones who expect to see problem
statements in research proposals and the published literature, commented that they had
not thought much about the content and purpose of these statements and that an
analysis of them made for an “interesting” study. They believed that problem
statements focus on a central question, and they treated problems and questions as
synonymous. As a result, future investigations into problem statements might challenge
the responses of those surveyed and probe the extent to which a question conveys
interaction yielding “a perplexing or enigmatic state,” “an undesirable consequence,” or
“conflict that renders the choice . . . moot” (Clark, 1976). How best can such
interaction be presented? What benefits result from refocusing attention on problem
statements? Will the inclusion of a problem statement and other components of
reflective inquiry improve the quality of published research? And, why do some
116 Metoyer-Duran S Hemon

researchers believe that such statements only comprise an important part of the
research process when they seek funding support?
The nature of the topics and questions raised in this section suggest that future
research might employ multiple methods of data collection, including the use of focus
groups. It is important not only to describe but also to challenge prevailing practices
and opinions. To what extent is there concurrence that problem statements establish
the existence of an original or unique problem, relate that problem to its general
antecedents, and justify the value of pursuing that problem? If a problem statement
must address these functions, can it truly be reduced to the form of a question? How
can a question adequately convey an interacting proposition (interaction with a widely
accepted generalization and providing a provocative exception--knowledge void or
contradictory evidence; Clark, 1976)?

CONCLUSION

A study of problem statements provides a means for researchers in different disciplines

and fields to communicate. They can gain a better understanding of the research
conducted by their peers and expand the opportunities for cross-disciplinary and
interdisciplinary research. The quality of research improves as we understand,
challenge, and build on the works of others. If research in different disciplines and
fields is based on problem solving, then further research on problem statements
becomes more necessary for ensuring that researchers focus on important and original
problems that make theoretical and practical contributions to knowledge, and in the
case of LIS, improve decision making in the management of complex organizations:
libraries and information centers.

REFERENCES

Ary, Donald, Jacobs, Lucy C., & Raxavieh, Asghar. (1985). Znbvductionto research in
education. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Babbie, Earl. (1992). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Bernard, H. Russell. (1988). Research methoa3 in culfuralanthropology.Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Dvorak, Earl A. (1%3). Shortcomings of graduate research in business education. Ohio
Business Teacher, 23, 19-22.
Hemon, Peter. (1994). Statistics:A component of the research process. Norwood, NJ:
Ablex.
Hemon, Peter, & Metoyer-Duran, Cheryl. (1993). Problem statements: An exploratory
study of their function, signilkance, and form. Library & Znfonnation Science
Research, 15,71-92.
Johnson, Allen W. (1978). Quantificationin cultural anthropology. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
Kerlinger, Fred N. (1973). Foundation of behavioral rese(Kch (2nd ed.). New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kerlinger, Fred N. (1986). Found&ion of behavioral reseaxh (3rd ed.). New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
 Problem Statements 117

National Science Foundation. (1992). Grants for research and education in science and
education. Washington, DC: Author.
Neuman, W. Lawrence. (1991). Social tcsearch methods. Needham Heights, MA: AIIyn
& Bacon.
Norris, Christopher. (1992). Uncritical theory: Postmodemism, intellectuals and the Gulf
War. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
North, Douglass C. (1990). Institutions, inshIutionaI change and economicperfonnance.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Park, Peter. (1993). What is participatory research? A theoretical and methodological
perspective. In P. Park, M. Brydon-Miller, B. Ha& & T. Jackson (Eds.), Voices of
change: Participatory research in the United States and Canada (pp. 1-19).
Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
Rubin, Allen, & Babbie, Earl. (1989). Research methods for social work. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1990). A proposal for improving the quality of published
educational research. Educational Researcher, 19, 22-25.

APPENDIX

The faculty members interviewed mentioned the following works as containing

noteworthy problem statements.

Blackbourn, David, & Eley, Geoff. (1984). The peculiarities of Gemaan history:
Bourgeois society and politics in nineteenth-century Germany. London: Oxford
University Press.
Bynum, Caroline W. (1982). Jesus as mother: Studies in the spirituality of the high
middle ages. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Clanchy, M. T. (1979). From memory to writtenrecord: England, 1066-1307. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
FIarmery, Kent V. (1976). The e&y Mesoametican village.San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
Hawkes, Kriiten. (1993). why hunter-gatherers work: An ancient version of the
problem of public goods. CurrentAnthropology,34,341-361.
Joseph, Gilbert M. (1990). On the trail of Latin American bandits: A reexamination
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