Module -I: Fundamentals of Polymer

Rheology
 Polymerrheology testing is the study of
how the stress in a material or force
applied is related to deformation and
flow of the material.

 Rheology tests are performed while

the polymer is in the melt phase or
while the polymer has been dissolved
in a solvent for intrinsic viscosity and
relative viscosity.
 The term rheology is derived from
the Greek words ‘rheo’ and
‘logos’.

 It describe the flow of liquids and

deformation of solids.

 Rheology is involved in the mixing and

flow of materials, their packaging into
containers, and their removal prior to
use, whether this is achieved by pouring
from a bottle extrusion from a tube, or
passage through a syringe needle.
 The rheology of a particular product,
which can affect its patient
acceptability, physical stability, and
even biologic availability.

 “Rheological properties of a
pharmaceutical system can influence
the selection of processing equipment
used in its manufacture.

 Inappropriate equipment from the

perspective may result in an undesirable
product”.
 The study provide the various
rheological behaviour of
pharmaceutical products (semi
solid liquid).

 Ithelps to understand the

concepts of shear rate, viscosity,
kinematic viscosity, fluidity,
plasticity, Yield point, dilatancy,
thixotropy.
 Ithelps to understand the Newton’s
law of flow and their application.

 It provides the property of

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
fluids.

 Italso helps to calculate the effects

of temperature on viscosity.
 “Rheology is the science
concerned with almost all
aspects of deformation of real
bodies under the influence of
external stresses”.

 It includes the phenomena of

irreversible flow as well as other
cases of deformation which may
or may not lead to a permanent
change of position of elements of
the materials.
 Relationof rheology to the
traditional branches of mechanics
viz. Theory of elasticity or the theory
of flow of ideal viscous liquid (i.e.
Newtonian fluids).

 Traditional
branches of mechanics
are concerned with idealized
bodies which obey exactly some
physical laws.
 Every real material whose properties
may be approximated in given
conditions by one of the classical
models will exhibit a different type of
behaviour in other proper chosen
conditions.

 Many materials which can not be

adequately described by any of the
classical models even in normal
conditions because they exhibit
properties of different models at the
same time.
 Therefore, rheology as a science
concerned with the behaviour of real
materials which during deformation exhibit
more than one fundamental rheological
properties such as elasticity or viscosity.

 Thus, rheology describes phenomena which

occur in a very broad intermediate range
between the solids and fluid state. In
classical mechanics, these are treated
separately.
 In the making of plastic articles, the
manufacturer often starts with pallets of
the plastic and ends with the finished
article often both the starting point and
the final article being in a solid state.

 To make the finished article, we

need to take the polymer into an
intermediate state.
 Thisintermediate step in the
forming or shaping of plastic
articles involves the passage of
the polymer through either the
viscous flow region or the rubbery
region.

 In
these regions the material can
be deformed using relatively
small forces.
 Of course, both these regions are
above Tg.

 After shaping and forming, the polymer

is quenched to a temp below Tg where it
will keep its new shape.

 Of course, these are in the rubbery state

after being formed but they still tend to
be ‘solid’ in that they keep their shape.
As temp increases, the properties of a
material will change.
 Extrusion (e.g. Extrusion blow molding) &
die design to analyze, we may need to
take into account

 High viscosities
 Odd shaped flow channels
 Other effects include sag, swell &
stretching.
 1. Design a die head
 A) gel correct thickness distribution

 2. predict pressure drops

 3. multilayer dies need to study flow

patterns in the die to insure that layers
are of the correct thickness and
evenly distribution.
 High injection pressures
are due to
 High viscosities
 Long flow channels
 Then parts
1. Pressure needed
2. Fill time of part
3. Temp of the melt vs. Time

a) Mold cooling time

b) Shear heating
c) Melt degradation
 Properties of a plastic article are
dependent on the molecular
weight of the polymers.

 Its
rigidity, ability to resist fracture,
and chemical resistance, just to
name a few properties by
changes in mol.wt.
 The polymer chains can break down
during processing resulting in a
degraded polymer with a reduced
mol.wt.

 “The viscosity of a melt is a very sensitive

indication of the mol.wt. of a polymer”.

A very simple test for viscosity is

the melt flow indexer.
Note:
 Viscous properties determine processing
issues such as
 - Form of the velocity profile
 - Magnitude of pressure drops or amount
of heat generation.
 Non-Newtonian fluid
 Usually shear thinning ( decrease in
viscosity with increasing shear rate).
 Decrease in viscosity with increasing
temperature.
 Increase in viscosity with increasing
pressure.
 Increase in viscosity with increasing
molecular weight.
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Molecular weight
 Shear rate or shear stress
 Any factor which increases
entanglements between chains
increases the viscosity.

 Branching
 Side groups
 Molecular weight
 Pressure

“These factors affect the ability of the

chains to slide part each other”.
 A characteristics of solids is that they
response to (small) external stress by
deforming and on removal of the stress
returning to their original shape.

 Such a response is called “ ELASTIC”.

 In the simplest case, there is a direct

proportionality between the stress and the
deformation.

 The rheological properties of such a

material may be described by “Hooke’s
Law.
“Stress is diretly proportional to
deformation and does not
depend upon the rate of
deformation.

 Under these conditions the

object returns to its original
shape and size upon removal
of the load.
 Elastic
behavior of solids
according to Hooke’s law can
be explained by the fact that
small displacements of
their constituent molecules,
atoms, or ions from normal
positions is also proportional to
the force that causes the
displacement.
 The deforming force may be applied
to a solid by stretching,
compressing, squeezing, bending, or
twisting.

 Thus,a metal wire exhibits elastic

behaviour according to Hooke’s law
because the small increase in its
length when stretched by an applied
force doubles each time the force is
doubled.
 Hooke’s law may also be expressed in
terms of stress and strain. Stress is the force
on unit areas within a material that
develops as a result of the externally
applied force.

 Strain is the relative deformation

produced by stress.

 For relatively small stresses, stress is

proportional to strain. For particular
expressions of Hooke’s law in this
form, see bulk modulus, shear modulus,
Young’s modulus.
 A characteristic of fluids is that if an
external (anisotropic) stress is applied,
they deform and continue to deform as
long as the stress is present.

 Moreover, removal of the stress will not

result in a return of the fluid to the
undeformed state. Such a response is
called “VISCOUS”
 Inthe simplest case there is a
direct proportionality between the
stress and rate of deformation.

 “Therheological properties of
such a fluid may be described
by “ Newton’s Law”.
 Stress is directly proportional to the
rate of deformation and does not
depend on the deformation itself.

 When a fixed and constant stress is

applied to a liquid or fluid body it
undergoes continuously increasing
amount of strain a or deformation which
is non-recoverable on withdrawal of the
stress.
Thus a liquid is a material of zero yield
value in which strain is a function of
stress as well as time.

𝛎= f (𝜏, t) or 𝜏= f (𝛎, t)

i.e. 𝜏 = µ dγ/dt

𝜏 = Applied stress
 µ= Newtonian viscosity coefficient
 γ = shear strain
“The time dependence of shear strain is
called shear strain or simply shear rate”.

A simple flow is defined as one in which

only one of the three components of the
velocity vector.

U = (U1,U2,U3) is non-zero

The subscript 1, 2 and 3 identifying the

three components of velocity vector.
 Ui refer to the axis of perpendicular co-
ordinate system used to analyze the
flow process (i.e. X, y and z in
rectangular coordinates; r, θ & φ in
spherical coordinates.

 An example of a simple shear flow is

Couette shear flow between two
infinitely wide parallel plates.
 To analyze this simple flow, it is
convenient to establish a rectangular
coordinate system having its x-axis
fluid in the bottom plate and oriented
along the shear direction, with the y
axis perpendicular to the plate surface.

 In this case, the shear strain is defined as

the ratio of the deformation of a
differential element in the x-direction (dx)
to that in the y-direction (dy) during shear.

 It is easily shown that shear rate in

coquette flow is equal to the velocity
gradients as.
 Max shear rate occurs at the moving plate
surface and is given by U/H, where
U be the constant (Max) velocity of the
upper plate moving in the x-direction and
H be the distance of separation between
two plates.

 The minimum shear rate is zero and occurs

at the bottom (stationary) plate (i.e. y=o)
assuming there is no slip of the fluid layer at
the plate surface Ux(0)=0

 At the intermediate points, the velocity Ux

was found to be a linear function of the y-
coordinate.
,
There are also various fluids which
do not obey Newton’s law and
which exhibit a non-linear
dependence between the stress
and rate of deformation.
 The elastic and viscous responses
represent two extremes of response to
external stresses between which there
can be an infinite number of
intermediate responses.

 For example, behavior of materials with

a yield stress.
 As long as the applied stress is below
some limit the material deforms as an
elastic solid.
 If the applied stress exceeds the yield
stress, the material behaves like a
viscous fluid.
 Hence rheology is concerned with
more complex material which exhibits
some elastic and viscous properties
simultaneously and is called
“viscoelastic substances”.

 Such substances fluids are non-

Newtonian fluids. In case of Newtonian
fluids such as water and mineral oil, the
viscosity µ is a function of temperature
and pressure but it is independent of γ .
 In contrast, the viscosity of non-
Newtonian fluids such as concentrated
polymer solutions and melts is a function
of temperature, pressure and γ.

 In addition, the viscosity of polymer

solution and melts exhibits a strong
dependence on molecular weight.

 These unique aspects of polymer

rheology will be discussed in following
section.
 A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which
the viscous stresses arising from its flow,
at every point, are linearly correlated to
the local strain-rate the rate of change of
its deformation over time

 That is equivalent to saying those forces

are proportional to the rates of change of
the fluid's velocity vector as one moves
away from the point in question in various
directions.
 More precisely, a fluid is Newtonian only if
the tensors that describe the viscous stress
and the strain rate are related by a
constant viscosity tensor that does not
depend on the stress state and velocity of
the flow.

 If the fluid is also isotropic (that is, its

mechanical properties are the same along
any direction), the viscosity tensor reduces
to two real coefficients, describing the
fluid's resistance to continuous shear
deformation and continuous compression
or expansion, respectively.
 Newtonian fluids are the simplest
mathematical models of fluids that
account for viscosity.

 Whileno real fluid fits the definition

perfectly, many common liquids and
gases, such as water and air, can be
assumed to be Newtonian for
practical calculations under ordinary
conditions.
 The coefficient of viscosity of Newtonian
fluids is constant irrespective of the shear
stresses involved, and is independent of
time, by definition.

 Many real materials such as polymer melts

and solutions and suspension of particles in
liquids such as PVC pastes, do not however,
exhibit the simple characteristics of a
Newtonian fluid.
 These are Non-Newtonian fluids.
 Many polymer solutions and molten
polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are
many commonly found substances such as
ketchup, starch suspensions, paints, blood
and shampoo.

 Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow

Newton’s law and, thus, their viscosity (ratio
of shear stress to shear rate) is not constant
and is dependent on the shear rate.
 Pseudo plastic Flow:

 Polymers in solutions such as tragacant,

sodium alginate, methylcellulose.
 Viscosity decreases with an increase in
shear thinning.
Caused by the re-alignment of polymer
and/or the release of solvents
associated with the polymers.
 Three types of flow behaviour.
 Time-independent fluids
 Time-dependent fluids
 Elastico viscous fluids
 Fluids in which the rate of shear at a
given point is some function of shearing
stress at the point and nothing else. (A
Newtonian fluid is, in fact, the simplest
example of this class.)

 The viscosity of a Non-Newtonian time

independent fluid is dependent not only
on temperature but also on shear rate.
 Or graphically by a curve of shear stress
plotted against shear rate. All sorts of
curves are possible and many occur. We
will, however, concern ourselves of this
stage only with the four basic types as
indicated below.
 So that, in this case
f (𝜏)= 𝜏/µ
The Bingham body is an idealized material
which is considered to have an internal
structure which collapses about a yield
stress 𝜏y, and above which the shear rate
increases linearly with shear stress i.e.
γ = 1/ µ [𝜏- 𝜏y ] when 𝜏 ≥ 𝜏y
 A number of suspensions, slurries and
pulps approximate in their behavior to
Bingham bodies although the 𝜏 = 𝜏y
relationship above 𝜏y may be nonlinear.

 Although Bingham body has been referred

to as the ideal plastic (in a strictly
rheological sense) such behaviour is not
observed in polymer melts.
 Polymer melts are almost invariably pseudo
plastic in their behaviour, i.e. shear rate
increases at a more than linear rate with
increase in shear.
 In figure A, it can be seen that
Bingham body becomes almost a
limiting case for the pseudo plastic
behaviour.

 It is a direct consequence of the

shape of a pseudo plastic flow curve
(plot of 𝜏 against γ) that there is no
constant of proportionality between
shear stress and shear rate.
 Therefore instead of talking about the
coefficient of viscosity, which we use
with Newtonian fluids.

 It is more common to refer to the

apparent viscosity µa defined as shear
stress/shear rate such as apparent
viscosity decreases with rate of shear for
pseudo plastics, is independent of rate of
shear for Newtonian fluids and increases
with rate of shear for dilatants fluids.
Apparent shear rate Apparent viscosity Apparent viscosity

Plasticized PVC HDPE

1 34482 1379

103 172 137.9

104 20.7 68.9

 It is clear that PVC compounds are highly
pseudo plastic in nature and to less extent
those of PE. At the given shear rate the
apparent viscosity is not slope of the shear
stress-shear rate curve but is the slope of the
secant drawn from the origin to the point of
shear.
 Pseudo plastic behaviour can arise in a
number of ways. Two explanations are
commonly given-
a) Asymmetric molecules or particles are
extensively entangled and/or randomly
oriented at rest under shear the molecules
(or particles) become oriented and point of
entanglement are reduced.
 The orientation may be opposed by
disorienting effect of Brownian motion. At
very high shear rates orientation may be
complete and in this range near Newtonian
behaviour may be observed.
 B) Highly solvated molecules or particles
may be present. With increase of shear
rate, solvated layers may be sheared
away resulting in decreased interaction
of the particles ( because of their smaller
effective size) and consequent reduction
in apparent viscosity such as a process
must occur at a finite rate.

 Apparently time-dependent properties

are due to the differences in time scale
of the experiment compared with the
time required for the removal of the
solvated layers.
 This class of fluids is characterized by the fact
that, provided the temperature of the fluid
remains constant, the shear rate depends only
on the shear stress and is a single valued function
of it. Newtonian fluids which have a viscosity that
is independent of the shear rate are described.
 Shear thinning - the viscosity decreases
with increased shear rate

 Shear thickening - the viscosity increases

with increased shear rate

 Plastic - exhibits a so-called yield

value, i.e. a certain shear stress must be
applied before flow occurs
 “Shear thinning fluids are also
called pseudo plastic and shear
thickening fluids are also
called dilatants”.

Examples of shear thinning fluids:

 paint
 shampoo
 slurries
 fruit juice concentrates
 Ketchup
Examples of shear thickening fluids:
 wet sand
 concentrated starch suspensions

Examples of plastic fluids:

 quark
 tomato paste
 tooth paste
 hand cream
 some ketchups
 grease
 More complex systems in which shear
stress-shear rate relationship depend on
how the fluid has been sheared and on it
previous history.
 The viscosity of the fluid is dependent on
temperature, shear rate and time.
 Depending on how viscosity changes
with time the flow behaviour is
characterized as:
 thixotropic (time thinning, i.e. viscosity
decreases with time)
 rheopectic (time
thickening, i.e. viscosity increases with
time)
 Thixotropic fluids are quite common in
chemical as well as in food industry.
Rheopectic fluids are very rare.

 Note: some fluids show time thinning

behaviour due to breakdown of
structure. This phenomenon is sometimes
known as rheomalaxis.

 Examples:
 Thixotropic: yoghurt, paint
 Rheopectic: gypsum paste
 Majority of polymer melts or solutions exhibit
all or part o flow curve sown below.
 In region A the fluid is Newtonian.

 This implies that the rate of deformation is so

slow that there are no changes in
entanglements between, nor change in
shape of polymer chains.

 Brownian motion at least compensating for

any imposed change in flow fluid.

 A transition region B, which may extend over

a fairly large range of shear rate, then leads
into C, the power-law region.
 This is for many practical purposes the
most important flow area. Region D is,
like B, a transition zone ending in the
upper Newtonian region, E.

 In the region E, deformation is so rapid

that further increase in shear rate will
produce no further change either in
molecular shape or in degree of
entanglement.

 ‘ Structure’ being constant, results in a

constant viscosity
 A non-Newtonian or apparent viscosity, of
polymer solution and melts is defined following
Newton’s law of viscosity as

𝜏 = η (γ) γ ------------- (1)

Equation 1 is called ‘Generalized Newtonian Fluid

(GNF) model.

The actual analytical relationship between 𝜏 and γ

therefore, the dependence of η or γ are given by
constitutive equation of the model.
 At higher η and γ, decreases with
increasing γ.
 Fluids that display this behavior are
termed shear thinning.
 Finally, η 0 once again approaches a
limiting Newtonian Plateau, η 0 at very
high γ.
 As shear rates increases, chain begin to
orient in the flow direction and
disentangle from one another-the
viscosity begin to drop.

 Finally, the molecules become fully

oriented in the flow direction at very high
shear rates.
 At this point, stable entanglements are
no longer possible and the viscosity
reaches a low level that is again
independent shear strain rate.

 This second Newtonian plateau region

is observed in polymer melts, because
the shear rate required for chain
orientation in the melts are so high
that the chain actually can be broken
i.e. shear induced degradation or
mechano-degradation
 In rare cases, the viscosity may
increase with increasing shear rate.

 Fluidsthat exhibit this behavior are

called shear thickening (or dilatants)

e.g. concentrated suspensions such as

PVC plastic and polymer melts that
undergo shear induced crystallization.
 The significance of entanglements to shear
thinning flow suggests that molecular weight and
the critical molecular weight for entanglements,
MC should significantly influence the rheological
properties of polymers.

 It has been shown that zero shear viscosity is

directly related to the MW, where MW<MC but
follows a 3.4 power dependence MW on when MC
≤. MW. In addition, the onset of shear thinning
behavior occurs at progressively lower as
molecular weight increases, as shown by the
viscosity data for polystyrene (MC =31,200) at 183
C
 The temperature dependence of
apparent viscosity of a polymer melts
follows a typical Arrhenius relationship at
high temperature, Ca, 100 0 C above Tg,
as given by
η= ηr exp [ E/R (1/T-1/Tr)]

 E= activation energy
 R= ideal gas constant
 ηr = viscosity at some reference
temperature, Tr
 At lower temperature, in the vicinity of Tg,
approximately Tg<T<Tg+100 0C, viscosity
increases much more rapidly with decreasing
temperature than given by the Arrhenius
expression.

 In this case, the temperature dependence of

melt viscosity can be obtained by WLF (William-
Label-Ferry) equation as-
Log [ η (T)/η (Tg]= -log aT = G (T-Tg)/C2 +T-Tg
η (Tg)= viscosity at Tg
Shift factor aT = [ η (T)/η (Tr)]
Tr = reference temperature
C1 &C2 = constant for polymer (17.44 & 51.6 )
 For this, the experimental viscosities showed
excellent agreement with those predicted by
the WLF equation over a temperature range
from Tg+55 0 C to Tg+185 0 C
 Unlike the case Tg, viscosity can be
significantly affected by pressure.

 This pressure dependence may be an

important consideration in the design of
some pressures of several thousand psi
are experienced.

 At constant temperature, the effect of

pressure on viscosity can be
approximated by the relation.
 η r = reference viscosity corresponding to
some reference pressure p r
 β = pressure coefficient in range of 0.87
to 4.93 Х 10-8 p/a.

 Note: in the modeling of pressuring

operations, it is necessary to neglect the
effect of pressure in order to obtain
analytical or numerical solutions that are
manageable.
 Shear tinning ( and shear thickening )
behavior is considered to be reversible
providing no thermal or mechanical
degradation has occurred.

 In some cases, the subsequent flow

behavior of previously sheared fluid may be
depend upon the prior shear history and
time allowed for recovery.

 “A fluid whose viscosity is reduced by prior

deformation or decreases with time under
conditions of constant stress or shear rate is
called ‘thixotropic’.
 Eventually, the viscosity will recover
(increase) once the stress is removed.

 E.g. nondrip latex point.

 Similarly, a fluid whose viscosity has

increased as a result of prior deformation
history or increase in time under
application of constant stress or strain
rate is called antithixotropic (or
rheology).
 Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear
thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that
are thick or viscous under static conditions will
flow (become thinner, less viscous) over time
when shaken, agitated, shear-stressed, or
otherwise stressed (time dependent viscosity).

 They then take a fixed time to return to a more

viscous state. Some non-Newtonian pseudo
plastic fluids show a time-dependent change
in viscosity; the longer the fluid
undergoes shear-stress, the lower its viscosity.
A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which
takes a finite time to attain
equilibrium viscosity when
introduced to a steep change in
shear rate.

 Some thixotropic fluids return to a

gel state almost instantly, such
as ketchup, and are called
pseudo plastic fluids.
 Let us consider a thixotropic sample is
taken in a rotary viscometer. The sample is
stirred for a fixed period of time, for
example once minute, at a low shear rate
and torque measured is recorded at some
time during this period.

 The speed is their increased stepwise

stopping the machine and torque
measurements at the new shear rate.

 This is their repeated over several

increased shear rates. A curved plot will
result.
 Time for which the material is sheared at
each speed
 On the number of the speed employed
 The maximum shear rate used as well as
 On the flow characteristics of the material.
 This term is used when the apparent
viscosity is an increasing function of the
duration of flow and when, as with the
thixotropy, the body recovers its initial
state after a long enough rest.

 Once again a hysteresis loop is

produced in the rotatory viscometer
experiment but is in the opposite sense.
 The word rheopoxy has also been used
to describe an increase in the viscosity
of a body with time (not necessarily
under (deformation).
 It is today more commonly used to
denote the solidification of a thixotropic
system under the influence of gentle
movement.
 Systems which are predominating
viscous but which exhibit partial elastic
recovery after deformation.

 Thisclass could be considered as a

special sub class of (b) but is normally
treated separately.

 Viscoelasticity is a property of a material

that exhibits both viscous and elastic
character.
 Viscoelasticity is the property of
materials that exhibit both viscous
and elastic characteristics when
undergoing deformation.

 Viscous materials, like water,

resist shear flow and strain linearly with
time when a stress is applied. Elastic
materials strain when stretched and
immediately return to their original state
once the stress is removed.
 Viscoelastic materials have
elements of both of these
properties and, as such, exhibit
time-dependent strain.

 Whereas elasticity is usually the

result of bond stretching along
crystallographic planes in an
ordered solid, viscosity is the result
of the diffusion of atoms or
molecules inside an amorphous
material.
 Viscoelasticity calculations depend
heavily on the viscosity variable, η. The
inverse of η is also known as fluidity , φ.
The value of either can be derived as
a function of temperature or as a given
value (i.e. for a dashpot)
 Depending on the change of strain rate
versus stress inside a material the viscosity
can be categorized as having a linear, non-
linear, or plastic response. When a material
exhibits a linear response it is categorized
as a Newtonian material.

 In this case the stress is linearly proportional

to the strain rate.

 If the material exhibits a non-linear

response to the strain rate, it is categorized
as Non-Newtonian material.
 “There is also an interesting case where the
viscosity decreases as the shear/strain rate
remains constant”.

 A material which exhibits this type of

behavior is known as THIXOTROPIC.

 In addition, when the stress is independent

of this strain rate, the material exhibits
plastic deformation.

 Many viscoelastic materials

exhibit RUBBER like behavior explained by
the thermodynamic theory of polymer
elasticity.
 Some examples of viscoelastic materials
include amorphous polymers, semi
crystalline polymers, biopolymers, metals at
very high temperatures, and bitumen
materials.

 Cracking occurs when the strain is

applied quickly and outside of the elastic
limit.

 Ligaments and tendons are viscoelastic, so

the extent of the potential damage to them
depends both on the rate of the change of
their length as well as on the force applied.
A viscoelastic material has the
following properties:

 Hysteresis is seen in the stress-

strain curve.

 Stress relaxation occurs: step

constant strain causes decreasing
stress

 Creep occurs: step constant stress

causes increasing strain
 A constitutive
equation or constitutive relation is a
relation between two physical
quantities (especially kinetic
quantities as related to kinematic
quantities)

 That is specific to a material

or substance, and approximates the
response of that material to external
stimuli, usually as applied fields
or forces.
 They are combined with other
equations governing physical laws to
solve physical problems; for example
in fluid mechanics the flow of a fluid in
a pipe, in solid physics the response of
a crystal to an electric field, or
in structural analysis, the connection
between applied stresses or forces
to strains or deformation.
 A power-law fluid, or the Ostwald-de
Waele relationship, is a type
of generalized Newtonian fluid (time
independent Non-Newtonian fluid) for
which the shear stress, τ, is given by
where:
 K is the flow consistency index (SI units Pa sn),
 ∂u/∂y is the shear rate or
the velocity gradient perpendicular to the
plane of shear (SI unit s−1), and
 n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless).

The quantity represents

an apparent or effective viscosity as a function
of the shear rate (SI unit Pa s).
 The value of K and n can be obtained
from the graph of log(µ eff) and
 The slope line gives the value of n-1 from
which n can be calculated. The intercept
at gives the value of K.

n Type of fluid

<1 Pseudoplastic

1 Newtonian fluid

>1 Dilatant (less common)

 (a) A diluents material obeying the
power law
 A Newtonian material
 A pseudo plastic material obeying the
power law.
 A typical polymer melt which is pseudo
plastic but which dose not obey the
power law.
Now µa= 𝜏/γ by definition
𝜏= k (γ)n the power law
 If η is the apparent viscosity at some
shear rate (γ ) and is the viscosity at
some arbitrary reference shear rate ηr,
then it follows
(γ/ γ)n-1 = η/ηr
 We can say
η= η1 | γ | n-1
η = apparent viscosity at a shear rate 1
sec -1
 Dilatants materials show an
increase in the apparent viscosity
with increasing at some shear
rate.

 Insome cases dilatancy in the

classical sense, i.e. increase in
volume, is observed on increasing
the rate of shear.
 Dilantancy is often exhibited by highly
concentrated suspensions particularly
PVC pastes. The effect appears most
common with materials consisting of
irregularly shaped particles which do
not pack easily under high rates of
shear.
 It does not seam to have been
observed with polymer melts except
under special conditions where
crystallization of the melt is occurring
during flow
 Typical range for polymer processing
operations.

operation γ range (s)-1

Compress molding 1-10

Calendaring 10-10 2

Extrusion 10 2-10 3

Injection molding 10 3-10 4