CE-312 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SEISMOLOGY

DISCONTINUITIES

FOLDS AND FAULTS

ENGR. YASIR IRFAN BADRASHI
LINK TO THE PREVIOUS LECTURE
• Sedimentary rocks
• Formation
• Discontinuities
• How to define those discontinuities
ANOTHER LOOK AT THE ROCK CYCLE
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Stress
• Force applied to an area
• Pressure
• Differential stress – magnitude of stress is greater in one direction

• Rock Strength
• Rock’s resistance to deformation (stress)
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Strain
• A rock’s response to stress
• Deformation resulting in change of shape or position

• Elastic deformation
• Deformation is reversible, after stress is removed, materials return to original
shape, i.e. A rubber band

• Plastic deformation
• Deformation is permanent
• Rock flow in response to stress
• Need high pressures and temperatures, generally deep in earth’s interior.
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Brittle deformation
• Deformation is permanent
• Rock break (fracture) or lose cohesion
• Generally low temperature and low pressure, common in shallow crust
TYPES OF STRESS
• Tensional (Extension) Stress
• Compressional Stress
• Shear Stress
TENSION OR EXTENSIONAL STRESS
• Stress move away from each other
(pull apart)

• Rock lengthens

• Common in divergent boundaries,

but not sole locale

• Ductile deformation – stretching and

thinning of rock

• Brittle deformation – fracturing and

faulting
COMPRESSIONAL STRESS
• Stress presses (squeezes) rock
together

• Rock shortens

• Common at convergent boundaries

• Ductile deformation – shortening and

thickening of rock – rock folds

• Brittle deformation – fracturing and

faulting
SHEAR STRESS

• Stress creates a lateral shift in

the rock

• Rock slides past other rock

• Common at transform
boundaries

• Results in faults
FOLDS

• Ductile deformation

• Compressional stress

• Horizontal rocks are

deformed
FOLD TERMINOLOGY

• Limb – the sides of the fold

• Axial plane (hinge plane) –

imaginary plane that divides the
fold into two equal parts, marks
location of maximum curvature

• Fold axis (hinge line) – the line

formed by the intersection of the
hinge plane and a bedding plane
 SYNCLINE
• A fold with the youngest beds in the middle
• Generally trough shaped, with limbs dipping
toward the center
SYNCLINE
ANTICLINE

• A fold with the oldest beds

in the middle

• Generally arched shaped,

with limbs dipping away
the center
MONOCLINE

• Folds with only one limb

• Often Associated with faults

FOLD SYMMETRY

• Symmetrical fold – limbs of the fold dip • Asymmetrical fold – limbs of the fold dip
at the same angle at different angles
OVERTURNED FOLD
• Fold where one limb has been
tilted beyond vertical
 Syncline

Anticline
FAULTS
• A results of brittle deformation

• Fractures in the Earth's crust where displacement has occurred

 FAULT TERMINOLOGY

• Hanging wall – block that lies below the

fault plane

• Footwall – block that lies above the

fault plane
CLASSES OF FAULTS

• Dip-Slip
• Movement is primarily vertical

• Strike Slip
• Movement is along strike

• Oblique-Slip
– Movement is both vertical and
along strike
 DIP-SLIP FAULT – NORMAL FAULT

• Extensional Stress

• Hanging wall moves down

with respect to footwall
FOOTWALL HANGINGWALL
NORMAL FAULT
• Horst – raised block of material bounded by two normal faults

• Graben – trough (valley) bounded by two normal faults

 DIP-SLIP FAULT – REVERSE FAULT
• Compressional Stress
• Hanging wall moves up with respect to
footwall
 DIP-SLIP FAULT – THRUST FAULT
• Compressional Stress

• Low-angle reverse fault (fault plane < 45 o)

• Displacement can be 100’s km (~60 miles)

• Typically associated with folds

 Left-lateral strike-slip faults:
movement of opposite plate is
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT to the left

• Shear Stress
• No vertical movement
• Movement parallel to fault plane

Right-lateral strike-slip faults: movement of

opposite plate is to the right
ASSIGNMENT

• A brief note on mantel convection.

• What is the significance of folds and faults?