URBAN

 DRAINAGE  SYSTEM  IN  HONG  KONG  CITY  

Nurmala  Devianti  Sukmania  
Civil  Engineering  and  Planning  Faculty  
Sepuluh  Nopember  of  Institute  Technology,  Indonesia  
devianti13@mhs.ce.its.ac.id  
 
 
 
ABSTRACT  
 
For  a  long  time,  urban  drainage  system  have  existed  as  a  vital  city  infrastructure  to  
collect   and   convery   stormwater   and   wastewater   away   from   urban   areas.   Despite  
development   over   the   years,   it   remains   a   significant   challenge   to   design   an   effective  
functioning   drainage   system.   In   particular,   impacts   due   to   climate   change   and  
urbanization   have   been   widely   acknowledged,   which   could   entail   a   substantial  
increase   in   the   frequency   and   magnitude   of   urban   flooding   in   many   regions   of   the  
world.   At   the   same   time,   water   quality   problems   also   emerge   as   a   result   of  
urbanization   that   increases   the   variety   and   amount   of   pollutants   and   nutrients   in  
receiving  water  bodies  
 
INTRODUCTION  
 
Hong   Kong   is   an   autonomous   territory   on   the   southern   coast   of   China   at   the   Pearl  
River  Estuary  and  the  South  China  Sea.  Hong  Kong  is  know  for  its  skyline  and  deep  
natural   harbour,   and   it   becomes   one   of   10   city   with   the   best   infrastructure.   Hong  
Kong   is   one   of   the   world’s   most   densely   populated   metropolises.   With   around   7.2  
million   people   live   in   Hong   Kong,   it   becomes   one   of   the   busiest   city   in   the   world.    
Hong   Kong   consist   of   three   regions:   Hong   Kong   Island,   Kowloon,   and   the   New  
Territories.  The  regions  are  subdivided  into  18  geographic  districts,  each  represented  
by   a   district   council   which   advises   the   government   on   local   matters   such   as   public  
fasilities,   community   programmes,   cultural   activities,   and   environmental  
improvements.  

Stormwater   drainage   and   sewerage   are   part   of   the   essential   infrastructure   of   a  

modern   city.   In   Hong   Kong,   separate   systems   are   provided   for   the   collection   and  
disposal  of  stormwater  and  sewage.  Life  and  property  are  from  time  to  time  under  
the  threat  of  flooding  due  to  heavy  rainfall.  The  average  annual  rainfall  of  Hong  Kong  
is   about   2200   millimetres.   Rainfall   distribution   is   seldom   uniform   spatially   and  
temporally   and   remarkable   extremes   in   storm   rainfall   are   also   experienced.   Such  
heavy  rainfall,  sometimes  coupled  with  high  sea  levels  associated  with  storm  surges  
during  the  passage  of  tropical  cyclones,  can  cause  flooding.    

Apart   from   natural   causes,   human   activities   can   also   influence   the   prevalence   of  
flooding.   Examples   are   changes   in   land   use   resulting   in   increase   in   runoff   and  
depletion   of   flood   storage;   blockage   of   natural   drainage   systems   by   refuse,  
agricultural   wastes   or   silt   arising   from   both   natural   erosion   and   construction  
activities;   indiscriminate   land   filling;   and   lack   of   comprehensive   maintenance   of  
natural  watercourses  due  to  land  access  problems.  

In   addition   to   the   provision   of   a   comprehensive   system   of   stormwater   pipelines,  

culverts   and   nullahs   in   the   urbanized   areas,   it   is   necessary   to   undertake   flood  
mitigation   measures   in   the   rural   areas   such   as   the   construction   of   river   training  
works   to   improve   the   flow   capacity   and   the   installation   of   polders   and   floodwater  
pumping  systems  for  low-­‐lying  villages.    

Many   stormwater   drainage   systems   were   built   many   years   ago,   with   their   capacities  
designed   to   meet   the   flow   requirement   at   that   time.   Rapid   development   and  
changes  in  land  use  have  made  the  land  surface  less  previous  to  water.  This  resulted  
in   more   rainwaterlowing   into   the   stormwater   drainage   systems.   Serious   flooding  
which   occurred   in   West   Kowloon   in   1997   and   1998   highlighted   the   deficiencies   in  
some  of  the  urban  stormwater  drainage  systems.  
 
However,   as   the   most   modern   city   in   China,   Hong   Kong   has   to   develop   its  
infrastructure   every   year,   especially   the   drainage   system,   considering   a   fact   that  
Hong  Kong  has  a  high  annual  growth  population  every  year.  
 
 
DRAINAGE  SYSTEM  IN  HONG  KONG  
 
In  1967,  the  sewage  and  drainage  advisory  unit  was  established  in  1969  the  drainage  
works  division  of  the  civil  engineering  office  was  established.  Due  to  the  expansion  
of   the   city,   channels   and   drains   replaced   natural   streams.   From   1970’s   onwards,  
major   sewage   treatment   and   drainage   projects   were   built.   The   Drainage   Service  
Department  (DSD),  which  was  established  in  1989,  provides  guidelines,  and  controls  
the  design,  execution,  and  other  aspects  of  drainage  systems  in  Hong  Kong.  
 
In  Hong  Kong,  drainage  structures  are  currently  designed  to  BS,  either  directly  as  in  
the   case   for   water   retaining   structures   to   BS   8007,   or   indirectly   as   in   the   case   for  
structures   subject   to   highway   loading   to   BS   5400   customized   by   the   local   guiding  
document.   In   view   of   the   progressive   replacement   of   BS   by   EC   (EN   1990   to   EN   1999)  
ad  their  UK  NA  through  the  promulgation  of  BS  EN  standars  since  March  2010,  the  
Government   has   planned   to   migrate   from   BS   to   EC   and   UK   NA   in   2015.   To   cope   with  
the   migration,   a   transition   period   from   2013   ato   2014   is   set   out   during   which   the  
designer   may   opt   for   using   BS   or   EC   and   UK   NA   in   conjuction   with   local  
guidance/documents  as  appropriate  for  structural  design  of  the  drainage  structures  
(e.g.  box  culverts,  manholes,  floodwater  pumping  stations,  etc.).    

West  Kowloon  is  a  major  residential  and  commercial  area.  Its  drainage  system  covers  
an  area  of  some  1,500  hectares  (ha),  extending  from  Tsim  Sha  Tsui  in  the  south,  to  
Lai   Chi   Kok   in   the   west   and   to   Kowloon   Tong   in   the   east.   The   upper   part   of   the  
drainage   system   lies   in   a   steep   and   relatively   suburban   area   above   Lung   Cheung  
Road.   The   lower   part   lies   in   a   relatively   flat   and   densely   populated   area   which   has  
recently   been   extended   by   the   West   Kowloon   Reclamation.   The   Kowloon   group   of  
reservoirs   adds   an   indirect   catchment   area   of   some   680   ha.   A   map   showing   the  
major  stormwater  catchments  of  West  Kowloon  is  at  Figure  1  on  the  centre  pages.    

The  trunk  drains  in  West  Kowloon  had  been  extended  and  modified  over  the  years  
as  West  Kowloon  was  being  developed.  The  drains  were  originally  open  nullahs  but  
many   have   now   been   decked   or   replaced   by   box   culverts.   In   October   1990,   a  
preliminary  study  carried  out  by  the  DSD  revealed  that  many  trunk  drains  in  the  area  
were  inadequate  in  capacity.    

Pict  1.   Drainage  System  in  Hong  Kong  City  

 

 
 
Pict  2.  Stromwater  Drainage  in  Trench  
In  1990,  the  Government  implemented  the  West  Kowloon  Reclamation  project.  The  
trunk   drains   in   the   West   Kowloon   hinterland   areas   (i.e.   areas   adjacent   to   the   new  
reclamation)   had   to   be   extended   to   the   new   seafront.   In   November   1991,   the  
Territory   Development   Department   (TDD),   which   was   responsible   for   the  
reclamation   works,   completed   a   hydraulic   model   analysis   of   the   drainage   system   for  
the   West   Kowloon   Reclamation   and   the   hinterland   areas.   The   objective   of   the  
analysis   was   to   identify   measures   necessary   to   mitigate   the   adverse   effects   on   the  
existing   drainage   system   due   to   the   extension   of   the   culverts   through   the  
reclamation.   The   TDD   subsequently   carried   out   works   to   improve   the   hinterland  
drainage  system  and  to  extend  the  culverts  across  the  new  reclamation.    

Drainage   system   in   Hong   Kong   divided   into   Urban   Drainage   Trunk   Systems   and  
Urban  Drainage  Branch  Systems.  An  Urban  Drainage  Branch  System  is  defined  as  a  
group   or   network   connecting   drains   collectiong   runoff   from   the   urban   area   and  
conveying   stormwater   to   a   trunk   drain,   river   or   sea.   The   largest   pipe   size   or   the  
equivalent   diameter   in   case   of   a   box   culvert   in   a   branch   system   will   normally   be   less  
than  1.8  m.  An  Urban  Drainage  Trunk  System  collects  stormwater  from  branch  drains  
and/or   river   inlets,   and   conveys   the   flow   to   outfalls   in   river   or   sea.   Pipes   with   size   or  
box  culverts  with  an  equivalent  diameter  equal  to  or  larger  than  1.8  m  are  normally  
considered   as   trunk   drains.   It   is   however   noted   that   small   catchments   do   not  
necessarily  have  to  have  a  trunk  drain  at  all.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  3.  Underground  Drainage  System    
 
  
Pict  4.  Drainage  Tunnel  Scheme  
 

Polder   and   floodwater   pumping   schemes   have   been   in   use   in   Hong   Kong   since   the  
early  1980s.  They  have  been  adopted  to  protect  villages  in  low-­‐lying  catchments  in  
NWNT   and   NENT.   A   polder   refers   to   a   piece   of   lowland   enclosed   within   an  
embankment,   in   which   the   water   level   is   independent   of   that   outside   the  
embankment.  It  can  be  formed  by  the  construction  of  flood  protection  embankment  
or   similar   structures   in   association   with   roads   and   other   developments.   External  
floodwater   are   prevented   from   entering   the   polder   and   surface   runoff   collected  
inside  the  poldered  area  will  be  pumped  to  nearby  existing  watercourses  outside  the  
poldered  area.    

Basically,   a   polder   and   floodwater   pumping   scheme   would   comprise   the   following  
components:    

1. (a)    flood   protection   structure   (e.g.   flood   protection   embankment   or   flood  

protection  wall)    
2. (b)    internal  drains,  flow  control  devices  and  associated  hydraulic  structures    
3. (c)    floodwater  storage  facilities  (e.g.  floodwater  storage  pond)    
4. (d)    floodwater  pumping  facilities  (e.g.  floodwater  pumping  station)    

The  flood  protection  structure  polders  and  separates  the  low-­‐lying  villages  from  the  
surrounding  land  and  prevents  external  floodwater  from  entering  the  poldered  area.  
Under   normal   rainfall   conditions,   surface   runoff   within   the   polder   would   drain   by  
gravity   via   the   internal   village   drains   to   the   floodwater   storage   pond   for   storage   and  
subsequent  disposal.  When  the  water  level  has  risen  to  a  pre-­‐determined  level,  the  
pumps   will   be   operated   automatically   to   discharge   the   stored   stormwater   to   nearby  
watercourses   outside   of   the   polder.   However,   it   is   always   favourable   to   provide  
some  flow  control  devices  to  facilitate  gravity  drainage  of  stormwater  when  rainfall  
is  small  and  the  water  level  in  the  nearby  watercourse  outside  the  polder  is  not  high.  
In  this  case,  the  flow  control  devices  enable  the  runoff  to  by-­‐  pass  the  storage  and  
pumping  facilities,  and  to  directly  discharge  into  the  downstream  watercourse.  
FLOOD  PROBLEM  
 
Major  Causes  of  Flooding  in  Hong  Kong  
 
During  rainy  season,  flooding  occurs  in  various  areas  of  Northern  Hong  Kong  Island.  
The  main  causes  of  flooding  are  as  follows:  
 
• Geographical  Location  –  Located  in  the  sub-­‐tropical  region,  Hong  Kong  has  a  
oceanic  climate  and  therefore  is  vulnerable  to  heavy  downpour  and  tropical  
cyclones  in  summer  
• High   Rainfall   –   Hong   Kong   has   an   annual   average   rainfall   of   about   2,200  
millimetres,  one  of  the  highest  among  cities  in  the  Pacific  Rim  
• Urban  Development  –  Over  the  years,  intensive  development  associated  with  
urban   development   has   taken   plance   in   Northern   Hong   Kong   Island.   The  
district   is   one   of   the   most   densely-­‐built   areas   in   Hong   Kong.   Continous  
development  and  expansion  of  the  community  at  the  upper  catchment  have  
increased   the   quantity   of   surface   run   off   considerably,   thus   reducing   the  
flood   carrying   capacity   of   drainage   system   in   urban   area,   aggravating   the  
flooding  problem  during  rainstorms  
• Low   lying   Topography   and   Effects   of   Tides   –   Sheung   Wan,   Central,   Admiralty,  
Wan   Chai,   Causeway   Bay   and   Happy   Valley   are   located   in   low-­‐lying   areas.  
When   the   tidal   level   is   high,   the   seawater   will   affect   the     dischargeing  
capacity   of   the   existing   drainage   system   and   therefore   these   areas   and  
susceptible  to  accumulation  of  stormwater  
• Aged  Drainage  System  –  The  drainage  systems  in  the  area  built  decades  ago  
are   no   longer   sufficient   to   satisfy   and   meet   the   current   flood   preventions  
standard.  The  discharge  capacity  of  the  aged  drainage  system  has  also  been  
reduced  
 
Impacts  on  Flooding  
 
• Affect  Economic  Activities  -­‐  Areas  like  Sheung  Wan,  Central,  Admiralty,  Wan  
Chai   and   Causeway   Bay   are   the   key   financial   and   business   areas   of   Hong  
Kong.  Flooding  occurring  in  those  areas  would  disrupt  economic  activities  and  
business  operation  and  hence  lead  to  huge  economic  losses.    
• Disturbance   to   the   Public   -­‐   Flooding   disturbs   the   daily   lives   of   the   public,  
causing  inconvenience  to  pedestrians  on  their  way  to  work  or  study.  Schools  
are  sometimes  suspended.    
• Traffic   Congestion   -­‐   During   heavy   downpours,   areas   in   Northern   Hong   Kong  
Island   such   as   Sheung   Wan,   Central,   Admiralty   and   Wan   Chai   are   prone   to  
flooding.  Flooding  causes  serious  disruption  and  congestion  to  traffic.  
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  5.  Flooding  at  Leighton  Road  (2006)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  6.  Flooding  at  Hillier  Street  (2005)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  7.  Connaught  Road  Central  during  the  Black  Rainstorm  (2008)  
 
DRAINAGE  INFRASTRUCTURE  
 
HONG  KONG  WEST  DRAINAGE  TUNNEL  
 
Over   the   years,   while   Drainage   Services   Department   has   made   various  
improvements  and  extensions  to  the  aged  systems,  the  improved  drainage  systems  
still  fall  short  of  current  flood  protection  standards  and  are  inadequate  to  deal  with  
the  flooding  caused  by  heavy  rains  or  typhoons.  To  alleviate  the  long-­‐term  flooding  
problem,   Drainage   Services   Department   has   carried   out   in-­‐depth   studies   on   the  
stormwater   drainage   systems   and   finally   adopted   a   stormwater   interception  
approach   and   proposed   implementation   of   the   Hong   Kong   West   Drainage   Tunnel  
Project.  The  Project  consists  of  building  a  drainage  tunnel  spanning  from  Tai  Hang  to  
Cyberport.   The   newly   built   tunnel   can   intercept   and   convey   stormwater   from   the  
upper  catchment  to  the  sea  near  Cyberport.  
 

 
Pict  8.  Master  Layout  Plan  for  Hong  Kong  West  Drainage  Tunnel  
 
Hong   Kong   West   Drainage   Tunnel   (HKWDT),   being   part   of   the   effort   in   achieving  
Hong   Kong’s   long   term   sustainability   by   alleviating   flooding   in   the   Northern   Hong  
Kong   Island,   has   started   contributing   to   environmental   conservation   at   its  
construction  stage.  To  minimize  the  environmental  impact  of  construction,  a  series  
of   initiatives   has   been   in   place   since   its   commencement.   These   initiatives   include  
tree  preservation,  water  recycle,  use  of  solar  energy  and  clean  fuel,  etc.  One  of  the  
important   eco-­‐friendly   measures   is   to   reuse   and   recycle   the   spoil   generated   from  
tunnel  excavation.  Excavation  of  the  11  km  long  main  tunnel  and  its  associated  adit  
tunnels   generate   about   1.8   million   tones   spoils.   These   spoils   are   unpolluted   rock  
chips  which  are  classified  as  inert  construction  and  demolition  (C&D)  material.  These  
spoils  are  reusable  resources  and  harmless  to  environment.  
 
With  a  view  to  conserving  public  fill  spaces  which  are  expected  to  be  saturated  in  the  
near   future,   the   above-­‐mentioned   spoils   have   been   transported   to   other   suitable  
construction   sites   in   Hong   Kong   and   China   for   reuse.   The   authorized   construction  
projects  for  reusing  C&D  material  generated  from  HKWDT  project  are  as  follows:  
 
• Redevelopment  plan  for  Ocean  Park  
• Central  reclamation  phase  III  Project  
• Construction  projects  in  Hong  Kong  University  
• Harbor  Area  Treatment  Scheme  Stage  2a  
• Central-­‐Wan  Chai  Bypass  
• Express  Rail  Link-­‐Hong  Kong  Section-­‐Mei  Lai  Road  to  Hoi  Ting  Road  Tunnels  
• Residential  Redevelopment  at  1  Gough  Hill  Road  
 
AECOM   provided   for   Hong   Kong   a   comprehensive   urban   flood   control   master   plan  
study,   and   engineered   some   of   the   most   critical   component   of   that   blueprint,  
including   the   Hong   Kong   West   Drainage   Tunnel   in   response   to   the   increased  
community  expectations  for  high  flood  protection  standards.  
 
The  construction  of  the  Hong  Kong  West  Drainage  Tunnel  (HKWDT)  is  to  alleviate  the  
flooding   risks   to   meet   the   community’s   increased   expectations   for   higher   flood  
protection   standards.   The   HKWDT  project   consists   of   a   system   of   32   catchment  
intakes,   dropshafts,   adits   and   a   drainage   tunnel.   Most  of   the   intakes   will   have  
vertical  shafts  connected  with  adits  joining  to  the  main  tunnel,  traversing  along  the  
Northern  Part  of  Hong  Kong  Island  from  Tai  hang  to  Pok  Fu  Lam.  
 
During   construction,   two   tunnel   boring   machines   (TBM)   were   be   used   to   excavate  
the   tunnel   from   the   two   ends,   with   one   section   of   the   tunnel   (7.25m   internal  
diameter)   driven   from   the   Western   Portal   at   Cyberport   for   6,650   meters,   and   the  
other   section   (6.25m   internal   diameter   driven   from   the   Eastern   Portal   at   Tai   Hang  
Road  for  3,950  meters.  A  TBM  dismantling  chamber  was  designed  at  the  mid-­‐point  
of   the   tunnel   to   recover   the   TBM   elements.   This   was   to   facilitate   the   concurrent  
tunnel   excavation   by   two   TBM’s   starting   from   the   both   ends   of   the   tunnel.   The   total  
is   approximately   10.5km.   The   tunnel   is   permanently   lined   by   precast   concrete  
segments,  erected  by  the  TBM  as  excavation  progresses.  AECOM  was  appointed  by  
the   Dragages-­‐Nishimatsu   Joint   Venture   (DNJV)   as   the   designer   to   carry   out   the  
detailed  design  for  the  design  and  construction  contract  for  the  project.  
 
As   a   key   component   of   and   jointly   with   other   components   of   Hong   Kong’s   urban  
flood  control  drainage  system,  the  project  is  collectively  recognized  by  the  12th  Jeme  
Tien  Yow  Award,  China’s  highest  recognition  of  engineering  excellence,  in  2014.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  9.  Hong  Kong  West  Tunnel  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pict  10.  Hong  Kong  West  Drainage  Tunnel  
 
Intakes   Intake  Location   Alignment  Plan  of  Adit  Tunnels  
Eastern  Portal   Tai  Hang  Road   Tai  Hang  Road  
E5A   Tai  Hang  Road   Tai  Hang  Road  
E5B   Tai  Hang  Road   Tai  Hang  Road  
MB16   Mount  Butler  Road   Mount  Butler  Road  
MBD2   Mount  Butler  Road   Mount  Butler  Road  
E7   Blue  Pool  Road   Blue  Pool  Road  
THR2   Blue  Pool  Road   Blue  Pool  Road  
GL1   Green  Lane   Green  Lane  
HR1   Wong  Nai  Chung  Gap  Road   Wong  Nai  Chung  Gap  Road  
DG1   Stubbs  Road   Stubbs  Road  
W0   Stubbs  Road   Stubbs  Road  
BR4   Bowen  Road   Bowen  Road  
W1   Wan  Chai  Gap  Road   Wan  Chai  Gap  Road  
BR5   Bowen  Road   Bowen  Road  
BR6   Kennedy  Road   Kennedy  Road  
W3   Kennedy  Road   Kennedy  Road  
B2   Bowen  Road   Bowen  Road  
MA14   Magazine  Gap  Road   Magazine  Gap  Road  
MA15   Magazine  Gap  Road   Magazine  Gap  Road  
MA17   Magazine  Gap  Road   Magazine  Gap  Road  
M3   May  Road   May  Road  
TP789   Tregunter  Path   Tregunter  Path  
TP5   May  Road   May  Road  
TP4   Tregunter  Path   Tregunter  Path  
 W5   Glenealy   Glenealy  
CR1   Conduit  Road   Conduit  Road  
RR1   Castle  Road   Castle  Road  
W8   Breezy  Path   Breezy  Path  
P5   Robinson  Road   Robinson  Road  
W10   Kotewall  Road   Kotewall  Road  
HKU1   University  Drive   University  Drive  
PFLR1   Pokfulam  Road   Pokfulam  Road  
SM1   Smithfield   Smithfield  
Western  Portal   Cyberport  Sewage  Treatment  Plant   Cyberport  Sewage  Treatment  Plant  
 
Table  1.    Catchment  Intake  Of  Hong  Kong  West  Drainage  Tunnel  
 
DRAINAGE  MANAGEMENT  
The   maintenance   and   management   responsibilities   of   various   departments  
concerned   including   DSD   should   be   clearly   defined   in   early   planning/design   stage  
especially   in   abandoned   meanders,   fish   ponds,   wetlands   adjacent   to   the   drainage  
channels,   maintenance   roads   and   landscaping   works.   An   example   of   the   schedule   of  
responsibilities  for  a  completed  main  drainage  channels  project  is  shown  in  Table  2.    

 
  

Table  2.  Schedule  of  Maintenance  Responsibilities  for  a  Completed  Main  Drainage  
Channel  Project  

For   major   drainage   channel,   an   operation   and   maintenance   manual   should   be  

provided  by  the  design  office  upon  the  handing  over  of  the  project.  It  should  include  
as-­‐built   channel   profiles,   system   hydraulics,   spare   parts   provided,   division   of  
maintenance   responsibility   among   departments,   trigger   levels   for   maintenance  
dredging,   suggested   monitoring   schedule   during   operational   phase,   environmental  
issues   relating   to   maintenance   dredging,   geotechnical   monitoring   schedule   of  
channel   embankment,   safety   requirements   in   relation   to   the   operation   and  
maintenance  of  the  works  and  other  maintenance  items.    

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
REFERENCES  
 
http//www.dsd.gov.hk  
http://civcal.media.hku.hk  
http://civcal.media.hku.hk/urban/drainage_systems  
www.buildingmgt.gov.hk  
www.mdpi.com  
http://wikipedia.com  
www.arup.com/projects/Hong_Kong_West_Drainage_Tunnel