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On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement for Power

Transformers

Article  in  IEEJ Transactions on Power and Energy · January 2012

DOI: 10.1541/ieejpes.132.134

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電気学会論文誌 B（電力・エネルギー部門誌）
IEEJ Transactions on Power and Energy 2B11
Vol.132 No.2 pp.1–5 DOI: 10.1541/ieejpes.132.1

Special Issue Review

On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement

for Power Transformers
Stefan Tenbohlen∗a) Non-member, Maximilian Heindl∗ Non-member
Mark Jovalekic∗ Non-member
(Manuscript received Nov. 11, 2011)

The paper presents three methods for condition assessment of power transformers which can be applied on-site. A
combination of UHF and acoustic partial discharge (PD) measurement methods enables to detect PD in power trans-
formers and to improve interpretation and localisation of their sources. Frequency response measurements are a widely
applied technique for power transformer winding deformation detection. Dielectric response methods deliver results
about the moisture condition of a transformer.

Keywords: power transformer, on-site condition assessment, partial discharge, frequency response analysis, dielectric response
measurement

the ageing condition and decide further actions. Moisture as-

1. Introduction
The reliability of electrical energy networks depends on the
quality and availability of their components such as power
transformers. Due to the increasing age of the transformer
population condition assessment and thus on-site diagnostics
are important issues to secure a reliable operation of the elec-
trical power system.
Localised internal insulation failures can lead to catas-
trophic breakdown. To reduce such risk power transformers
have to pass a range of factory tests including one for partial
discharge (PD) activity before acceptance and commission-
ing. On-site PD measurements are often restricted by high
site interference. Hence the electrical PD-measurement set-
up according to IEC 60270 usually has sensitivity limitations
for on-site/on-line measurements. In contrast the sensitiv-
ity of UHF PD measurements is sufficient and normally not
affected by external disturbances. Especially in noisy sur-
rounding it is a very helpful method to support other PD mea-
surement techniques for example dissolved gas analysis and
acoustic localisation of PD.
Frequency Response Analysis compares measured trans-
fer functions of power transformers. Deviations between
frequency response curves indicate electrical or mechanical
damages of windings. Interpretation of the deviations be-
tween transfer funtions is not a standardized process and
promises to be more reliable and meaningful if skilled knowl-
edge about the transformer design is incorporated.
Another factor is the assessment of the transformer’s age-
ing condition. Ageing depends directly on operating temper-
ature and time. The limiting factor is degradation of paper
insulation. This goes hand in hand with moisture production
from the ageing process. So by knowing the moisture con-
tent in the solid insulation, it is possible to get an idea of
a) Correspondence to: stefan.tenbohlen@ieh.uni-stuttgart.de
∗ The compromise is therefore, to use a combination of the two
University of Stuttgart
Pfaffenwaldring 47, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
sessment can be done in various ways. For on-site off-line
measurements dielectric spectroscopy is a viable tool. Mois-
ture has an effect on the dielectric response of the insulating
system. Among different methods frequency domain spec-
troscopy (FDS) will be presented in detail.
2. Partial Discharge Diagnostics
2.1 Measuring Technique The electrical PD-mea-
surement set-up according to IEC 60270 usually has sensi-
tivity limitations for on site/on-line measurements because of
the noise level in field. The so called “UHF PD measuring
method” (UHF: Ultra High Frequency) is based on the facts
that PD under oil are very fast electrical processes and radiate
electromagnetic waves with frequencies up to the ultrahigh
range (UHF: 300–3000 MHz). Due to the moderately attenu-
ated propagation of UHF waves inside the transformer tank,
the sensitivity to electromagnetic wave detection is good (1) (2) .
UHF sensors can be inserted into the transformer during full
operation through the oil filling valve. As a result of shielding
characteristics of the transformer tank against external elec-
tromagnetic waves, normally a clear decision can be made
concerning the PD activity of the test object.
When electrical or UHF PD measurements confirm PD ac-
tivity, a three dimensional localisation of PD sources is the
next step for risk evaluation of PD phenomena. This can
be performed based on arrival time measurement. Because
piezo-electric acoustic sensors that can easily be mounted on
transformer tanks, the acoustic measurements remains attrac-
tive for localisation purposes. However, acoustic sensors are
normally more sensitive to external disturbances than to the
internal PD originated sound waves. They are also affected
by distortion within the tank from the winding core and sup-
port structures in the transit path which influences can partly
be eliminated with appropriate signal processing afterwards.
methods, using sensitive UHF signals to provide triggering


c 2012 The Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. 1
 On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement for Power Transformers（Stefan Tenbohlen et al.）
and by using averaging of acoustic signals for de-noising. By
using averaged signals (averaging in time domain), the acous-
tic PD pulses remain constructively overlapped whereas the
white background noise is averaged to zero.
2.2 Case Study Because of increasing gas-in-oil val-
ues, a 333 MVA, 400/220 kV single-phase autotransformer
was tested on-site and on-line for PD. The high noise level
at site strongly disturbed the conventional PD measurements
made according to IEC 60270 at frequencies lower than
1 MHz. Source of noise was in that case the 400 kV bus bar
above the transformer producing audible corona discharge.
Consequently, UHF PD measurements for PD detection in
combination with acoustic measurements for PD localisation
were performed in order to get reliable results. In this case the
transformer possessed three oil filling valves and three identi-
cal UHF Sensors were installed. Figure 2 shows the positions
of the UHF sensors (UHF 1–UHF 3) and the acoustic sensors
(A1–A6).
At nominal voltage, UHF signals from internal sources
were detectable with all three sensors. The travelling speed
of the electromagnetic waves is approximately two-thirds of
speed of light inside the transformer. Thus for localisation,
UHF signals are detected almost the same time PDs occur.
Conversely, the speed of acoustic waves is 1400 m/s, produc-
ing transit times within the range of milliseconds. With at
least three acoustic sensors and corresponding time of flights,
it is possible to calculate the intersection of the spheres and
thus to determine the PD location. It must be assumed that
the acoustic waves travel directly in the line of sight from the
PD source through the oil and through the steal tank to the
sensor without any reflections. But furthermore the localisa-
tion process has also to deal with acoustic waves travelling
faster through the tank wall than through the oil. The time
of flights of the acoustic signals can be computed objectively
with the help of the Hinkley criterion (3) . It is based on the sig-
nal energy of the measured signal and results in an absolute
minimum for the signal starting point.
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the supposed position of the PD
source is in the vicinity of the tap changer. Geometrical
Fig. 1. UHF PD Probe for standard oil filling valve
Fig. 2. Positions of UHF Sensors, acoustic sensors and
the PD source at 333 MVA single phase autotransformer
2 IEEJ Trans. PE, Vol.132, No.2, 2012
inaccuracy is thereby within the range of approx. 40 cm on
all space axes. This inaccuracy is caused by using different
combinations of time of flight differences and different local-
isation methods. Thereby the time of flight differences were
measured with six sensors which are the three UHF sensors
(UHF 1–UHF 3) and the three acoustic sensors (A2, A5, A6)
placed near to the PD source.
After transportation of the transformer to the manufacturer
the localisation result was confirmed by an IEC triggered
acoustic measurement in a shielded test area and the trans-
former was detanked for repair. The visual inspection of the
active parts at the tap changer confirmed the localisation re-
sults. After repair procedure the transformer passed the ac-
ceptance test without any indication of PD activity and was
put back into service.
3. Frequency Response Analysis
3.1 Motivation Frequency response measurements
are a widely applied technique for power transformer wind-
ing failure detection after lightning stroke, short circuit or
transport and are considered to be usually more sensitive than
the conventional short-circuit voltage measurements. De-
viations between frequency responses indicate mechanical
and/or electrical changes of the active part of a transformer.
The basic principle of FRA is the investigation of differ-
ences between frequency responses. The electrical transfer
behaviour in the frequency range up to 2 MHz, in other words
the frequency response, is identified by numerous charac-
teristic resonances, which depend on the stray capacitances
and inductances that are determined by the geometry and ar-
rangement of active part and transformer tank. The trans-
fer function T F( f ) as a state variable displays the geometric
structural condition like a finger print. Known damage types,
e.g. deformations, have an effect on the transfer functions like
shifting, creating or disappearing of resonances. However,
interpretation of particular differences between two transfer
function curves is the missing link between failure identi-
fication, measurement and assessment of the transformer (4) .
Figure 3 shows the frequency ranges with their corresponding
winding parts beeing sensitive towards mechanical changes
as identified by Cigre WG A2.26. For smaller power trans-
formers, the frequency ranges of interest tend to be shifted
towards higher frequency.
3.2 Measuring Technique The two most commonly
used test types for transfer function measurement of power
transformers are the so-called end-to-end transfer function
measurement T F EE ( f ) and the capacitive inter-winding mea-
surement T F CI ( f ), see also Ref. (5). Figure 4 shows the as-
sociated connection diagrams. The obtained transfer function
Fig. 3. Frequency ranges with known sensitivity to-
wards changes of the winding geometry (5)
 On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement for Power Transformers（Stefan Tenbohlen et al.）
of a measured phase then is:
U 2,EE
T F EE ( f ) = · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · (1)
U1
For the second measurement type, the transfer function is:
U 2,CI
T F CI ( f ) = . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · (2)
U1
3.3 Case Study Fig. 5 shows a representative case
of transfer functions of all phases measured at a 200 MVA
110 kV/65 kV three phase power transformer.
There are characteristic frequency bands which reflect dif-
ferent electrical properties of the transformer. The frequency
bands FB1 and FB2 are related to the core magnetizing in-
ductance and winding series capacitance, while FB3 and FB4
are related to the leakage inductances of the windings and the
capacitances of adjacent windings. The high frequency part
of FB4 up to 2 MHz represents smaller details of the active
part geometry together with the winding leads. Additionally,
the bushing capacitances influence the high frequency part of
the transfer functions.
Differences between transfer functions of differents phases
are greater in FB1, FB2 and in the upper part of FB4. For
FB1 and FB2 the differences can be explained by the unbal-
ance of the core (magnetic circuit) and remanence of the core.
Mismatching between phases in the upper part of FB4 can be
Fig. 4. Connection schemes for measurements of end-
to-end (EE) and capacitive inter-winding (CI) frequency
response
Fig. 5. Characteristic frequency bands of measured end-
to-end frequency responses of a three phase power trans-
former
3 IEEJ Trans. PE, Vol.132, No.2, 2012
explained by unbalances of the ground capacitances and the
practical realization of the winding lead outs.
FB3 and the lower part of FB4 reflect the most impor-
tant part of the frequency response. Deviations occuring in
this frequency range indicate mechical changes such as bulk
winding movement or buckling of windings (6) .
4. Moisture Measurement
4.1 Motivation Moisture is a critical parameter of the
insulating system. This has several reasons. One is that the
dielectric strength of insulating liquid is strongly affected by
moisture. The risk of partial discharges and the bubble effect
(evaporation of water vapour under high load conditions) is
higher. Water is also hazardous to the cellulose based insula-
tion as it accelerates further ageing. So by knowing the water
content of a transformer’s solid insulation it is possible to get
an idea of its ageing condition and thus plan further actions.
4.2 Sources of Water in Transformers The first
source of water in the lifetime of a transformer can be from
improper drying in the factory. Another can be moisture
ingress from the atmosphere. This can happen for free-
breathing transformers if the air-drying system is poorly
maintained. Another source is during repair in the field where
there are no possibilities of dry storage. The last, if not
the most important one is moisture originating from ageing
of paper and pressboard. This means, that even a perfectly
serviced transformer will become wet with increasing age.
There are studies which show that the ageing accelerates with
higher moisture content and at the same time water is pro-
duced due to ageing (see Fig. 6) (7) . One can conclude that
lifetime estimations of cellulosic insulating systems do not
only depend on operating temperature but also on moisture
content of solid insulation. This is the reason why water
assessment in combination with other diagnostic techniques
can help finding the health condition of a transformer.
4.3 Methods of Moisture Assessment The aim is to
know the water content of the critical solid insulation which
is the thin paper. It is nearly impossible to measure this di-
rectly as the paper cannot be sampled for measurement with-
out destroying it. Here only indirect methods can help. Ba-
sically there are two groups of techniques: first are the mois-
ture equilibrium charts and second are the dielectric response
measurements. The equilibrium diagrams use the fact that
the moisture in the paper-oil system reaches an equilibrium
Fig. 6. Life expectance of oil impregnated paper de-
pending on temperature and water content (7)
 On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement for Power Transformers（Stefan Tenbohlen et al.）
Fig. 7. Interpretation of the dissipation factor vs. fre-
quency of an oil-paper-insulation (9)
and will be distributed between oil and paper. So by knowing
the temperature and water content of the oil, one can esti-
mate the water content in the solid. If the thermal and kinetic
equilibrium cannot be guaranteed, these charts can give erro-
neous estimations additionally to sources of error during oil
sampling and measurement in the laboratory (8) .
4.4 Dielectric Response Methods Dielectric diag-
nostic methods deduce moisture in paper or pressboard from
dielectric properties like return voltage, polarisation and de-
polarisation currents and dissipation factor. Primary moti-
vations for the development of dielectric response methods
were the lack of methods for on-site moisture assessment in
power transformers.
4.5 Measuring Technique A time domain current
measurement records the charging and discharging currents
of the insulation. They are usually called Polarisation and
Depolarisation Currents (PDC). Frequency domain measure-
ments (FDS) are derived from dissipation factor measure-
ments, yet with a frequency range particularly enhanced for
low frequencies. Figure 7 shows the typical s-shaped curve
of the dissipation factor via frequency and the scientifically
agreed interpretation scheme for a power transformer.
The transformer under investigation has to be off-line. The
dielectric response of the oil-paper system should be mea-
sured between HV and LV winding. On one side a variable
frequency AC voltage source is connected and on the other
winding the resulting current is recorded. With this infor-
mation the loss factor can be calculated. These currents are
very low and can easily be disturbed in the field. One protec-
tive means on-site is guarding, which avoids surface currents
over the bushings from LV to HV. These fault currents would
impede the measurement of the correct dielectric response
and thus make the water assessment difficult. By combining
PDC and FDS measurement times can be reduced even fur-
ther and the moisture assessment process is completed after
3 to 6 hours.
5. Conclusion
PD-measurement set-up according to IEC 60270 usually
has sensitivity limitations for on-site/on-line measurements
because of the high noise level in field. UHF PD mea-
surements can easily support PD measurements even on-line
and are mostly sensitive enough against PD. As a result of
shielding characteristics of the transformer tank against exter-
nal electromagnetic waves, normally a clear decision can be
4 IEEJ Trans. PE, Vol.132, No.2, 2012
made concerning the PD activity of the test object. Acoustic
PD measurements should not be used exclusively and ben-
efit from a sensitive trigger method as e.g. UHF for double
checking and noise suppression.
FRA is a helpful diagnostic tool when clearing up trans-
former failures after short circuit events or drop out after
lightning strokes. Time-based comparison of frequency re-
sponses of a certain transformer unit promises most reliable
assessments, as design-based or type-based comparison are
always critical due to natural unbalances between phases in
design and inaccuracies of the production process.
Dielectric response methods deliver reliable results about
the moisture condition of a transformer. They can be ap-
plied on-site even under conditions where the equilibrium
state cannot be guaranteed. Disturbances can be reduced by
proper connections and guarding.
References
(1) S. Coenen, S. Tenbohlen, S.M. Markalous, and S. Strehl: “Sensitivity of UHF
PD Measurements in Power Transformers”, IEEE Trans. Dielect. Elect. In-
sulation, Vol.15, No.6, pp.1553–1558
(2) S. Coenen, S. Tenbohlen, S.M. Markalous, and T. Strehl: “Fundamental char-
acteristics of UHF PD sensors and the radiation behaviour of PD sources in
power transformer”, Proc. of 17th ISH, No: C-26, Cape Town, South Africa
(2009)
(3) S.M. Markalous, S. Tenbohlen, and K. Feser: “Detection and Location of
Partial Discharges in Power Transformers using acoustic and electromagnetic
signals”, IEEE Trans. Dielect. Elect. Insulation, Vol.15, No.6, pp.1576–1583
(4) M. Heindl, S. Tenbohlen, et al.: “Algorithmic Determination of Pole-Zero
Representations of Power Transformers‘ Transfer Function for Interpretation
of FRA Data”, Proc. of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage
Engineering, paper No.D-26, Cape Town, South Africa, 24 to 28 August
(5) P. Picher, J. Lapworth, T. Noonan, J. Christian, et al.: “Mechanical Condition
Assessment of Transformer Windings using Frequency Response Analysis”,
Cigre Report 342 (2008)
(6) A. Kraetge, M. Krüger, J.L. Velásquez, H. Viljoen, and A. Dierks: “Aspects
of the Practical Application of Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA)
on Power Transformers”, Cigré 6th Southern Africa Regional Conference,
Paper P504 (2009)
(7) L.E. Lundgaard, W. Hansen, D. Linhjell, and T.J. Painter: “Aging of oil-
impregnated paper in power transformers”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
Vol.19, No.1, pp.230–239 (2004-1)
(8) M. Koch, S. Tenbohlen, and T. Stirl: “Diagnostic Application of Moisture
Equilibrium for Power Transformers”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol.25,
No.4, pp.2574–2581 (2010-10)
(9) M. Koch, M. Krüger, and S. Tenbohlen: “Comparing Various Moisture De-
termination Methods for Power Transformers”, Cigre South Africa Regional
Conference, Cape Town, South Africa (2009)
Stefan Tenbohlen (Non-member) received the Diploma and Dr.-Ing.
degrees from the Technical University of Aachen,
Germany, in 1992 and 1997, respectively. 1997
he joined ALSTOM, Mönchen¬gladbach, Germany,
where he was responsible for the development and
design of power transformers. 2004 he was appointed
to a professorship and head of the Institute of Power
Transmission and High Voltage Technology of the
University of Stuttgart, Germany. In this position his
main research fields are electric power transmission
and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Prof. Tenbohlen holds several
patents and published more than 200 papers. He is member of the IEEE,
CIGRE and VDE ETG. He is convener of CIGRE WG A2.37 (Transformer
Reliability Survey) and member of several other working groups.
 On-site PD Diagnostics, FRA and Moisture Measurement for Power Transformers（Stefan Tenbohlen et al.）

Maximilian Heindl (Non-member) received the Diploma degree in
electrical engineering and information technology
from the University of Stuttgart, Germany, in 2007
and joined the Institute of Power Transmission and
High Voltage Technology, where he currently is doc-
toral research assistant. The focus of his work and
research lies on frequency response analysis, trans-
former transient interaction and transformer related
modeling of both high and low frequency problem
types. Mr. Heindl is member of CIGRE and VDE
ETG and published several papers.
Mark Jovalekic (Non-member) received his diploma degree in elec-
trical engineering and information technology from
University of Stuttgart, Germany in 2008. Since then
he joined the Institute of Power Transmission and
High Voltage Technology as research assistant. His
field of research is the oil-paper insulation system,
especially with focus on natural ester fluids. This in-
cludes the fundamental characteristics and ageing be-
haviour of these dielectric liquids as well as diagno-
sis of power transformers by means of dissolved gas
analysis and moisture assessment. Mark Jovalekic is member of VDE ETG
and published several papers.

5 IEEJ Trans. PE, Vol.132, No.2, 2012

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