COMPARISON BETWEEN

TURBIDIMETRY, NEPHELOMETRY,
REFRACTOMETRY , POLARIMETRY
AND POTENTIOMETRY

SUBMITTED BY : LOVE GUPTA

ROLL NO.:100805036

BRANCH : ELECTRONICS , INSTRUMENTATION &

CONTROL
TURBIDIMETRY
A method for determining the concentration of a substance in a solution by the degree of
cloudiness or turbidity it causes or by the degree of clarification it induces in a turbid solution.

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles (suspended

solids) that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement
of turbidity is a key test of water quality.

Turbidity in a liquid is caused by the presence of finely divided suspended particles. If a beam of light
is passed through a turbid sample, its intensity is reduced by scattering, and the quantity of light
scattered is dependent upon the concentration and size distribution of the particles.

Turbidity (or haze) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic
production haze turbidimetry is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than
2.5° from the incoming light direction.

Turbidity in air, which causes solar attenuation, is used as a measure of pollution.

Measuring Principle of Turbidimeter

The turbidimeter uses surface light scattering, light scattering/transmission, light transmission
to measure turbidity.

Surface light scattering method:

The sample is sent to the measurement chamber, and light is radiated to the surface of the
liquid being measured. The light scattered from that surface is used to measure the turbidity.
The intensity of the scattered light is in proportion to the concentration of suspended
substances in the sample. This relation is used to obtain the turbidity. Since this method
requires no window exposed to the sample to be measured, there is no error which would
result from a contaminated window.
 Fig.4.2.8 Turbidimeter using light scattering at sample surface

Fig. Turbidimeter using the scattered light method

Measuring turbidity
Turbidity can be measured using either an electronic turbidity meter or a turbidity tube.
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages, as shown below. Turbidity is usually
measured in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) or Jackson turbidity units (JTLJ),
depending on the method used for measurement. The two units are roughly equal.
Fact Sheet 2.33
Turbidity meter
There are many different types of electronic turbidity meter available. Their advantages
and disadvantages are as follows :
Advantages
• It is very accurate, and especially useful for measuring very low turbidities (less than 5
TU).
Disadvantages
• It has high cost.
• It needs power supply (mains or battery).
• It can be easily damaged.
NEPHELOMETRY
Nephelometry is a Chemical analysis based on the phenomenon whereby light, passing
through a medium with dispersed particles of a different refractive index from that of the
medium, is attenuated in intensity by scattering. In turbidimetry, the intensity of light
transmitted through the medium, the unscattered light, is measured. In nephelometry, the
intensity of the scattered light is measured, usually, but not necessarily, at right angles to the
incident light beam.

A nephelometer is an instrument for measuring suspended particulates in a liquid or gas

colloid. It does so by employing a light beam (source beam) and a light detector set to one
side (usually 90°) of the source beam. Particle density is then a function of the light reflected
into the detector from the particles. To some extent, how much light reflects for a given
density of particles is dependent upon properties of the particles such as their shape, color,
and reflectivity. Therefore, establishing a working correlation between turbidity and
suspended solids (a more useful, but typically more difficult quantification of particulates)
must be established independently for each situation.

Light scattering depends upon number, size and surface characteristics of the particles.

The nephelometry apparatus is quickly assembled as in the polarimeter setup, but without the
use of the polarizer. Instead of a polarimeter cell, the laser light travels into a 1-cm plastic
square cuvette containing a scattering solution. The quantity of light scattered is measured
using a photodiode at 90_ to the incoming laser light. The signal is read directly from the
photodiode using a digital voltmeter. We generally use a disposable cuvette as a sample
holder. It is important to correct for any background light present (i.e., room lights) by
measuring the voltage on the photodiode in the absence of any scattered laser light. The
background interference is greatly reduced through the addition of a red cutoff filter to the
photodiode detector and setting the instrument so the detector faces away from any outside
light source. The apparatus could also be improved by the construction of a lighttight box
around the sample; however, we have found that this is an unnecessary step in most
circumstances. It is also critical that a digital voltmeter, with as high input impedance as
possible, be used. The lower input impedances of cheap digital meters or analog meters
drastically reduce the voltage response of the photodiode output.
A property of the particles — that they will scatter a light beam focused on them — is
considered a more meaningful measure of turbidity in water. Turbidity measured this way
uses an instrument called a nephelometer with the detector setup to the side of the light beam.
More light reaches the detector if there are lots of small particles scattering the source beam
than if there are few.

This technique is widely used in clinical laboratories because it is relatively easily automated.
It is based on the principle that a dilute suspension of small particles will scatter light (usually
a laser) passed through it rather than simply absorbing it. The amount of scatter is determined
by collecting the light at an angle (usually about 70 or 75 degrees).

Antibody and the antigen are mixed in concentrations such that only small aggregates are
formed that do not quickly settle to the bottom. The amount of light scatter is measured and
compared to the amount of scatter from known mixtures. The amount of the unknown is
determined from a standard curve.

Turbidity in a liquid is caused by the presence of finely divided suspended particles. If a beam of light
is passed through a turbid sample, its intensity is reduced by scattering, and the quantity of light
scattered is dependent upon the concentration and size distribution of the particles. In nephelometry
the intensity of the scattered light is measured, while, in turbidimetry, the intensity of light transmitted
through the solution.

REFRACTOMETRY
Refractometry is the method of measuring substances' refractive index (one of their fundamental
physical properties) in order to, for example, assess their composition or purity. A refractometer is the
instrument used to measure refractive index ("RI"). Although refractometers are best known for
measuring liquids, they are also used to measure gases and solids; such as glass and gemstones.

Principle of Refractometry
Refractometers are instruments used to measure substances dissolved in water and certain
oils. The refractometer works using the principle of light refraction through liquids. As light
passes from air into a liquid it slows down. This phenomenon is what gives a "bent" look to
objects that are partially submerged in water. To put it simply, the more dissolved solids
water contains, the slower light travels through it, and the more pronounced the "bending"
effect on light. Refractometers use this principle to determine the amount of dissolved solids
in liquids by passing light through a sample and showing the refracted angle on a scale. The
scale most commonly used is referred to as the Brix scale.

The RI of a substance is strongly influenced by temperature and the wavelength of light used
to measure it, therefore, care must be taken to control or compensate for temperature
differences and wavelength. RI measurements are usually reported at a reference temperature
of 20 degrees Celsius, which is equal to 68 degrees Fahrenheit, and considered to be room
temperature. A reference wavelength of 589.3 nm (the sodium D line) is most often used.
Since the refractive index of a substance depends on the wavelength it is important that the
refractive index you are comparing to was obtained at the same wavelength as the one you
determined. This is usually not an issue since the vast majority of refractive indexes are
obtained using the sodium D line at 589.3 nm. (Even refractometers that use white light are
normally constructed so that the refractive index obtained corresponds to that for light at
589.3 nm.)

The refractive index also depends on the temperature. Thus, it is best to obtain the refractive
index of your sample at the same temperature as the value you plan to compare with; in most
cases this will be 20 °C. A typical laboratory refractometer can determine the refractive index
of a sample to a precision of ± 0.0002. However, small amounts of impurities can cause
significant changes in the refractive index of a substance. Thus, unless you have
rigorously purified your compound, a good rule of thumb is that anything within ± 0.002 of
the literature value is a satisfactory match.

Another possible source of error is miscalibration of the refractometer. This is readily

checked by using a sample of known refractive index. Distilled water is a particularly
convenient standard since it is nontoxic, readily available in pure form, and its refractive
index varies only slightly with temperature.

Determining Concentrations of Solutions

Determining the concentration of a solute in a solution is probably the most popular use of
refractometry. For example, refractometer-based methods have been developed for
determining the percentage of sugar in fruits, juices, and syrups, the percentage of alcohol in
beer or wine, the salinity of water, and the concentration of antifreeze in radiator fluid. Many
industries use refractometer-based methods in quality control applications.

In most cases the refractive index is linearly (or nearly linearly) related to the percentage of
dissolved solids in a solution. By comparing the value of the refractive index of a solution to
that of a standard curve the concentration of solute can be determined with good accuracy.
Many refractometers contain a "Brix" scale that is calibrated to give the percentage (w/w) of
sucrose dissolved in water.

Refractometers are frequently used by grape growers and Kiwifruit growers for Brix testing
of sucrose levels in their fruit. Refractometry is also used in the gelatin industry.

Finding Refractive Indexes

One of the most common uses of the refractive index is to compare the value you obtain with
values listed in the literature. This comparison is used to help confirm the identity of the
compound and/or assess its purity.

Structural Information

The refractive index does not provide detailed information about a molecule's structure, and it
is not usually used for this purpose since spectroscopic techniques are much more powerful at
revealing details of molecular structure. One structural factor that influences the refractive
index of a sample is its polarizability. Substances containing more polarizable ("soft") groups
(e.g., iodine atoms or aromatic rings) will normally have higher refractive indexes than
substances containing less polarizable ("hard") groups (e.g., oxygen atoms or alkyl groups).
See Table 2 below.

Table 2. Effect of polarizable groups on refractive index.

Substance 2-Iodoethanol 2-Fluoroethanol Benzene Cyclohexane

1.5720 1.3670 1.5010 1.4260

Types of refractometers
There are four main types of fluid refractometers: traditional handheld refractometers, digital
handheld refractometers, Abbe refractometers, and inline process refractometers.

These instruments are based on the principle of "total internal reflection".

Uses of refractometer:

 To determine Refractive Index.

 S.R. or D.R.
 Birefringence
 Optic Character (Uniaxial or Biaxial)
 Optic Sign (Positive or Negative)
 Optic Axis Direction
 Approximate R.I. on curved surfaces.

Important to Note:

 The R.I. can be taken on any stone that has flat or curved surfaces as long as the surface is
polished.
 No rough gemstone should be tested on the refractometer.

Limitations:

 Rough gemstones cannot be tested on refractometer.

 Stones with R.I. more than 1.80 cannot be tested on refractometer.

 There are a number of different types of refractometers - Duplex ( GIA model), Rayner,
Eickhorst (some with LED source), RosGem models etc.
 Most of the refractometers available are the critical angle refractometers.
 Some refractometers employ a high R.I. prism made of strontium titanate or synthetic cubic
zirconia, but the use of toxic contact liquids is a deterrent.
 One of the newest refractometer on the market is the Brewster angle refractometer with a
much higher range from 1.40 to 3.50.This instrument does not use a contact liquid and has
the advantage of a wider range.
POLARIMETRY
Polarimetry is an instrumental analytical method using rotation of polarized light by some
substances as a measure of their concentration in a solution. The instrument used is called a
polarimeter. When it is adapted for measuring quality of sugar the name saccharimeter is
used. In both instruments it is the rotation of polarized light by a substance in a solution
which is measured.

Figure 1 shows a principle of a polarimeter set up and its main components together with
their function. Unpolarized light from the light source is first polarized. This polarized light
passes through a sample cell. If an optical active substance is in a sample tube, the plane of
the polarized light waves is rotated. The rotation is noticed by looking through the analyser as
a change in intensity of illumination. To reach the same illumination as was without an
optical active sample the analyser must be turned around for an angle. Readings are taken in
degrees (angle) or sugar degrees 0Z.

Figure 1: a) principle of a polarimeter set up b) components of a polarimeter

The polarimeter apparatus is as shown in Figure 1 without the photodiode detector. The
polarized laser light travels through a sample holder to the polarizer. The polarizer first is
adjusted to a zero reading in the absence of sample. The sample holder is inserted into the
laser beam, and the quantity of light rotation is found by adjusting the polarizer with the
sample present. In both the zero reading and the reading with the sample present, the
measurement is taken by adjusting the polarizer in such a way that the minimum of light is
allowed to pass on a white card below the polarizer. Of course, the true polarization of the
light would be 90_ from the reading with minimum light, but the difference in the readings
yields the optical rotation of the sample.

It is the measurement and interpretation of the polarization of transverse waves, most notably
electromagnetic waves, such as radio or light waves. Typically polarimetry is done on
electromagnetic waves that have traveled through or have been reflected, refracted, or
diffracted by some material in order to characterize that object.

A polarimeter is the basic scientific instrument used to make these measurements, although
this term is rarely used to describe a polarimetry process performed by a computer, such as is
done in polarimetric synthetic aperture radar.

Polarimetry of thin films and surfaces is commonly known as ellipsometry.

Polarimetry can be used to measure various optical properties of a material, including linear
birefringence, circular birefringence (also known as optical rotation or optical rotary
dispersion), linear dichroism, circular dichroism and scattering.

To measure these various properties, there have been many designs of polarimeters. Some are
archaic and some are in current use. The most sensitive polarimeters are based on
interferometers, while more conventional polarimeters are based on arrangements of
polarising filters, wave plates or other devices.

Polarimetry can also be included in computational analysis of waves. For example, radars
often consider wave polarization in post-processing to improve the characterization of the
targets. In this case, polarimetry can be used to estimate the fine texture of a material, help
resolve the orientation of small structures in the target, and, when circularly-polarized
antennas are used, resolve the number of bounces of the received signal (the chirality of
circularly polarized waves alternates with each reflection).

POTENTIOMETRY
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical method which is based on measurement of potential of
an electrode system. Potentiometry is an analytical technique which allows the quantitative
determination of a specific substance (analyte) dissolved in a sample. It is based on a
complete chemical reaction between the analyte and a reagent (titrant) of known
concentration which is added to the sample:
Analyte + Reagent(Titrant) -> Reaction Products

Potentiometric measurements enable selective detection of ions in presence of multitude of

other substances. Potentiometric measurement system consists of two electrodes,
potentiometer and a solution of analyte . In system like one depicted on figure, the potential is
measured in reference to calomel electrode e.g. calomel electrode functions as reference
electrode. Reference electrode is an electrode with potential which is a) independent of
analyte (or other) ions in solution; b) independent of temperature. Potential of an indicator
electrode depends mainly on the concentration of the analyte ions (in this case hydrogen
ions).

Principles of potentiometry
Electrically charged particles are often met in chemical systems in the form of ions or
electrons.
As a rule, a solution is electrically neutral. However, some chemical processes result in the
apparition of a non-uniform distribution of charged particles and local deviation from
electrical neutrality.
In electrochemistry, a reference electrode (with a constant potential) is always associated
with the electrode of interest (called indicator electrode). Along with the test solution, the
above electrodes form an electrochemical cell. The cell voltage can be measured and is
related to electrode potentials:
Ecell =φi −φr
Here, the subscripts i and r stand for indicator and reference electrodes, respectively.

Advantages:
(1) Simple to do
(2) Cost effective
(3) Doesnot need great expertise but some skill and practice.
(4) Instruments are easily avaliable
(5) Common used method and one of the oldest

Disadvantages:
(1) Needs skill and practise for effecive results
(2) Instruments have to be properly calibrated since it will give affected the final result.
(3) Reactivity of the elements to be titrated should be well researched since this may affect
the end point.
(4) Time consuming if done manually

(5)Both titrant and analyte are required to be in a liquid (solution) form. If the sample is not a
liquid or solution, the samples must be dissolved.
COMMENTS :
All these methods described above are used primarily for the determination of
concentration of the substrate in the sample.The basic difference among them lies in the
principle of their operation.In the case of turbidimetry the intensity of light transmitted
through the medium, the unscattered light, is measured. In nephelometry, the intensity of the
scattered light is measured, usually, but not necessarily, at right angles to the incident light
beam.In refractometry the amount of bending of light is caliberated in terms of the
concentration of the substrate. Polarimetry uses rotation of polarized light by some
substances as a measure of their concentration in a solution.In potentiometry, using a
calibrated burette to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the exact amount that has been
consumed when the endpoint is reached.