TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 133

TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY OF CHALLENGES

IN SUBTITLING EGYPTIAN FILMS
Muhammad Y Gamal
University of Canberra, Australia

Abstract: Subtitling in Egypt remains an area open to practitioners who ,despite possessing ex-
cellent linguistic skills, still lack rudimentary knowledge of the principles of subtitling filmic
material. The difficulty stems from the misguided belief that translating from the native tongue
is relatively easy and that knowledge of the local cinema is fairly automatic. The paper, part of
a wider research interest into audiovisual translation in the Arab world, focuses on the subtitling
of classic Egyptian films into English and the challenges this specialist field poses to subtitlers,
both beginners and experienced alike. It proposes a scheme whereby a typology of challenges
could be devised to assist practitioners to explore the common challenges and to provide a base
upon which to build a repertoire of examples that would encourage further research and
examination of subtitling challenges.

1. Introduction
Egyptian cinema began with the silent film Leila1 in 1927 and with its first talkie Awlad Az Zawat
[Children of the Rich] in 1932 it began an industry which has dominated the Arab world ever since
(Hayward, 2000: 410). It made its first international debut at the Venice International film festival
with Zeinab in 1936 and continues to make frequent appearances at international film festivals. Yet,
Arabic-language films have remained an exclusive area for those who are fluent in the language or
have a keen interest in the activity. In the Arab world, Egyptian cinema has an established audience
who not only appreciate the regional Egyptian dialect, the cultural references and issues, the social
and religious topics but also the film language and the semiotics of the Egyptian film industry (Bus-
combe, 2003). These same issues may not have the same level of appreciation in European or Asian
cultures due to the lack of common cultural background (Chaume-Valera, 1997). For many decades
Egyptian cinema neglected marketing its production to non-Arabic-speaking audiences. Apart from
cultural issues, the linguistic challenge of subtitling and other technical factors have also hampered
the process. With the advent of digital technology and the appearance of satellite broadcasting the
trend began to reverse. Since the mid to late 1990s two Egyptian channels, Nile TV and Al Masriya
began broadcasting subtitled films. However, not until the advent of the Digital Versatile Disc
(DVD) that Egyptian cinema became accessible, portable and affordable (Gamal 2007). Today, there
are over a thousand titles available on DVD and the number is steadily increasing. In addition, the
growing number of film festivals in Arab capital cities (from Abu Dhabi to Marrakech) and the huge
investment in media production cities (Cairo, Dubai, Petra, etc.) and the increasing trend among
national channels to subtitle their productions into English has forced TV channels, satellite channels
and media companies to pay closer attention to subtitling.

2. The literature on subtitling in Arabic

Since the early days of foreign cinema in Egypt, film subtitling into Arabic has been an activity that
was largely practiced and widely accepted. Egyptian film authorities opted for subtitling, as opposed
to dubbing, in a bid to protect the fledging national cinema against the more capable American and
foreign productions (Maluf 2005). Early subtitling history in Egypt remains sketchy but the annals of
Egyptian cinema point to the effort of Italian residents in Egypt who embarked on the commercial
activity (Abu Shadi 2002). Yet, the history of subtitling in the country begins with the return of a

1
Kiss in the desert, by the Palestinian brothers Badr and Ibrahim Lama, who were residing in Egypt, was screened
in Alexandria six months before Leila. However, the latter is widely referred to as the first “Egyptian” film in
what was later to become a full-fledged industry known as the Hollywood of the Arab world.
134 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

young engineer from his study in Paris in the early 1940s to practice not engineering but subtitling.
Anis Ebaid (1908-1988) established his company in Cairo that would become a household name not
only in Cairo but in all Arab capital cities as cinema houses were being built and local televisions
began broadcasting. Ebaid’s dominance of the business and indeed influence on the subtitling pro-
fession was to remain undisputed from the beginning and till the advent of satellite and digital tech-
nology in the mid-nineties of the last century. The changing scene in telecommunication, broad-
casting and the computer industry forced Anis Ebaid & Sons to concede control and to accept
competition by a multitude of media companies varying from well-established post-production com-
panies to subtitlers working on a PC from home. Yet, despite the long practice of film translation in
Egypt, and in many other Arab countries, the literature on subtitling remains disproportionately mini-
scule. This literature takes the shape of film reviews, letters to the editor, complaints of subtitling
errors and technical subtitling difficulties. In an unpublished research, the author examined this
literature covering a 25-year period (1980-2005) focusing on the reception of subtitled programs into
Arabic (Gamal, 2005).

Most of the literature, however, focuses on the subtitling of foreign films and TV drama from Eng-
lish (and other languages) into Arabic. This is due, in part, to the large number of foreign programs
on Arab televisions and also the dominance of American television drama and films (Gamal, 1994).
Most television stations in the Arab world today continue to rely on the experience of Anis Ebaid &
Sons and some countries have modeled their own subtitling units on the Egyptian example. The
sudden emergence of subtitling centers – later companies – in various Arab capitals, in the past
decade, has not been examined despite the relevance of the phenomenon to the overall industry of
subtitling in Arabic. The literature, therefore, tends to concentrate on the dominant direction of
subtitling foreign television programs into Arabic. Ashkenani (2006) examines the history and
profession of television subtitling with a major focus on the situation in Kuwait. His short book
under the title of Television Translation (subtitling) gives a short, albeit, a welcome addition to the
literature in Arabic and remains, perhaps, the only book on subtitling in Arabic today. In this respect,
it is insightful to note that the available literature in Arabic focuses on the linguistic level only by
examining issues related to the translation of obscene language in American films, the translation of
cultural images in foreign films or the treatment of sexual, religious or political issues. Even at the
postgraduate level, a recurrent topic of research in audiovisual translation is the examination of
linguistic transfer in the subtitling of American film/TV drama into Arabic as seen in recent MA
thesis at universities in Amman, Cairo, London, Manchester and Sydney. The main problem with
this narrow interest, from the audiovisual translation point of view, is that by focusing on the
linguistic level, it tends to reduce film, an essentially multi-semiotic composition into a mono-
dimensional text, not dissimilar to the printed page. Films are a complex structure that is made up of
several channels and modes: visual, audio, verbal and non-verbal in addition to a large number of
semiotic meaning-making resources.

3. Subtitling Egyptian films into English

Arab cinemas, and particularly Egyptian films, have been appearing at film festivals and film weeks
in many capital cities from Rotterdam to Sydney. The importance of national cinema and the po-
tential role they can play in the dialogue between cultures and civilization is immense. Although
subtitled films stress the “foreignness of film” (Egoyan and Balfour 2004) and highlight the cultural
difference and sometimes ideological chasm between nations they are nevertheless appreciated in
many cultural settings. Nedergaard-Larsen points out that even between different cultures foreign
films are eagerly welcome:

“Hence, cross-cultural problems ought not to prevent anyone from importing or consuming foreign films.
Quite the opposite, one could wish for many more French and even more “exotic” films that can contri-
bute to a greater knowledge and understanding of other cultures.” (1993:237).
TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 135

In Australia, SBS (The Special Broadcasting Service) has been an active center of subtitling world
cinema. Under the slogan of “Bringing the world home” the subtitling division of SBS has been
subtitling world films in more than 400 languages since its inception in 1980. Today it is a world
class subtitling-centre with accumulative experience in subtitling films from foreign and exotic
cultures. Likewise, Egyptian films participating at the Sydney film festival, Egyptian film weeks or
the Arab Film Festival in Australia draw the attention of an audience interested in the subtitled cine-
ma of that part of the world. However, Egyptian film critics have argued for a long time that the very
success of Egyptian cinema has been a double-edged sword as it delves too deeply into the locale and
does not translate its topics to international audiences. The argument here may be understood at two
different levels. The first could be the lack of film production with an international audience in mind
which is outside the scope of this paper. The other could be the reference to subtitling its production
to other languages, and this is precisely the main interest of this research. The culture-specific refe-
rences in Egyptian film come not only from the dialogue but also from every other channel: the
visual, the visual non-verbal and the acoustic (Delabastita 1999). And with each channel there is a
myriad of semiotic references that make up the filmic production and together give Egyptian cinema
its form.

In the course of 100 minutes or so and in such confined space, the task of subtitling becomes daunt-
ing. However, no matter how different the two cultures may be, every film is capable of being sub-
titled as in print translation every text is capable of being translated. Naturally, some films, classic or
otherwise, adapted from a significant work of literature, produced by some famous director or with
some famous actor or exhibiting complex cinematic skills may require extra special attention by the
subtitler (Mera, 1999).

4. The difficulty in subtitling Egyptian cinema

With Egyptian subtitled films making their DVD appearance commercially in 2002, the practice of
film translation began to attract the attention of some practicing researchers. (See Gamal, 2004,
2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012a and 2012b). However, the DVD industry in Egypt
has not been examined despite its huge potential and impact in the wider sense of infotainment and
audiovisual translation (Gamal forthcoming). DVD subtitling is an area that challenges Arabic lan-
guage translators and researchers who do not possess sufficient training in film literacy. In the
context of audiovisual translation, and particularly subtitling narrative films, film literacy means a
developed appreciation of how meaning is constructed in film. In this respect, the many and varied
meaning-making resources in film are identified, understood and appreciated by the viewer.
Naturally, different viewers bring different life-experiences to film viewing and the levels of
appreciation vary; however, a certain degree of film analysis is required in order to be able to
identify meaning-making resources and how they are deployed throughout the film. Subtitlers are not
expected to be film critics; however, they are expected to know how to identify meaning and how to
suggest translation strategies that will carry the meaning successfully and succinctly.

Egyptian cinema, like literature or art, embodies a multitude of signs and symbols that not only
reflect but also embody cultural meaning (Abu Shadi, 2005). A film tends to be a multi-layered
structure that requires a trained eye in seeing through the different layers but without losing focus of
the whole picture. For instance, the dialogue is not, necessarily, the one channel through which
meaning is conveyed in a given scene. Apart from the linguistic choice of words, the tone of voice, a
wink of an eye, a gesture of the hand, and equally, the lighting, the camera angle or the presence of a
painting on the wall or the music in the background may not only determine the meaning but have a
direct bearing on the entire plot (Gamal 2009).

Egyptian subtitled films on DVD tend to exhibit a style of translation that is basically mono-di-
mensional pointing to a flawed practice (Gamal, 2007). It is clear that the practice is based on trans-
lating the dialogue list without working with the video, a commercial practice that is common not
136 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

only in Egypt but in other countries as well. Quite often, a film dialogue list is outsourced to
translators to work on translating the dialogue into segments that could be mounted on the film with
little instructions on the technical specifications of segmenting the translation so they fit, legibly, on
the two lines at the bottom of the screen. Thus, line breaks, punctuation, the use of pronouns, the
definite article, anaphora and the tricky issue of managing subtitles when there is a camera change
are left to the devices and discretion of the individual translator. Quite often, and mainly due to
production costs, subtitlers work without an editor, who in most cases should be a native speaker of
the target language. In the absence of academic and professional training in subtitling and due to a
sudden increased demand for subtitlers, many media and translation companies resort to ‘translators’
who may be accomplished written translators but lack training in audiovisual translation, i.e., lack
the essential skills of dealing with the multi-semiotic filmic material.

Gamal (2006) points out that in Arabic there is no term for subtitler and the notion is usually ex-
pressed by ‘film translator’. Given the fact that audiovisual translation is not examined at academic
translation programs, the tendency is to treat film translation as a form of written translation. This is
coupled by the erroneous practice of sending the dialogue list without the video to ‘translators’. Even
on the rare occasions when the video accompanies the dialogue list, the assumption is that the native
Arabic translator is familiar with the filmic material that he or she can carry out filmic analysis and
decide on how and, more importantly on what, to translate. The result is that the ‘translation’ is
dialogue-centered which is quite often divorced from the image when it is mounted on the film.
Another serious problem is that due to the vernacular which is employed in almost all Egyptian
feature films (except historical/religious film) the translation reflects a bias towards the vernacular
which is, again, an area that most Arabic translators are not trained in since all their training has been
primarily based on translating from and into Modern Standard Arabic.

Yet, the main issue is the lack of training in the examination of audiovisual texts and developing an
appreciation of meaning-making components in film. As the dialogue activates the image, the image
also has its own cinematic language and grammar that adds to and influences the overall meaning of
the film. Understanding the composition of images in film is the sine qua non of film translation.
Film analysis refers to the knowledge of and experience in Egyptian cinema and it transcends the
knowledge of and interest in actors and plots. It actually implies interest in directors, screenplay and
the original work upon which the film is based. This also presupposes knowledge of the historical
background of the entire work. For instance to be able to carry out film analysis of the Cairo Trilogy,
the ‘film translator’ is expected to be familiar with the working style of the director Hassan Al-Imam,
the original work of novelist Naguib Mahfouz upon which the films are based and to be knowledge-
able of the historical background of the period. That fact that the cast includes some of the most
prominent actors of Egyptian cinema is actually immaterial. The lack of this prerequisite knowledge
would almost certainly ensure that the film translator will face challenges in bringing the translation
to a level that is reflective of the importance of the work. It is for these reasons Gamal argues that
“DVD subtitling in Egypt is an industry without a profession” (2007: 85).

5. The need for a typology

Given the new interest in and the increased activity of subtitling Arabic language films into English
(and French) there is a need for the rigorous examination of this new genre of translation. A typology
of the major challenges facing the subtitler working from Arabic has the potential of providing a
framework of reference to the common challenges and offers an attempt towards a platform for
further examination and research. The implication for professional development and training are
clearly obvious. Typological studies require experience in actually subtitling films, examining differ-
ent versions of subtitled films, compiling real observations/examples and finally reflecting on prac-
tice. A typology is a compilation of similar types/examples of challenges an experienced subtitler can
present with the purpose of making a coherent conclusion on the examination of a particular pheno-
menon/challenge. The opposite would be a mere taxonomy of unrelated observations where each
TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 137

item, though important per se, does not contribute to the examination or understanding of the point at
hand.

Nedergaard-Larsen (1993) provides a general typology of the common features in film subtitling.
Though her main focus is on subtitling American/European films into Danish and Swedish (1993:
227), it does have significance to other national cinemas. It is significant to observe the content and
purpose of the typology Nedergaard-Larsen presents. First, the typology has four main categories:
Geography, History, Society and Culture. Each category has further sub-categories which are
illustrated by examples. The typology provides a simple table (1993: 211) where the entire scheme of
reference can be seen. However, the content of the table is not the goal of the typology. She makes it
clear that the purpose of the typology is to provide the subtitler with a reference framework that
would enhance the identification of the translation challenge and determination of the appropriate
subtitling strategies. Nedergaard-Larsen (1993: 222) focuses on the significance of ‘local colour’ as
she strives to make subtitles both successful and succinct: “As a translator or subtitler you will
therefore have to estimate the distance between the two languages and cultures, and you will
obviously have to decide whether you want to be loyal to the author’s exact words or his intentions”.
Since the Arabic cultural signs portrayed in film may be different to the common shared knowledge
exhibited in western culture, a typological study may prove helpful and insightful to trainee sub-
titlers. Likewise, Chaume-Valera (1997: 324) highlights the significance of commonly shared
cultural signs and points out “Fortunately, the western culture shares many of them such as colors,
places, physical appearance, etc., most of which usually have the same meaning. Exotic cultures may
find real problems to understand certain signs, scripts or schemata”. The present attempt, therefore,
focuses specifically on the Arabic language and Egyptian cinema in particular and addresses some of
the peculiar signs intrinsic in Egyptian film language.

6. Methodology
For the purpose of this study a number of subtitled Egyptian films have been reviewed. They mainly
come from Egyptian DVDs as well as subtitled films broadcast on the Egyptian international channel
Nile TV. Primary attention is given to the classic films that are considered representative of Egyptian
cinema as they appear in the list of the Most Important 100 Films Produced by Egyptian Cinema (Al-
Hadary, 2007). Attention is also had to the earlier films of Omar Sharif before his debut into inter-
national cinema in 1963. The purpose of working with classic films is twofold: first, most are
available on DVD and second they appear on satellite television which allows for their recording and
their examination. Omar Sharif films are increasingly becoming available, subtitled on DVD and also
shown, subtitled, on satellite channels. The two sources of subtitled Egyptian films have led to the
happy, albeit rare, collection of films subtitled by two different sources offering the possibility of
conducting comparative subtitling studies which to-date have never been contemplated in Arabic
audiovisual translation studies. The examination involved repeated viewing of the subtitled films into
English with extensive notes taken of the subtitling issues. Relevant scenes were identified and cop-
ied into a working disc which later was indexed using Microsoft Moviemaker program to facilitate
the processing and accessibility of the scenes/examples of subtitling challenges. The observations are
then grouped by type in a long list of categories/sub-categories and further examples. The
preliminary findings were shared with, and tested on, trainee Arabic translators during translation
classes in Sydney where the Arabic translation class has mature age students who come from
different backgrounds: professional, cultural and even linguistic as some come from different Arab
countries and speak not only “different” Arabic dialects but also other ethnic languages such as
Amazigh, Armenian, Assyrian, Chaldean, Dinka, Farsi, Kurdish, Turkish and Tigrinya. Testing
Egyptian film semiotics, among non-native viewers of Egyptian cinema, in this context, provided the
present researcher with a unique research (and learning) opportunity not available anywhere in the
world.
138 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

7. Some limitations of the present study

The study of subtitled Egyptian films is primarily governed by the availability of subtitled films. For
instance, the study focuses on the earlier DVD release of ‘Classics of Egyptian Cinema’, produced
by Finoon Production Company between 2002-2005, which as the series title suggests makes classic
films on DVD the primary source of subtitled Egyptian films (Gamal forthcoming). However, some
of the films that pose particular challenge to subtitlers have not been released on DVD. Of particular
interest are some of Naguib Mahfouz’s films such as the Cairo Trilogy which provides an immense
opportunity for the examination of subtitling cultural-bound images, both linguistic and cinematic,
into English. While much has been said about translating Mahfouz into English, nothing has been
said about subtitling his films. This trend will change as more and more Egyptian researchers tackle
audiovisual translation and exert more effort on academia, translation authorities and the Council for
Culture to turn their attention to the serious role audiovisual translation can play in contemporary
Egypt. Likewise, the films of Egyptian director Yousif Chaheen, particularly his autobiographical
series the Alexandria Tetralogy, have not been examined by audiovisual researchers. Chaheen’s
films are composite not only because of his sophisticated film language but also because of the
employment of several languages and various cultural signs in the same film.

8. The proposed typology

The following table suggests a framework designed as a mere guideline for subtitlers to illustrate
possible challenges in subtitling Egyptian films into English. In themselves, the challenges are natu-
rally obvious yet it is the explicit highlighting of the challenges in a discreet table, with examples,
that makes the challenges more present in the mind of the subtitler as they embark on determining
the most suitable subtitling strategy (Gamal, 2012b). The following table has three main categories
for the linguistic, cultural and non-verbal challenges. In the sub-category column more description is
added to expand the meaning of the category. To illustrate the main category further, examples are
listed in the third column. It must be stressed that the table is not intended to be a manual for listing
challenges and a list of what strategies to use. As much as students and trainees would love it to be,
this is not the case and no such manual exists. For the sake of clarification, the purpose of a typology
is to enable subtitlers, trainees and professionals to train themselves to monitor their performance and
progress by reflecting on their practice. The table that follows is nothing but a framework that sheds
light on the challenges as seen in today’s most audiovisual material. A fourth category, technical,
may be added should a practitioner feels that, by virtue of involvement with the media company
through software manipulation or development , he or she has a lot to contribute to the expanding of
this typology.

Category Sub-category Examples

Linguistic Translating the Egyptian vernacular:
-spoken, colloquial, idiolects & dialects
-features of Egyptian regional dialect
Cultural Customs and traditions:
Non-verbal Implied meaning through visual only,
communication i.e., not articulated through the dialogue.
Diglossia:
Translating the spoken variety into
written English
Religious references, history, geog-
raphy, places, institutions and places,
etc.
Sotto voce, graffiti, mural hanging,
ethnic names, etc.

9. Translating the Arabic vernacular

One of the most challenging tasks of the subtitler is to grasp the meaning of the dialogue and render
its message in a clear and concise form. While subtitling is described as “translation in a confined
space” (Schwarz, 2002) it must also help viewers to follow the film without undue strain. Yet, the
task of the Arabic subtitler is further increased by the fact that the vast majority of Egyptian films
employ the vernacular, a form of Arabic that is used in spoken conversations and is considered,
TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 139

though widely employed, a lesser variety of good Arabic, or what is commonly known as Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA). Arabic is a diglossic language which means it has two co-existing varieties:
the MSA which has a restricted use (employed in the media, the written mode and the literary field)
and the vernacular which is the everyday language for communication. The problem with translating
the vernacular stems from the fact it is never examined or translated from or into at translation
schools which only employ the MSA variety of Arabic (Gamal 2008). This is the reason why the
subtitles tend to be stilted, literal or incorrect. Quite often, the subtitler, keen to preserve the spirit of
the dialogue falls in the trap of producing literal translations that are cumbersome and difficult to
follow by target viewers.

The use of MSA in the entire film is the domain of religious/historical films such as An-Naser
Salahul-din [Saladin] (1963), Fajrul Islam [Dawn of Islam] (1971), Al-Shaima (1972). Equally
significant is the employment of terms of endearment, respect which tends to be sacrificed or under-
translated. The MSA is also used in some films as an introductory comment or a narration by one of
the characters as in Nahr Al Hub [River of Love] (1960). This is an important point as the intro-
ductory narration sets the scene for the entire film and getting it wrong by under-translating its tone
may undermine the appreciation of the film particularly if it is a classic film. Also, in Fi Baitina
Rajul [A man in our house] (1961) the use of the MSA in the radio police announcement heightens
the situation by adding a more serious effect to the already tense atmosphere of the police chase of
the freedom fighter (Gamal, 2012b).

Egyptian vernacular also embodies references to regional dialects, literary or religious quotations,
jokes, and the sarcastic use of foreign words. All add to the burden of the subtitler who has to be a)
aware of them, b) grasp the pragmatic meaning in the source language and, c) account for their effect
in the target language. El-Batal (2000) points out that most Arabic-English dictionaries don’t account
for colloquial structures used in film. This is another area that casts light on the weak rendition of
some very common Egyptian idiomatic structures that are under-translated into English through
ineffective translation strategies.

10. Title translation

One of the best examples of the difficulties translating the vernacular can be found in translating film
titles, which are more often than not framed in the vernacular. A cursory examination of the trans-
lation of Egyptian film titles shows that the translator opts for literal translation. While it is arguable
that a translated title must indicate close resemblance to the original for ease of identification it is
equally important to capture the meaning of the film title. It is insightful to observe that some
Egyptian films provide English translation in the credits. Prominent director, Yousif Chaheen used to
provide French translations to his films. However, in his masterpiece Bab El Hadid [Cairo Station]
(1958) he also provides the English translation ‘Cairo Station’ and underneath it the transliteration
Bab El Hadid between brackets. It is insightful to know that Bab El Hadid , literally Iron Gate, is the
Egyptian vernacular for the central train station in Cairo that once had an elaborate wrought iron
fence and an actual iron gate till the late sixties. In 2007, a new film by the name Fi Mahatat Masr
[At Cairo station] was released and promoted by DVD distributors with two different translations.
The first is “At Egypt station” by a DVD distribution company (http://www.aramovies.com/-
addprod_eng.asp?productid=4157) and also as “Cairo Station” by FineArt film, which is one of the
larger DVD distribution companies (http://fineartfilm.com/ index.php?manufacturers_id=10&-
main_page=index). It is rather interesting to observe here that the first translation is not only hope-
lessly literal but fails to appreciate the vernacular where Cairenes always refer to Cairo as Egypt. So
it is not only literal but denotes a total disregard to translation rules as if the translator were too
foreign to pick up the nuance.

Translating film titles for DVD marketing is obviously a responsibility that rests with the distributor
who holds all the keys to the process. However, a close working relation would, perhaps, convince
140 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

the business side to see the benefit of academic research. For instance, in most of Omar Sharif’s
subtitled films on DVD there is a constant, if not disturbing, difference between the film title trans-
lated on the DVD cover and the title in the subtitles themselves. Surely this is a professional issue
that results from the awkward working arrangement where the business side does not even commu-
nicate with the professional subtitler. Subtitlers need to be aware of the connotation behind the film
title before they opt for the easy but meaningless literal translation. For instance in Ghuroob wa
Shurook [literally, Sunset and Dawn] (1970) the title refers to the sunset days of the monarchy and
the dawn of the new revolution. Subtitlers may need to think about a more descriptive translation that
adds to the film particularly when it is meant to be marketed abroad.

In their examination of film language (Monaco 2000) and the semiotics of Egyptian cinema subtitlers
would do well to consider the employment of the film title as a technique sui generis by directors.
For instance, the film title may be referred to indirectly in the film or, quite often, referred to more
than once. For instance, in Aduo Al Mar’ah [Woman’s enemy] (1966) the film title is mentioned 16
times throughout the film. Furthermore, a film title is occasionally repeated, in writing, at the end of
the film in lieu of the traditional The End. Quite often, the repetition is accompanied by a subtitle.
This is a good reason why subtitlers need to work with the video and not depend solely on the film
dialogue list. Despite the deceptive simplicity of translating film titles and the simplistic tendency of
translating titles literally or providing transliteration it must be pointed out that the current practice is
dictated by distribution companies whose linguistic command and treatment of subtitlers are
questionable.

11. The religious dimension

A language reflects its culture and thus it exhibits the features of the values, norms and mores of the
peoples who speak it. Thus, Arabic employs a considerable body of religious references that reflect
the religious beliefs, traditions, customs and festivities as practiced by Muslims and Christians alike.
Quite often, the subtitles employed on DVD reflect religious greetings and even sayings literally
where a more pragmatic translation would suffice, particularly when the religious connotation is not
intended or stressed. The problem with religious references is that they are embodied in the verna-
cular and constitute an inseparable part of the dialogue. Take for instance the common greeting
Assalamu alaikum which is not always taken to mean, the historical or etymological “Peace be upon
you” but a rather and simpler and more pragmatic, “Hello”! The opposite is equally true. Quite often,
subtle references to religious practices such as the month of Ramadan, the pilgrimage to Mecca,
marriage or divorce arrangements or issues of inheritance go un-noticed or unaccounted for. A more
careful analysis of such scenes, prior to subtitling and with the help of the video, would enable
subtitlers to identify strategies leading to “judicious subtitling” (Taylor, 2003: 197).

12. Songs and lyrics

Egyptian films abound with songs that cover a wide variety of occasions from love songs to children
sing-a-longs. While subtitling manuals differ on whether songs aught to be subtitled, the decision to
subtitle a song should not be an after-thought. Songs, like poetry, require a patient effort to render the
translation, in a confined space, correctly and elegantly. In films with significant form such as classic
or historical films, songs can be a period marker identifying a certain event or even referring to a
particular previously produced film. The typology suggested here, is not meant to serve as a list of
examples but rather as a working manual kept by the practicing subtitler where they continuously
add to it with examples of subtitling strategies and what worked and what did not. This provides an
opportunity to reflect on practice particularly as subtitlers move on to other new and untested
projects in the wider field of audiovisual translation.
TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 141

13. Non-verbal communication in film

The above examples of challenges facing the subtitler of Egyptian films are all language-dependent
and a close attention to the dialogue would, or at least should, alert the subtitler to their possible
difficulty. However, as explained previously, film language is a lot more complex and includes more
meaning-making resources than just the dialogue. It contains images, sounds and symbols which are
deployed, and co-deployed, to make meaning. Taylor (2003: 194) points out that “the meaning po-
tential of a film far transcends the spoken dialogue and that any translation of film material should
pay heed to the other semiotic modalities interacting with the verbal”. Training in film analysis and
an appreciation of the composite nature of Egyptian film language would be conducive to better
translation strategies. To this effect, it is paramount that the subtitler has access to the film, given
sufficient time to complete the scene analysis and sufficient time to subtitle it.

Despite the multi-semiotic nature of filmic material, subtitlers continue to work with the dialogue list
in the absence of the video. This is a serious anomaly as some directors opt for indirect messages not
articulated in the dialogue. For example, the employment of sotto voce where an actor whispers
something or is seen to ‘say’ something with his hands or facial expression can add meaning in a
subtle way and with more punch. A dialogue list may not reflect these non-verbal meaning-making
resources. Likewise, graffiti, quite often, are used to give background knowledge of the present shot
or the following scene and their lack of translation may deny target viewers the opportunity to
understand and appreciate the film (Cavalieri, 2004). Some Egyptian directors make use of mural
hangings that adorn walls in most Egyptian homes. These murals contain verses from the Koran, the
Bible, poetry and philosophical quotations or political sayings. They are used in a fleeting fashion as
the camera moves away from the speaker brining the mural into focus before moving away. Experi-
enced viewers can take this in and process the mural with the scene’s dialogue or interpret the
message of the mural in context. While native viewers are able to simultaneously process visual, au-
dio and non-spoken message, target language viewers would find it impossible to do so, as they tend
to process meaning in film serially: one channel at a time (de Linde and Kay, 1999).

The problem with non-verbal communication, whether through kinesics, proxemics or body language
(Poyatos, 1997), or through non-spoken linguistic messages such as sotto voce, graffiti, newspaper
headlines or road signs, is twofold. First, for subtitlers working with the dialogue list: they are most
likely to miss such meaning-making resources, unless of course they are explicitly mentioned in the
list. Second, for the less experienced subtitler, who received little or no training in film analysis and
therefore has no film literacy: he will definitely miss them. This brings me now to the point of
training subtitlers to examine film as a multi-modal text and the relevance of conducting multimodal
analysis and description of film as a tool for empowering subtitlers to identify challenges and to
suggest appropriate translation strategies (Gambier, 2006).

14. Multimodal analysis of filmic texts

Over the past two decades, digital technology enhanced the multi-modal nature of text with images,
video and sound working in unison to create and present meaning within the original text. Film is
perhaps the oldest and most common example of a multimodal text where the major components
play different parts in different film types. The analysis of the various meaning-making modes in a
given text, be it a film or an advertisement, gave rise to the area of multimodality (Kress, & van
Leeuwen, 2006). This concept can be beneficially applied to the study, analysis and subtitling of
filmic material.

The principal idea of filmic text analysis and description is to analyze film through its basic unit: the
shot (Baldry and Thibault, 2006). In such analysis the visual and audio channels, as suggested by
Delabastita (1989) and later described by Gottlieb (1994), are analyzed, highlighting the meaning-
making resources against the time and space available for their subtitling. The task is evidently
useful and relevant to subtitlers notwithstanding its criticisms. Most of the objection to such
142 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

methodology of multimodal analysis stems from the fact that it is time consuming with “infinite
details” that seem to be redundant (Forceville 2007). Gambier (2006) points out that the methodo-
logy has obvious benefits for trainee subtitlers and academics but has little application to profession-
al subtitlers. The methodology, however, can be adapted to aid professional subtitlers who would
conduct scene analysis only for complex scenes with subtitling challenges they identified the first
time they viewed the video. Later, it becomes a mental modus operandi as they watch subsequent
films.

Multimodal analysis of filmic material, when adapted for the purpose of researching audiovisual
translation, can have invaluable benefits. It informs the research into subtitling challenges of classic
or important films, aids comparative subtitling research and finally can be applied to the design of
training programs for trainee audiovisual translators.

15. Concluding remarks

Research in Arabic audiovisual translation remains scarce and lags behind other areas of translation
such as literary and technical translation. The teaching of some units of audiovisual translation such
as subtitling, dubbing and web-based advertisement is increasing at some academic institutions in
Egypt but there is still no concerted effort or consolidated policy on audiovisual translation in the
country. While there is no shortage of conferences dedicated to translation, the observation over the
past two decades is that audiovisual translation is peculiarly absent. This is peculiar due to the long
history of cinema and television in Egypt and the considerable consumption of foreign subtitled
material on television and at cinema theatres.

Although the subtitling of Egyptian films (no television drama yet) into English and French, and
some into Spanish, came about only in the last twenty years with satellite broadcasting, the real
impetus came with the DVD technology. Strangely enough, the DVD industry in Egypt completed its
first decade this year and research into this industry and its impact on translation and film subtitling
and distribution remains unexamined.

In this paper, I paid attention to the subtitling of Egyptian films into English and focused on a small
number of the major challenges. In suggesting a typology of these challenges my main concern is to
suggest a framework designed to build a body of knowledge that could be tested, challenged and
modified as experience is gained. Most of my research and professional practice has been focused on
Egyptian classic films, or films with significant form, that have been shown abroad at film festivals,
broadcast subtitled or un-subtitled on Egyptian international channel Nile TV or Al Masriyah (The
Egyptian Channel) or films that are commercially subtitled and available on DVD. To this effect, the
typology suggested here is based on the examination of subtitled films and is designed with young
researchers in mind (Gamal 2010).

The recent events and dramatic changes in Egypt point to a rise of interest in audiovisual translation
due in no small part to the changing political scene and the espousing of social media by young
people who make up 40% of the population. Egyptian cinema has a long and impressive record and
some classic films have seen their 50th anniversary in the last few years, chief among them are
Balzing Sun (1954), Dark Waters (1956) and the most popular A man in our house (1961) all
featuring Omar Sharif who turned eighty this year (Gamal 2012b). DVD subtitling is an area that has
great relevance for academic research, the cinema industry and the translation profession. While the
American University in Cairo has championed the Screen Translation program since 1995, it is an
encouraging thought to see the University of Hamad bin Khalifa in Doha, Qatar planning to offer the
first MA in Audiovisual Translation, in the region, in the second half of 2013.
TRANSLATION AND MEANING, PART 9, 2013, 133 - 144 143

References
Al-Hadary, A. (Ed.) (2007), The most important films in Egyptian Cinema. Alexandria: The Arts Centre, Li-
brary of Alexandria.
Ashkenani, M. (2006), Al-tarjamah al-televizioniya (Television translation). Kuwait: Abhath Company for
Translation, Publication and Distribution.
Baldry, A. & P. Thibault (2006), Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and
Coursework. London: Equinox.
Buscombe, E. (2003), Cinema Today. London: Phaidon.
Cavalieri, F. (2008), “Measuring the perception of the screen translation of Un Posto al Sole: a cross-cultural
study”. In Chiaro, D, Heiss, C, Buccaria, C. (Eds.), Between text and Image: Updating Research in
Screen Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Chaume-Valera, F. (1997), “Translating non-verbal information in dubbing”, in Poyatos, F. (Ed.) Non Verbal
Communication and Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Delabastita, D. (1989), “Translation and Mass-Communication: Film and TV Translation as Evidence of Cul-
tural Dynamics”. Babel Vol. 35, No.4.
de Linde, Z. & N. Kay (1999), The Semiotics of Subtitling. Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.
Egoyan, A. & I. Balfour (Eds.) (2004), Subtitles: On the Foreignness of Film. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and
Alphabet City Media.
El-Batal, M. (2000), A dictionary of idioms. Egyptian Arabic-English. Cairo: Egyptian International Publish-
ing Company. Longman.
Forceville, C. (2007), “Review of Anthony Baldry & Paul Thibault, Multimodal Transcription and Text An-
alysis: A Multimodal Toolkit and Coursebook (Equinox 2006)”. In Journal of Pragmatics 39: 1235-1238.
Gamal, M. (1994), “Subtitling into Arabic”, in the book of Proceedings of the East European Translators
Conference held in Bratislava, Slovakia, April 1994.
Gamal, M. (2004), “The Arabs Lost in Translation” an article in Arabic published in Weghat Nazar magazine
in Cairo, September 2004.
Gamal, M. (2005), Unpublished study on Viewer Perception of Subtitled Programs in Egypt, and Some Arab
Countries, between 1980 and 2005. University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Gamal, M. (2006), “Omar Sharif Abroad: Challenges of subtitling”. Published in the Book of Abstracts of the
Languages and Media Conference in Berlin November 2006.
Gamal, M. (2007), “Audiovisual Translation in the Arab World: a changing scene”, in Translation Watch
Quarterly Vol.3.2. Melbourne.
Gamal, M. (2008), “Egypt’s audiovisual translation scene”, in Arab Media & Society 5. Paper available at
http://www.arabmediasociety.com/articles/downloads/20080510203556_ams5_muhammad_gamal.pdf
(Accessed September 2012).
Gamal, M. (2009), “Adding text to image: challenges of subtitling non-verbal communication”, in the Journal
of Multicultural Communication, Vol. 1, No. 1. Salt Lake City, Utah: Academic Press.
Gamal, M. (2010), “Audiovisual Translation in Emerging economies”, in the Proceedings of the Translating
and Interpreting in a Multilingual Context Conference held in Bangkok in November 2010.
Gamal, M. (2011), “Embracing challenges in subtitling Egyptian classic films”. Paper published in the pro-
ceedings of the LANCOM conference, Malaysia.
Gamal, M (2012a), “Omar Sharif as an example of encounters and changes”, in the Proceedings of the 2012
Asian Conference on Arts and Humanities ACAH, held in Osaka in April 2012.
Gamal, M. (2012b), “Developing a theoretical framework for audiovisual translation in Egypt” in The Ame-
rican Translation Journal Vol. 4, No. 3. Salt Lake City, Utah: Academic Press.
Gamal, M (forthcoming), The DVD Industry in Egypt: the first decade. Cairo: Arab Media & Society.
Gambier, Y. (2006), Multimodality and audiovisual translation. In the proceedings of MuTra Audiovisual
Translation Scenarios Conference. Paper available at:
http://www.euroconferences.info/proceedings/2006_Proceedings/2006_Gambier_Yves.pdf (Accessed
September 2012).
Hayward, S. (2000), Cinema Studies. London: Routledge.
Kress, G. & T. van Leeuwen (2006), Reading Images: The grammar of visual design. London: Routledge.
Maluf, R. (2005), “A potential untapped? Why dubbing has not caught on in the Arab world”. Paper available
at www.tbsjournal.com.archives/fall05/maluf.html. (Sighted September 2012).
Mera, M. (1999), “Read my lips: Re-evaluating subtitling and dubbing in Europe”. In Links & Letters. Vol. 6,
pp. 73-85.
Monaco, J. (2000), How to read a film. Oxford: OUP.
144 MUHAMMAD Y GAMAL

Nedergaard-Larsen, M. (1993), “Cultural factors in subtitling’ in Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 1993:

2. University of Copenhagen.
Poyatos, F. (Ed.) (1997), Non Verbal Communication and Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Schwarz, B. (2002-3), "Translation in a Confined Space", part 1 in Translation Journal, Vol. 6, No. 4, Oct.
2002, part 2 in Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan. 2003. Available at http://www.accurapid.com/journal/22subtitles.htm
and http://www.accurapid.com/journal/23subtitles.htm (Accessed September 2012).
Taylor, C. (2003), “Multimodal transcription in the analysis, translation and subtitling of Italian films”. In
Gambier, Y. (Ed.) Screen Translation, The Translator Vol 9.2. Manchester: St Jerome.
Toufic, S. ( 1969), “Qissat al cinema fi masr” (The Story of Cinema in Egypt). Cairo: Dar Al Hilal.