Sponsoring Committee: Professor Leonard A.

Larson,
Professor John 8. Rockwell and
Professor J. Darnell Barnard

A SIMPLIFIED TECHNIQUE FOR TEACHING BODY ALIGNMENT

IN STANDING * ITS APPLICATION AND EVALUATION

Ivalclare Sprow Howland

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor
of Education in the School of Education
New York University

1950 ^ &
Final Document

kcceptad. Date ’JliL— j»L-— ^

 July 11, 1960

The student hereby guarantees that no part of the

dissertation or dooument whloh he has submitted for pub­
lic a tl on has been heretofore published and (or) copy­
righted In the United States of Amerisa, exsept In the
oase of passages quoted from other published sources)
that he Is the sole author and proprietor of said
dissertation or dooument) that the dissertation or doc­
ument contains no matte# which, if published, will be
libelous or otherwise Injurious, or Infringe In any way
the copyright of any other party) and that he will defend,
indemnify and hold harmless New York University against
all suits and proceedings which may be .brought and against
all claims whloh may he made agd*n*t^lwYSeekueidhre»il>y
by reason of the publication of said dissertation or
dooument.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Xt Is with deep pleasure that the Investigator

expresses her sincere appreciation to those who gave
encouragement and assistance In the development of this
study.
To her many students, thanks are due for their
Inspiration and unfailing faith in the merit of the
problem. Special thanks are due to Mr. Donald Mathews,
who gave direction and assistance in the construction
of the instrument; to Mr. George Novak for his expert
and efficient aid in the development of the photographic
technique; and to those men and women students, who
served as experimental subjects, for their willing and
faithful service which aided in bringing the study to
completion.
To her colleague, Mr. Karl Gorak, Indebtedness
is expressed for his cooperation and assistance In serv­
ing as examiner in the experimental phase of the study.
To her Sponsoring Committee, Professors L. A.
Larson, J. G. Rockwell and J. D. Barnard, the investi­
gator wishes to express her sincere gratitude for their
patient guidance, wise counsel and generous support of

11
the problem* To the Chairman* Professor Larson* special
appreciation is expressed for his Invaluable direction*
constant encouragement and expressed faith in the worth
of the study.
To those who served as consultants in the develop­
ment of the principles involved in the problem* the inves­
tigator wishes to express her indebtedness for their con­
structive criticisms* valuable suggestions and the time
given unstintlngly from their capacity work schedules to
bring meaning and focus to the fundamentals upon which
this study rests*
Finally* to her many friends and colleagues* the
investigator is deeply appreciative for their sustained
interest and without whose support the undertaking of
this study would not have taken place*

Hi
 PREFACE

The early impressions in life are the strongest.

They become deep-seated and profoundly Influence behavior
throughout life.
The education of the developing individual is
physical as well as mental and emotional. And into the
intricately woven fabric of growth and development the
physlcsOL aspect, as threads, strongly influence the
beauty of the product.
Thus it is, that the growing child can be effect­
ively Impressed with the importance of his physical body;
he can be taught early, by direction and example, that a
healthy, well-controlled body, one of poise and pride,
will serve him well all his life. He can be Impressed
that his physical body is a structure through ufalch his
spirit, his hopes and his aspirations are served in
developing a personality that contributes to joy and
life fulfillment.
An appreciation of this Importance of the physical
body is the charge and the privilege of health and physical
education programs in schools. It is their noble servloe
to Impress youth with the belief that the trained body

iv
give a Joy in skilled movement and skills achievement*
Coupled with mental and emotional concomitants, fulfill­
ment is assured*
But the individual is only half physically educa­
ted if he is capable of body control and heightened sat­
isfaction in sports, dance or swisming, and then, walks,
sits and stands with a body reverted to a state of ugliness
and physical illiteracy. It becomes the duty of physical
education to ensure in schools an appreciation and under­
standing of the physically educated body in all motor
events•
The neglect of totality in the physical education
of the individual has been disturbing to this investigator.
She has been concerned with the apathy and indifference of
school programs in training the body to execute skillfully
the every-day utilitarian motor skills* It is due to this
concern that Interest and effort have been exerted to offer
direction and impetus to teaching the skillful use of the
body in every-day activities*
This study has been undertaken with the hope that
the findings may be helpful to teachers of health and
physical education, parents, physicians and clinicians
in directing the appreciation and practice of a controlled
body for skillful performance in ALL motor activities, not
alone the athletic*

v
 TABLE OP CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
1 THE PROBLEM AND THE NEED FOR THE STUDY .... 1
Statement of the Problem ...•••.••••••••• 6
Amplification of the Problem ...... 6
Basic Assumptions .... •••••••••••» 7
Definition of Terms ..... 9
Limitations of the Study ..... 10
Related Research ••••••••••••••••..... 16
Need for the Study 20
/
II OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL TO TEACHING BODY ALIGN­
MENT IN STANDING ................... 22
Social Hypotheses .... 24
Physiological Hypotheses ............. 31
Ob jectives Extracted from the Hypotheses
Considered Essential to Teaching Body
Alignment in Standing •••..•••••••..... 42
Social Objectives ..... 43
Physiological Objectives •••••••••••••••• 44
III PRINCIPLES BASIC TO TEACHING BODY ALIGNMENT
IN STANDING ............................ 47
Evidence From Which psychological Prin­
ciples were Extracted ...... 51
Perceptual-motor Learning ••••••••••••••• 52
Conditioned Responses ...... 53
Attention and Motivation ........... 54
Kinesthetic Cues ....... 54
Effect of Active Participation •••••••••• 55
Comparison and Differentiation •••••••••• 56
Psychological Principles ••••••••••••••.• 57
Evidence From Which Mechanical Principles
were Extracted ..... 56
Newton*s First Law of Motion •••••••••••• 59
Newton's Second Law of Motion ••••••»••«• 60
Newton's Third Law of Motion ••••••••••.• 62
The Law of Gravitation •••••••••••••••..• 64

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
III (continued)
The Law of the Lever •• 65
The Law of Stress and Strain •••••••••«»• 66
Interpretations of the Mechanical Ad­
justments of Body Parts for Mechanical
Balance and Alignment In Standing •••••• 67
Mechanical Principles .... . 72
Evidence From Which the Physiological
Principles were Extracted •••••••••••••• 74
Cardlo-vascular Adjustments in Standing • 80
Energy Cost in Standing ..... ...... 88
Fatigue in Standing................... . 94
Vital Capacity and Respiration in Stand­
ing ••••••...................
Neurological Considerations in Standing • 101
Visceral Considerations in Standing • •••• 109
Summary of Documentary Evidence ••••••••• 120
Physiological Principles......... •••••• 123
Summary of the Principles Basic to
Teaching Body Alignment in Standing •••• 126
IV PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING D A T A .............. 130
Selection of Subjects ••••••••••..••••••• 130
Radiographs and Photographs of a Select­
ed Experimental Subject •••••••••••••••. 135
Construction of the Measuring Instrument. 141
Procedures in the Measurement of Photo­
graphs of Experimental Subjects •••••••• 147
Procedures Employed in the Experimental
Measurement of the Application of the
Developed Technique •#••••••••••••.••••• 154
V RESULTS OF THE STUDY ....... 165
Results of the Experimental Measurements
of the Radiographs and Photographs 165
Objectivity and Reliability of the
Measuring Instrument and the Reliability
of the Investigator as Examiner •••••••• 169
Results of the Measurement of Linear
Interrelationships between the Sterno-
publc Line and the Traditional
Criterion ........ 170
Result of the Experimental Measurement
of the Application of the Developed
Technique for Teaching Body Alignment
in Standing.......... 178

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

VI APPLICATION OF THE BODY ALIGNMENT

TECHNIQUE ............................. 184
Principles of Teaching............... 188
Principle of Context................. 189
Principle of Focus................... 189
Principle of Socialization ........... 190
Principle of Individualization ....... 191
Principle of Sequence...... 193
Principle of Evaluation .......... 194
Learning Situations of Subject-material
Content ............................ 195
Evaluations of the Outcomes of the
Learning Activity ............. 209
VII GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........ 211
VIII DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ............ 221
BIBLIOGRAPHY........ 225
APPENDIX ............ 240

viil
 LIST OP TABLES

TABLE PAGE
I DISTRIBUTION OP EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
ACCORDING TO CLASS, SIZE, AGE, SEX,
LENGTH OP CLASS PERIOD AND TOTAL IN­
STRUCTION IN THE APPLICATION OP THE
DEVELOPED TECHNIQUE IN BODY MECHANICS
CLASSES «.......................... 157
II DISTRIBUTION OP CONTROL GROUPS ACCORDING
TO AGE, CLASS, SIZE, SEX, AGE RANGE AND
AVERAGE A G E ..................... 161
III OBJECTIVITY AND RELIABILITY OP THE MEASUR­
ING INSTRUMENT DETERMINED BY THREE SETS
OP TESTS WITH TWENTY-POURSUBJECTS 170
IV INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
BETWEEN THE STERNO-PUBIC LINE AND THE
TRADITIONAL CRITERION OP ALIGNMENT IN
THREE T E S T S ........... 174
V AVERAGE INTBRCORRELATIONS BETWEEN THREE
TESTS OF LINEAR MEASUREMENTS ......... 176
VI SIGNIFICANCE OP THE DIFFERENCE OP THE
MEANS BETWEEN PRE-INSTRUCTION AND POST­
INSTRUCTION TESTS OF EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS ................................. 181
VII SIGNIFICANCE OP THE DIFFERENCE OF THE
MEANS BETWEEN TEST I AND TEST II OF
CONTROL G R O U P S ............ ............. 183

lx
 FIGURES

NUMBER PAGE
I Criterion of traditional body landmarks
for alignment ..... 5

II The tilt of the pelvis influences spinal

curvatures and alignment of body parts* • 5
III Radiograph and Photograph of selected
subject in an assumed body slump ••••••• 138
IV Radiograph and Photograph of seleoted
subject in an assumed body alignment ••• 139
V The Alignometer ..... 142
VI College students demonstrating body align­
ment in standing) A, B, C, D end E indi­
cate location of lines connecting the
sterno-pubio line and the five traditional
body landmarks ...... 153
VII A fifth grade student aligning body parts
in standing *..... 200
VIII An eighth grade student aligning body
parts in standing •••••••••••••••••••••• 200
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND THE NEED FOR THE STUDY

The problem of man1a adaptation to the requirement

of an upright standing posture has been one of compelling
interest to the investigator during many years of study
and teaching In the field of health and physical education*
The emphasis placed upon the problem, as reported
by documents of history* shows that It has been one of
concern from our earliest cultures* The great philoso­
phers and teachers of the early Chinese and Greek civili­
zations expressed interest in man's struggle for bodily
economy in the upright standing position as a law of
organic development* More recently* scientists have
re-inforced this belief by study and research not only
In the fields of medicine and physics but in psychology
and the social sciences as well* It becomes* then* the
function of education to apply these findings to the end
that adaptation to the upright standing position may
take place with greater ease and bodily efficiency*
Comprehension of the problem of adaptation* which
the human body must make for balanced alignment In the up­
right standing posture* may be attained more readily if the
physical organism Is looked upon* In part* as a mechanical
being*
 Tbs human body resembles a machine whose many
separate parts must coordinate and adjust, one to another,
to form a balanced whole. When these parts, each related
to the others, work together consistently according to
the mechanical laws of balance and equilibrium, the assem­
bled whole functions effectively.
Like the machine, the human organism must meet the
strains and stresses of forces acting upon it. It Is sub­
jected constantly to gravltal stresses and other forces
such as momentum, Inertia, compression, tensions, bending
and rotatory stresses.
To meet these forces, the human body must furnish
compensating, opposing and resisting counter-forces that
may serve to control the skeletal framework In balanoe
and alignment as a protection against strains and dis­
turbances to body tissues. When the human body like the
machine departs from maintaining balanoe and correlation
of its parts, there appears to result energy waste and
lessened efficiency.
It is apparent that the human organism Is under
continuous dynamic effort to maintain balance In the up­
right standing position and lb becomes, to a large measure,
a problem of mechanical adjustments as the struggle for
bodily economy persists.
Such a problem la one of complexity and difficulty
since the human body cannot be resolved Into set and fixed
adjustments. On the fcsaembly line, the machine la designed
 3 -

for balance and Its parts are proplerly aligned by forcibly

tightening screws and rivets to meet the set pattern* In
contrast, the human organism must constantly adjust and
re-adjust Itself by means of Its own systemic controls*
This adaptation and adjustment, therefore, becomes
a problem of education and training. The body must be
trained to align and adjust its parts with ease and freedom
of movement in standing as well as in other motor activities*
It becomes Important for the Individual to learn how to apply
the laws of mechanics for alignment in standing just as he
learns how to use his body mechanically coordinated for pro­
ficiency in sports, swimming or dancing*
Thus a technique, based upon mechanical laws, la
essential as a tool in the training and teaching of body
alignment in standing*
The technique, as developed in this study, is
based upon the following traditional criterion which
physicians and physical educators have employed primarily
as the fundamental mechanical basis for teaching postural
alignment in the upright position: ^

1. L* T. Brown, "Bodily Mechanics and Medicine", Boston

Med* and Surg. J*, (June 24, 1920) p* 649
ChTTcTrenTs BureauT Posture Standards, U* S. Dept, of
Labor, 1926
G. T. Stafford, Preventive and Corrective Physical
Education, 1928, p. 101 -
Arthur &teindler, The Mechanics of the Normal and Patho­
logical Locomotion of Man, x9ob, p* 17, bo-4B7“l^I
W. H* fchelps and R. KTphuth, The Diagnosis and Treatment
Postural Defects, p* 81-100
J* fl* Kellogg, "Observations on the Relations of Posture
to Health and a New Method of Studying Posture and De­
velopment", Bull* Battle Creek Sanitarium and Bosp*
Clinic, 2 2 : l 7 T B e p T r T ? 2 m p T TTS?-------------
 4
1. As the centers of gravity of each body
part approximates the line of gravity (vertical
balance line of the body), balanced body align,
ment is said to exist. The respective centers
of gravity are indicated by the following external
anatomical landmarks, viewed from the side: a.
tragus of the ear; b. tip of the shoulder (acromion
process); c. greater trochanter of the femur;
d. just behind the knee-eap at the center of the
knee joint; e. at a point 3-5 cm. in front of the
ankle Joint. (Figure I, p. 5)
2. The alignment of the oenters of gravity
of the body parts above the pelvis la dependent
upon the tilt of the pelvis. When the pelvis
tilts too far forward or backward in its obliquity
with the line of gravity, the anterior posterior
spinal curvatures are disturbed and the alignment
between the various body parts will be affected
correspondingly. The tilt of the pelvis controls
the posture of the upper trunk and the proper dis­
tribution of body weight over the feet. (Figure
II, 1 and 2, p. 5)
The technique developed in this study tends to
produce balanced relationship between the tilt of the
pelvis and the upper trunk and the centers of gravity
of the separate body parts as they approximate the line
of gravity. It is accomplished by aligning vertically
certain anatomical landmarks located on the sternum and
the pelvis that will parallel the vertical balanoe line
of the body in such a manner that alignment may be easily
recognized, Interpreted and practiced for balanced stand­
ing. (Figure II, 3, p. 5)
The investigator believes that this simplified
technique will be of value to teachers and that it will
serve as an educational and motivational measure in the
prevention or correction of unbalanced alignment In
standing.
 - 5

*
(,<*> n ;c

<«) <«)

FIGURE I FIGURE II

Criterion of traditional The tilt of the pelvis influences spinal

body landmarks, for align­
ment :
(a) lobe of ear
(b) acromion process of
scapula
(o) great trochanter of
femur
(d) center of knee joint
(e ) just in front of ankle
joint
curvatures and alignment of body parts*
1. forward-upward tilt of pelvis
2 . backward-downward tilt of pelvis
3. pelvis tilted in alignment with upper
trunk; landmarks, (f) center of
sternum and (g) symphysis pubis,
perpendicular to base and parallel
to criterion of traditional land­
marks
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The problem Involved in this study Is the develop­
ment of a simplified technique for teaching body alignment
in standing; its evaluation and application in posture
education and body mechanics classes.

Amplification of the Problem

The problem is divided into five parts as follows*
1. The determination of objectives, social and physiologi­
cal in character, as basic to teaching body alignment
in standing in view of the outcomes they are intended
to produce. The evidence necessary to validate the
objectives was found in the existing literature in­
volved in the subject of posture.
2. The determination of the principles basic to the
validation of the developed technique for teaching
body alignment in standing. The principles, mechani­
cal, psychological, and physiological, were extracted
from the appropriate current literature, which served
as the evaluative criteria, embracing the respective
fields of physics, psychology and physiology. The
validation of the principles was sought through the
support or rejection of the principles by authorities
In each of the separate fields involved.
3. The determination, by the use of radiography, photo­
graphy and a constructed mechanical instrument, of
the validation of the developed simplified technique
for teaching body alignment In standing. Appropriate
statistical procedures were used to validate the measure.
The determination of the reliability of the measure as
a technique for teaching body alignment in body mechan­
ics classes. Analyses and evaluations were made of the
data derived from the application of the technique In
body mechanics classes.
The determination of the application of the developed
technique for teaching body alignment in standing in
body-mechanica classes.

Basic Assumptions
The assumptions basic to this study are:
That the principles basic to alignment and balance of
the body In standing, as gleaned from the abundant
literature, are: (a) the established laws of mechanics
interpreted and applied to human motor events, (b) the
accepted theories of neuro-physlologlcal psychology,
educational psychology and the present-day laws of
learning, and (c) the traditional, though largely
empirical, accepted principles of physiology as they
apply to standing posture problems.
That the objectives, social and physiological, for
teaching body alignment in standing are those gathered
from representative statements found In the current
literature of medical science and in the fields of
health and physical education. That these representa­
tive statements are considered hypotheses which, in
turn, render the extracted objectives, hypothetical.
That the developed technique for aligning body parts
for a balanced whole in standing is based upon the
laws of balance and equilibrium which apply to all
animate as well as to all inanimate objects* Thus*
the application of the developed technique may result
in body alignment in all cases, without respect to
body build, sex or age, within limits of ready com­
prehension and learning, and when no orthopedic or
physical defects are present to Interfere with a
normal adjustment of body parts for alignment*
That the developed technique for body alignment in
standing does not consist of a rigid, tensed and in­
flexible postural positioning, but, rather it Includes
a kinesthetic sense of the release of tension and a
non-rigidity between body parts when properly balanced
and correlated. It consists of training, through the
kinesthetic sense, the adjustment of body parts into
an aligned relationship*
That the human body is subjected to the same compelling
external forces as are exerted upon the Inanimate body
and, thus, there is required a dynamic interplay be­
tween muscles which must be constantly ready to main­
tain a standing alignment. The control of balance and
alignment in standing is, therefore, not a static event,
but a dynamic one and must be considered a motor skill
in human mechanics*
 - 9

6* That the development of a kinesthetic sense of align­

ment In standing influences the sense of alignment and
balance in other fundamental motor acts such as walking,
sitting, lifting, carrying weights, and climbing stairs,
commonly included in body mechanics classes.

Definition of Terms
A PPlboiple as used in this study refers to an
accepted fundamental law or an elementary proposition
upon which the development of the body alignment techni­
que and its application for use is founded.
Anatomical landmarks are defined as points of
reference used to mark specific locations on the bony
skeleton.
Balanced alignment in standing is used inter­
changeably with body alignment in standing.
Body alignment in standing is described as the
linear arrangement between body parts in such a manner
that their respective centers of gravity fall on the
vertical balanoe line of the body in the upright stand­
ing posture.
Body alignment is used synonymously with posture.
Body mechanics classes are those in which the
mechanics for body balance and equilibrium in the every­
day motor activities, such as standing, walking, sitting,
running, lifting heavy weights and stair climbing, are
taught.
 10

Emplrloal reasoning refers to that reasoning founded

upon experience and observation rather than upon scientific
evidence and facta proved by experimentation* A priori
reasoning, according to Webster, la a "kind of reasoning
deduolng consequences from definitions or principles re-
garded as self-evident; hence, designating that which can
be known by reason alone and not through experience*
„
1

The kinesthetic sense Is described as the muscle

sense or feeling of movement in relation to direction,
space, or other objects*
The term traditional, as It la used in this study,
refers to "years of usage" and thereby considered accepted
as traditional.
Vertioal balance line of the body, or the vertical
axle of the body* or the long axis of the body refers to
the line of gravity which Is formed by the coincidence of
the primary planes of the body, sagittal and frontal, as
the upright standing position is assumed. The center of
gravity refers to the point of intersection of the three
primary body planes, sagittal, frontal, and transverse or
horizontal.
Limitations of the Study
The subjects, who participated in this study, were
limited in number, age, grade and sex, according to the
following two classifications:

1* Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Fifth Edition, 1938,

p. 53
 - 11 -

For Experimental Validation of the Developed Technique:

1. One subject, a Junior woman student, twenty-one
years of age, In the Division of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation of the Cortland State Teachers College, was
selected, by the Investigator, as proficient In demonstrat­
ing body alignment according to the developed technique*
One selected subject was considered adequate
to demonstrate plotorlally by radiographs and photographs
agreement or disagreement between the actual skeletal land­
marks and the superficial body landmarks located by the in­
vestigator* It was considered, also, that one proficient
subject would be adequate In demonstrating, by radiographs
and photographs, the developed technique when a slumped
position In standing was changed to an aligned position
in standing. It was believed that one highly trained
subject would be sufficient for experimental validation
of the developed technique when the X-ray was used as a
testing procedure.
2* Twenty-four Junior and Senior college men In
the Division of Health, Physical Education and Recreation
of the Cortland State Teachers College, who comprised a
body mechanics class taught by the Investigator, served
as subjeots for the experimental determination of the
objectivity of the constructed measuring Instrument and
the reliability of the investigator as an examiner In
testing body alignment by means of the Instrument*
 • 12

This sample was limited In number due to the enrollment In

the body mechanica class determined by the scheduling program
of the College*
3* Thirty college men and women, nineteen to thirty-
three years of age, were selected for photographic study, by
the investigator, as subjeots who appeared to show evidence
of having achieved a high degree of habitual body alignment
according to the developed technique taught by the Investi­
gator* This selection of Junior and Senior students was
made from an approximate total of two hundred students In
those classes In the Division of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation of the Cortland State Teaohers College, year
1948-1949* The selection was limited, also, to those stu­
dents who were able by virtue of class schedules and working
assignments to participate In the experiment* This limita­
tion concerned only trained subjects for the purpose of
demonstrating that alignment of body parts may take place
vhen the developed technique Is properly Interpreted and
praotloed*

For the validation of the developed technique in teaching

5o3y~aIlgninent In standing in bodymechanics"classes
1* The following limitations were occasioned
the administrative assignment of college and elementary
school students to body mechanics classes at the Cortland
State Teachers College* The body mechanics classes were
taught solely by' the investigator to Insure consistency
in the application of the developed body alignment technique*
 - 13 -

a. One hundred thirty-one college men and wo

in -the Sophomore year curriculum of the Division of Health*
Physical Education and Recreation, with an age range of
nineteen to twenty-five years*
h. Sixty-five college men and women in the
Freshmen curriculum of the Division of General Education,
with an age range of eighteen to twenty-three years*
c* One hundred eighteen elementary school boys
and girls, within the age range of nine and fifteen years,
In the School of Practice, grades four through eight* The
Investigator limited the teaching of the developed techni­
que for body alignment in body mechanics classes to grades
above the third since the nature of the technique does not
lend Itself to easy comprehension below the fourth grade
level* The School of Practice does not Include grades
beyond the eigihth*
2* For the purpose of demonstrating the effective­
ness of the application of the developed technique on the
high school level, a body meohanloe class of forty-eight
high school girls with an age range of fifteen to eighteen
years, from the Sophomore, Junior and Senior classes, was
assigned to the investigator by the Director of Physical
Education of the Cortland Public Schools and the Instructor
of Physical Education for the Cortland High School Girls*
The selection of the class period was dependent upon the
schedule of the physical education classes of the High
 14

School and the teaching program of the investigator* The

total number of girls regularly scheduled for the period
assigned to the Investigator were participants in the study.
The high school group was limited only to girls as a result
of the assignment made by the Director who stated that the
boy's program did not lend Itself to the Inclusion of the
study.
3. A control group of one hundred fifteen elemen­
tary school boys and girls, who received no instruction in
the application of the developed technique for body align­
ment, was limited in number, age and grade levels comparable
to the experimental group, grade four through eight, in the
School of Practice. The school assigned was the George
Washington Elementary School of Endioott, H. Y. The assign­
ment of the control groups was limited to a school some dis­
tance from Cortland where there were no student practice
teachers or teachers of physical education who may have
been students of the investigator at the Cortland State
Teachers College* The selection of the school was made
by the Director of Training of the Division of Health,
Physical Education and Recreation at Cortland and the
Superintendent of Schools of Endioott.
The control groups were participants of the
regular physical education program of the George Washing­
ton school in which posture education is a part of their
program* However, the developed technique and its
 - 15 -

application aa taught by the Investigator was not Included

In their posture Instruction.
Control groups of elementary school children com­
parable to the School of Practice children were chosen In
order to secure consistency In number, age, and grade
levels where the physical education programs were most
apt to be similar In nature and of a proportionate time
requirement. College groups would not have offered this
desired consistency in the control of essential factors.
The children of the George Washington School In
Endlcott were considered, by the selectors, as highly
comparable, also, to the children of the School of Prac­
tice In Cortland, in socio-economic status.
The hlgjh school and college groups were Included
in the study for the purpose of demonstrating the appli­
cation, on these levels, of the developed simplified
technique for teaching body alignment in standing.
4. This study was limited to subjects who were
considered free from structural orthopedic defects or
physical disabilities that may affect the objectivity
of the developed technique. The physical examination
record of each participating student was consulted in
the office of the College Physician and the medical
records of the cooperating schools were consulted, also,
for substantiation of this limitation.
 16

RELATED RESEARCH
Many investigators have sought to develop methods
of measuring body alignment in the upright position.
The earliest endeavors were of a subjective nature,
and, by making judgment of observable relationships between
the various body segments, standards for good posture were
described.
Some of the best known early tests of this type
were the Vertical Line Test and the Triple Line Test by
1 2
Bancroft , the Crampton Wall Test , and the Lowman Method
3
of Posture Examination • These tests judged posture by
aligning the body against a plumb line or pole. Deviations
of the traditionsd external body landmarks and the exag­
gerated configurations of the body were described, in
part, as round shoulders, winged scapulae, flat chest,
forward head, protruding abdomen and sway back.
During the past twenty-five years, objective
methods of posture measurement have developed gradually.
They have consisted largely of judgments for posture
4
grading from silhouette pictures and shadowgraphs. Drew ,

1. Jesse H, Bancroft, The Posture of School Children,

1912, p, 327
2. C. W, Crampton, "Work-a-Day Tests of Good Posture,"
Am. Physical Education Review, (November 1925),
p7 6U5T5I0------------------
3. C. H, Lowman, et al., Corrective Physical Education
for Groups, p. 521
4. L.“TJT Drew, Individual Gymnastics, 1922, p. 276
 - 17 -
1 Q * M
Brownell , Rowe , Pradd and Sweeney * studied posture
pictures and produced scales for judging, subjectively, the
types of posture in scores of Good, Fair, and Poor, or by
letter grades of A, B, C, D.
Kellogg ® developed a method which Involved study­
ing the shadowgraph pictures of his patients for the pres­
cription of exercises In the correction of faulty posture.
He measured the angles formed between markers placedon the
subject In order to study the deviations made by thetilt
of the pelvis and the positions of the head, chest and
upper trunk In relation to the vertical balance line of
g
the body. Goldthwalt used a similar technique in
studying the posture silhouette.
7
MacEwan and Howe set up an objective technique
for scoring posture by studying the profile picture of the
subject on whose spinal column aluminum rods of equal
length had been attached. The measurement of the differ­
ence between the actual rod length and the rod length

1. C. L. Brownell, A Scale for Measuring the Anterior

Posterior Posture of Ninth Grade Boys, Bureau of
Publications, feacEers College, 1928, p. 52
2. F. A. Rowe, "The Psychology of Posture", The Nation^
Health, 4:1, (January 1922) p. 60-63
3. Norman“Fradd, "A New Method of Recording Posture",
Jr. Bone and Joint Surgery, 5:4, (October 1923)
pT 7B7T758------------
4. Mary Sweeney, et al., A Method of Recording the Posture
of Pre-school Children, CetroTH, MerrIl1-Palmer
5choor,~Iggg,' p T “33---
5. Kellogg, op. olt. p. 15-23
6. Goldthwalt Method reported by George Stafford, Pre­
ventive and Corrective Physical Education, 19887 P. 328
7. Charlotte Maoswan and S. u. howe, "An objeotlve Method of
Grading Posture", Research Quarterly, AAHPER, 3:3,
(October 1932) p. 144-157
 - 18 -

shown on the picture described the deviations of the spinal

column, which were scaled and translated for a posture grade*
Cure ton ^ has reported the use of techniques for
posture measurement by photographing the subject using simi­
lar spinal curvature markings as proposed by MacEwan and Howe*
He sought to measure angles of deviations of the head and
cheat, the backward convexity of the dorsal spinal curvature,
the concavity backward of the lumbar spine, the protrusion of
the abdomen and the position of the shoulders, hips and knees.
A test which indicates the relationship of the center
of gravity of the body and the base of support has been de-
2
vised by Cure ton and Wlckens • The technique involved the
use of a balance board supported by weight scales upon which
the subject stood. The balance of the center of body weight
over the feet was scored by reading the scales. A percentile
score was read from a prepared rating scale table.
Massey in a critical study of the various methods of
measuring standing posture has concluded that investigators
seem to be In "general agreement in the choice of criteria
3
used to designate the conditions of •good* posture . He

1. T. K. Cureton, "Bodily Posture as an Indicator of

Fitness", Supp. to Research Quart., AAHPER, 12:2,
(May 1941)~pT^347T3H7
2. T. K. Cureton and J. Stuart Wickens, "Center of
Gravity in the Anterior-Posterior Plane and Its
Relation to Posture, Physical Fitness and Athletic
Ability". Supp. to Research Quart., AAHPER, 6:3,
(May 1935)“p* 93TT0S
3. Wayne Massey, "A Critical Study of Objective Methods
for Measuring Anterior Posterior Posture with a
Simplified Technique", Research Quart., AAHPER,
14:1, (March 1943) p. 20
 - 19

maintained that the methods Investigated all appeared to

measure similar posture characteristics such as the balanced
position of the various body segments In their relationship
to the vertical axis of the body. Massey 1 developed a
simplified technique for measuring varying angles between
body segments and the long axis of the body similar to the
techniques of Kellogg, Goldthwalt, Fradd, MacEwan and Howe,
and Cureton.
Cureton, Wickens and Elder reported that "objective
measurement is on a whole four times as good as the subject-
.. 2
ive methods of visual inspection. This would indicate that
valid and reliable objective measurement procedures In the
determination of body alignment measurement procedures in
the determination of body alignment should be encouraged.
Clarke states, "the question of practicability may also
be raised in connection with the posture measures as the
administration of any one of the objective tests requires
expensive equipment and necessitates the expenditures of
considerable time."
It is apparent that an objective simplified tech­
nique which will significantly measure and teach body
alignment in standing will be of service to teachers of
posture and body mechanics.

1. Massey, op. cit., p. 2-22

2. T. K. Cureton, J. S. Wickens and H. P. Elder, "Reli­
ability and Objectivity of the Springfield Postural
Measurements", Supp. to Research Quart., AAHPER,
6:3, (May 1935) p. 9T£~
3. H. Harrison Clarke, The Application of Measurement to
Health and Physical Education, l?45T p. 127
 - 20 -

NEED FOR THE STUDY

There ia a large amount of literature In the fields
of medicine* health and physical education* and education in
general* that reflects the Interest of physicians and educa­
tors in the problem of posture as it affects the total de­
velopment of the individual* The accompanying bibliography
(p« 225-239) is but a small sample through which this state­
ment may be illustrated*
It has been indicated that one's posture is closely
related to social approval* job getting* and personality
development*
Industrial hygienists* as well as orthopedists*
have recognized the importance of efficient mechanical
handling of one's body while performing routine tasks
as a preventive against absenteeism through illness and
as a safety measure against bodily injury. They have
emphasized that* in every-day living* lasting physical
defects may be prevented by habitual practice of align­
ing body parts*
It has been stated* further,, that proper mechanical
use of the body and good posture should be taught during
the developmental and formative years of the growing school
child. It is during youth, that patterns of balanced
structural alignment of the body should be practiced and
thus establish the proper neuro-muscular responses before
poor habits of motor performances are formed. Knowledge
of proper body mechanic8 must accompany good teaching In
order that habitual practices may be expected as reason­
able outcomes*
The recognition of these channels of Interest and
evidences of need has prompted the Investigator to under­
take this study* The investigator has recognised the need
for procedures in teaching how body alignment in standing
may contribute to the economical use of the body in every­
day activities* She has considered the act of balanced
standing as an initial step in interpreting balance and
equilibrium in other fundamental motor acts. It is for
this reason that she has developed a simple technique
that may serve to teach the alignment of the body in
standing which can be readily interpreted, easily exe­
cuted and profitably practiced*
The investigator hopes that use of the developed
technique may be helpful to teachers of health and physi­
cal education, classroom teachers, physicians, nurses and
physical therapists in teaching the body alignment in
standing and its application to the body mechanics of
every-day activities*
 CHAPTER I I

OBJECTIVES ESSENTIAL TO TEACHING

BODY ALIGNMENT IN STANDING

One of the problems that faces the parent, teacher

and physician in the guidance of children and young adults
Is the placement of value or importance upon bodily atti­
tude and posture in every-day living. They are confronted
on every side by implications and directives that indicate
the advisability of body control and poise for health and
efficiency. They are told that good body alignment offers
social and health advantages which are not open to those
whose adaptation to the upright position is faulty.
The complete control of factors that may give
unquestionable scientific proof that good posture is
related significantly to the social and physical life
of the individual has not, as yet, been attained. How­
ever, volumes have been written on the subject which
show that hundreds of investigators have endeavored to
resolve the problem using scientific tools in their in­
vestigations. The results of their researches have often
forced hypothetical, rather than scientific, interpreta­
tions and evaluations due to the subjection of these ob­
jective tools upon variable human factors judged subject­
ively. For instance, when accepted techniques in the
 23 -

scientific measurement of physiological functioning during

standing are applied to non-scientific subjective ratings
of standing posture, results cannot be expected to furnish,
other than hypothetical data.
For years, teachers in the field of health and
physical education have endeavored to justify the teaching
of body mechanics and body alignment In their classes.
They have based their justification upon the myriads of
statements made by writers and lecturers as authorities
In the subject*
In search of the objectives basic to this estab­
lished and existing practice, this Investigator has sur­
veyed the current literature of medicine, health and
physical education In the subject of posture for authori­
tative and representative statements regarding its value
to the Individual.
These statements, as hypotheses, are those that
serve as sources from which objectives for teaching body
alignment in standing are extracted. They have been
classified into two categories, social and physiological,
In which the hypotheses seem to fall logically In view of
the outcomes they are intended to produce*
The following hypotheses, as representative state­
ments, are quoted directly from the author and his work,
and from which are extracted the objectives essential to
teaching body alignment In standing.
 - 24

I* Social Hypotheses:
"Erect posture enhances the feeling of well-being.
There Is In the ability to consciously stand well the
same joy which comes with any skill. To know that you
know how tostand well, that you can and are standing
well, gives a feeling of self confidence and poise. -—
no activity is more fundamental or more general than
the ability to stand, to sit, and to walk well." 1
"We judge our fellow man much more by the arrange­
ment and movement of his skeletal parts than Is evident
at once. A casual world over-emphasizes the face.
Memory likes to recall the whole body. -- We remember
each as a body In action." *
"Good poise and an efficient carriage — are
apparently associated with a superior program that
emphasizes the acquisition of skill." *
"Good posture has social value. People like to
associate with others who have good posture, who are
confident, well-poised and graceful in their action.
... Certain desirable character traits are associated
with good posture such as youth, bravery, uprightness,
confidence and optimism." *
"The person with poor posture Is ungainly, awkward
and unesthetlc. — 'Poor1 posture Is serious since It
contributes to lack of physical beauty as well as to
poor health." 5
"Good body mechanics is the underlying principle
of all physical education activities and Is the basis
for intelligent use of the body in activities of
dally living.” 6

1. Ruth Glassow, Fundamentals In Physical Education,

1932, p. 92
2. Mabel E. Todd, The Thinking Body* 1935, p. 1
3. Charles H. McCloy, Philosophical Bases for Physical
Education, 1940, p. 40
4. Harian g . Metcalf, "The School's Emphasis on Posture",
Symposium on Posture, Phi Delta PI, (March 1938)
5. Josephine L. Rathbone, " 'Good' Postures, the Expres­
sion of 'Good Development' ", Symposium on Posture
Phi Delta PI, (March 1938) p. Tt)
6. D. K. Brace, Health and Physical Education for Junior
and Senior High Schools, 1948, p. 168
 25 -
"Good posture la an Invaluable asset. It reflects-,
health, zest, vigor, poise, confidence and sucoess."
“A feeling of self-respect and courage Is reflected
In bodily adjustment just aa fear and self-conscious­
ness are. — - It should be clear, also, that good use
of the body should be the concern of every teacher In
the school•" 2
"It la proved fact, too little acted upon, that the
posture of adolescents markedly reflects their feelings
about themselves and their own adequacy and how they
feel others regard them." 5
"Posture is a problem of thinking bodily coordin­
ations. 4 — building better neuro-musoular habits
which mean simultaneously better posture. Where this
Is done It Is definitely a thinking process; henoe,
here is another example where man can half control
hi8 doom." 5
"Improvement in body mechanics Is directly dependent
upon and proportionate to the amount of time in which _
the Individual holds his body in the corrected position." 6
"Attractive and efficient posture has long been
associated with desirable personality traits. — A
well conditioned body makes possible good posture,
the emotional concomitants of which might well be
self-respect, pride, self-confidence, and courage.
Weak muscles, poor posture, and weak will are likely
to go hand in hand." "

1. H. E. Klelnschraldt, "The Beauty of Body Balance", The

Junior Red Cross, (November 1945), p. 35
2. J. E*. Williams and C. L. Brownell, The Admlnlatratlon
of Health and Physical Education, Third $d., 1046,
p7 TOT-------- ----------------
3. H. C. Kozman, R. Cassidy and C. 0. Jackson, Methods in
Physical Education, 1947, p. 301
4. Jay B. Nash, Physical Education: Interpretations and
Objectives, 1948, p. 108
5• Ibid., p. ±59
6. J. B. Carnett and W. Bates, "Some Phases of Body
Mechanics", Jr. Health and Physical Education, 4,
(April 1933)Tp.“2B
7. T. K. Cureton, "Bodily Posture as an Indicator of
Fitness", Research Quart. , AAHPER, 12:2 (May 1941),
p. 349 ------------
 - 26

"If all children would learn correct body mechanica

while young, corrective departments would not be need­
ed In the high school and college." 1
"Posture and appearance, ease of movement, grace
and poise are things worthwhile In themselves regard- p
less of their contribution to any other phase of life." *
"The end sought In physical education should be the
effective Integration (personal and social adjustments)
of the developing Individual In matters of health, re­
creation, character and citizenship." 3

Included in the list of twenty-four objectives essential to

the realization of physical education, as developed by Price
is the following:
n ... a correct posture and a graceful carriage from
the aesthetic aspect." *
Price states further:
"Regardless of the physiological standpoint con­
cerning the value of good posture, the position might
justly be taken that an erect carriage and a graceful
deportment should be encouraged for aesthetic reasons
If for no other. A person who Is careless In his
posture might be In a condition of excellent health
but his slovenly habits might have an unfavorable
effect upon his fellows." 5
"The mechanisms of manfs organism have to be
modified In the Interests of society so that we
find our muscular effector system expressing not
only an attitude or posture toward space, but an
attitude or posture in relation to people. -*- our
whole expression Is a pattern of behavior." 6

1. Mabel £• Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education; Its

Organization and Admlnis’Cration, 193V, p. 47
2. Ibid?,' p. '49----------- ;---------
3. Hartley Price, The EatablIs hment of the Principles Which
are Essential for the Realization of "the bbjectlves of
Physical Education, Doctoral Thesls, Sew iork university,
i S w ; p.' 9?-------
4. Ibid., p. 9
5. Ibid., p. 354
6. D. 0. Campbell,"Posture: AGesture Toward Life", The
PhysiotheraphyReview 15:2(Maroh-Aprll 1935), p. 45
 27

"Postural attitudes reflect or substitute, precede

or aocompany the verbal expression of unconscious
material." *
"Thinking and movement act and react upon each
other - *As we think; so we are1. As we get the
pupil to think, so will he become. posture
patterns or structural arrangement are Indisput­
ably psychological — ." 2
"It has been found that the exacting upright
position which we have been led to believe is the
correct posture may not be the correct posture for
every Individual. Individuals vary with respect
to their anatomical build to a degree which makes
it unlikely that all people should maintain the
same position to have good posture." *
"Outcomes: -— Do the pupils realize that good
posture Is a social asset?" 4
"The correction of an ordinary case of *round
shoulders1 Is by no means worth undertaking If it
is likely to create in the child a life long in­
feriority complex. Much better that the indivi­
dual vary somewhat from the accepted standards of
carriage than that he suffer a life long conscious­
ness of being ♦peculiar* or physically inferior." 5

Deaver states: '

"The careless, lounging chap with shuffling gait
and hang dog manner is a whipped man. We must, how­
ever, be careful to distinguish between cause and
effect. The bad posture is not so much the cause
of the inefficiency as it is a result of the same
forces that made the man a failure." 6

1. P. Deutsch, "Analysis of Postural Behavior", Psycho*

Analyt. Quart., 16:2 (April 1947), p. 211 — ---
2. Mabel E. Todd, "Basic Principles Underlying Posture",
Jr. K. PE. 2: (October 1931), p. 15
3. LesTleHv."Trwin, The Curriculum In Health and Physical
Education, 1944, p. 34(5
4. V. Blanchard and L. B. Collins, A Modern Physical Education
Program for Boys and Girls, 19lO, p. 243
5. E. fy. Nixon and r, W. Cozens, An Introduction to Physical
Education, 1941, p. 62
6. G. (jr. Beaver, "Posture and Its Relation to Mental Health",
The Research Quart., AAHPER, 4:1 (March 1933), p. 222
 28 -

"Posture expresses mental as well as physical states,

and he who stands erect with a well poised, controlled
and therefore graceful body will feel he is master of
himself and leader of men# i
Socrates remarked: — "Nobility and dignity, self-
abasement and servility, prudence and understanding,
insolence and vulgarity are reflected in the face and
body, whether standing still or in motion! '--- Posture
may be interpreted as a process of movement, a be­
havior#" 2
"Soldiers should look fit. So should growing boys
and girls as there is a very direct connection between
correct posture and physical well-being." 3
"The principles of good dynamic posture -— may be
used not only for the physical body in action but as
an approach to life." ^
"Our bodies reflect our minds, just as vehicles
portray their owners. The attitude of a person's
mind towards the body framework, by whose operation
each and every action of life is performed, has a
profound effect upon that framework." ®
"It is readily apparent that the posture assumed
by the child is an expression of his personality#
Lack of self-confidence, unhappiness, worry dis­
couragement or an uncongenial home-life may result
in a listless drooping posture." 6
"Good posture goes a long way toward giving that
fine appearance that helps land a position or win
social recognition."

1. Deaver, op. cit., p. 221

2. William T. James, "A Study of the Expression of Bodily
Posture", Jr. of Gen. Psy. 7: (May 1937), p. 405
3. Reva Spencer and-W. E. Wiley, "AVisual Approach to
Posture Improvement", Am. Sch. Bd. Jr., 105:4
(October 1942), p. 16
4. B. A. Howorth, "Dynamic Postures", J.A.M.A., 131:17
(August 1946), p. 1404 — — — —
5. R. A. Dart, "Attainment of Poise", So. African Med. Jr.
(Feb. 1947), p. 79
6. C. Ditton, "Posture and the School Health Program",
Pub. Health Nursing, 39: (April 1947), p. 210
 - 29

And the writers continue:

"Posture expresses personality even more than do
voice and olothes. In most of life's situations
people have an opportunity to look a stranger over
before hearing her speak so that it is the posture
and bearing, that give that all important first im­
pression."^
"The way a person carries himself makes an im­
portant impression. From his carriage or posture,
people draw certain conclusions about his health,
his vitality and his personality." *
"An efficient posture in standing and sitting is
to be esteemed as much for its social and psychologi­
cal as for its direct hygienic value. Various pos­
tures may be defined as attitudes of body and of
mind." 3
"Socially, the program of body mechanics, through
its close attention to the body beautiful and its
recognition of Individual needs, is influencing the
emotional standards of youth." 4
"Advantages of good posture: --- Good general
appearance. Is general appearance an asset phy­
sically, socially, or commercially; if not, why
do we desire to look healthy, dress well or make
a generally good impression?" ®
"Posture and carriage tell an expert employment
person more about you than you might believe pos­
sible." 6

1. Mabel Lee and M. Wagner, Fundamentals of Body Mechanics

and Conditioning, 1949, p. 180
2. Ellen flelly, Teaching Posture and Body Mechanics, 1949,
p. 5
3. Josephine L. Rathbone, Corrective Physical Education,
Fourth Ed., 1949, p. 75
4. Ivalclare Howland, The Teaching of Body Mechanics, 1936,
p. 11
5. George T. Stafford, Preventive and Corrective Physical
Education, 1928, pT“75T
6. Frances Maule, She Strives to Conquer, 1935, p. 210
 "Sculptors and painters have always recognized that
not only the expression of a face but the poise of the
body determine the Impression of mental alertness and
physical efficiency, and a depression of spirit and
weakness of body." 1
"A good posture reacts upon the Individual in an
increase of self-respect, gives one confidence in the
ability to present a good appearance before his neigh­
bors, and creates a power to look the world in the eye.
These values are undoubtedly greater than realized." 2

And again the authors state:

"A strong, erect posture expresses to the world at
large strength of will, alertness, poise and the joy
of living. — - an erect posture may be said to be the
result of an attitude toward life, expressive of
mental and physical freedom." ®
"Good body mechanics — increases general well­
being and that is an important factor in the pre­
vention of disease." *
"Good posture is an asset to any man or woman,
boy or girl. It Improves personal appearance and
suggests poise, self-confidence and health." 3
" — the state of mind may be improved indirectly
as a result of the attitude of others toward a person
who carries himself well. Socially and economically,
good posture is an asset in both direct and indirect
ways. 6

1. White Bouse Conference on Child Health and Protection,

Report of the Subcommittee on Orthopedics and Body
Mechanics, Body Mechanics: Education and Practice,
1932, p. 22
2. Lillian C. Drew and Hazel Klnzly, Individual Gymnastics,
Fifth Ed. Revised, 1949, p. 43
3. Loco cit.
4. J. E. Goldthwalt, et al., Body Mechanics: In Treat­
ment and Disease, 1937, p. 2615
5. H. &. Diehl, Elements of Healthful Living, 1942, p. 101
6. Florence L. Meredith, Hygiene, A Textbook for College
Students, 1941, p. 574
 31

"Physical poise is related to mental poise; motor

attitude to mental attitude. --- Muscular sensations
apparently enter not only into our sensations but
also Into our Ideas, perceptions, sentiments, emotions,
- In a word, into the whole psychic life." 1
"Human emotions, feelings, moods, personality itself
are evidenced by posture. The way in which one stands,
walks and sits makes impressions upon others that are
pleasing or the opposite." 2
"Man's erectness is his greatest asset."

II. Physiological Hypotheses:

"Postural fitness is a type of fitness, worthy of
educational effort. Development of good posture
requires consideration of the mental, physiological
and morphologioal aspects." »
" there is evidence to show that good body
mechanics and good functional health in children go
hand in hand and that poor body mechanics and poor
functional health are commonly associated." 5

The authors further contend:

" ... there is evidence to suggest strongly that
good body mechanics may bear a causal relation to
good functional health and poor body mechanics may _
bear a causal relation to poor functional health.
" — - that the correction of bad body mechanics
Increased the chest capacity so that the heart and
lungs had increased space in which to perform their
important functions. The X-rays revealed that the
domes of the diaphragm were elevated and had a

1. C. C. Cowell, "Bodily Posture as a Mental Attitude11,

Jr. H. and PE, 1:5 (May 1930), p. 14
2. E.~T. VanBuskfrk, Principles of Healthful Living, 1948,
p. 109 -----------------------
3. C. A. Splitcoff, "Origin and Development of Erect
Posture", Surg. Gynec., and Obst. , 84:5 (May 1947)
p. 943
4. Cureton, op. clt., p. 362
5. White House Conference on Child Health and Protection,
Subcommittee on Orthopedics and Body Mechanics, op.
clt., p. 41
6. Loco cit.
 32 -

greater range of motion, thus facilitating return

of venous blood to the heart from all parts of the
body.11 1

Carnett continues to say:

"The most striking change occurred in the position
of the stomach. After giving the patient barium or
bismuth by mouth and standing him in front of the
X-ray fluroscope, it was found that in changing from
a slump of bad mechanics to the erect posture, the
stomach was elevated commonly three to four inches
in the adult." 2

Statements from a summary of the Chelsea, Mass. study (1923-

1924) in regard to the effect of good body mechanics teach­
ing upon the improvement of health and efficiency of 1,708
grammar school children follow:
" 1. Improvement in body mechanics was associated
with Improvement of health and efficiency.
2. Improvement in posture was found to occur
more frequently with training when there was an
improvement in nutrition as well.
3. Improvement in body mechanics was also
associated with Improvement in school work.
4. Posture training -- Improved ability of
direct retraction of the lower abdomen --- result­
ing in the elevation of the stomach, intestines,
etc." 5

"When the body is not in a proper mechanical

position it must function with some of its vital
parts out of alignment. -- Backache may be due
specifically to poor posture. — - Backache in the
mid-dorsal region between the shoulder blades or
at the 'small of the back' in the lumbo-saoral
region, and many 'headaches' at the base of the
skull may be relieved by balancing the entire
spine in its position of normal curvature." 4

1. John B. Garnett, "Extracts from Discussion", White

Bouse Conference on Child Health and Protection,
Body Mechanic8 r~ Education "and Practice, 1932,"*p. 50
2. Loco ci¥Z
3. Armin Klein and Leah C. Thomas, Posture and Physical
Fitness, 1931, p. 41-43 -----
4. Armin JTTein, Posture Clinics 1926, p. 14-15
 33

n ... except for the fact that lordosis may be

associated with orthostatic albuminuria, there Is
no scientific proof that improvement In posture
leads to definite improvements in the physiologic
functions of the body," i

The writers continue to say:

"Whether visceroptosis depends upon posture or
not has to be proved; moreover, mere sagging may
not affect the function of the digestive organs,
in an inguinal hernia, an intestinal loop may
'sag' a great deal without any effect whatsoever
on elimination," z

Again they say:

"It seems to the authors that the physiological
benefits obtained from correction of common pos­
tural deviations are most Imaginary, Yet the authors
believe that efforts should be extended, in d e v e l o p i n g
stood posture, The reasons for_ttis, however, are not
p ^ slo IS F feri, 5u€ e5~€Ee~ErcT"""5------ ----------- --------------
"Good and bad postures may Indicate the difference
between health and illness, vigor or lassitude, self-
confidence or a sense of inferiority," 4
"Stooped shoulders and exaggerated spinal curvatures
throw extra strain upon the muscles of the back and
legs, A protruding abdomen permits sagging of the
abdominal organs which in turn interferes with
function. All this predisposes to poor posture;
hence, a vicious cycle is set up,"
"Fatigue is reduced when standing in proper
posture as the anterior and posterior muscles
balance each other. In the normal position,
the free flow of the circulation to the brain
is promoted, costal breathing is unrestricted
and heart action is not handicapped, and the
abdominal viscera are properly supported," ®
"Posture affects health and health affects posture.
Poor bodily mechanics often explain why a child is not
enjoying the health and development it should," 7

1, E, C. Schneider and P. V. Karpovich, Physiology of

Muscular Activity, 1948, p, 286
2, Schneider and fiarpovlch, op. cit., p, 288
3, Ibid., p. 289
4, VanBuskirk, op. cit., p, 109
5, Diehl, op. clt., p. 101
6, M. P. Boyd, Preventive Medicine, 1940, p. 469
7, M, J. Rpsenau, Preventive Medicine, 1928, p, 1287
 - 34 -

"Good posture favors the health of the working

parts, and conversely poor posture is harmful to
them, especially to the joints. --- Continued wrong
relationships of bones to each other amounts to
chronic sprain."

Meredith states further:

"At its best, the upright position is none too
favorable for organ activity. -— because the
organs within the trunk are in a vertical re­
lationship to each other and to gravity, those
above may, in unfavorable circumstances, press
downward upon those below." *

Concerning the relationship of posture and dysmenorrhea,

Meredith says:
"The type of poor posture that causes the most
trouble is -- 'slouching', which includes, in
particular, a relaxed abdominal wall. In such
cases the pelvic organs may be pressed upon un­
duly by the sagging of the organs above them,
and the circulation of blood in them may be
sluggish." 3
Cureton discusses the Importance of flexibility for good
posture:
"The assumption underlying this is that certain
of the muscle groups become unduly shortened by
being exercised in short static positions and
with opposing muscle groups poorly conditioned,
the result is an imbalance of the muscular ten­
sions for best posture." ^
And he declares further:
"A strong but supple body is sought rather than
an unevenly balanced body strong in some places
and weak in others." ®
"In the well-poised body all organs are held in
the best position for the proper performance of
their functions. The chest is expanded, giving
room for the heart and lungs, and thus the great

1. Meredith, op. clt., p. 571

2. Ibid., p. 572
3. Ibid., p. 669
4. T. K. Cureton, "Flexibility as an Aspect of Physical
Fitness", The Research Quart., AAHPER, 12:2 (May
1941), p. 355
5. Ibid., p. 386
 - 35

processes of respiration and circulation can be

carried on normally; there is no cramping of the
stomach and liver-.-.." *
The writers continue to say:
"llany menstrual difficulties are correctly traced
to 'ptosis1 resulting from displacement of the pelvic
organs.1*
"Body poise has always held a leading place in
physloal fitness. — - Nice balance from head to
feet not only lessens strain of the structures in­
volved but, by maintaining vital organs in their
relationships, each to each, enhances efficient
functioning of these organs." ®
"The close correlation of poor body mechanics
and poor organic function must be explained to
parents. The positive mental and physical health
values which accompany body balance must be stressed
until parents realize that health and physical effi*
ciency are closely allied to good body mechanics." 4
"The effect of the drooped chest on the action of
the diaphragm can be shown in fluroscoplo tracings.
— In the correct standing position with the chest
held up, the diaphragm.is also held up and Its full­
est motion possible.
Goldthwalt continues to say:
"The abdominal and pelvic organs can also be
greatly affected by a low position and faulty
action of the diaphragm. ” ©
And again he states:
" ... uncompensated strains in the lower abdominal
and pelvic regions — are a possible cause of hernia
In men and the pelvic congestions or malpositions of
the pelvic organs in women." 7

1. Drew and Klnsly, op. cit., p. 42

2* Loco clt.
3. Walter Truslow, Body Poise, 1943, Foreword vii
4. Stafford, op. cit., p.'
5. Goldthwalt, et al. , op. clt., p. 35
6* Ibid., p. 39
7. Looo clt.
 - 36

"The vessels of the abdominal region, when not well

exported by tense musoles, and when the body is not
in an erect position, constitute a stagnant pool in
which a great portion of the blood is drawn from the
circulation, thus diminishing the vital efficiency
of other parts while hampering the functions of the
abdominal organs through the accumulation of venous
blood." 1
"There is evidence to support both views; that poor
health causes 'poor posture', and that poor health may
be the result of 'poor posture'. We would all agree,
I am sure, that 'poor posture' is serious, whether It
be a cause or an effect of poor health." ®
" 'Poor* posture may not be esthetically desirable,
but, if associated with postural sway, it is practi­
cally indefatigable." 3
"Maryailments and disabilities, including severe
and crippling pain, may have abnormal posture as
their causative factor, perhaps many more than is
currently realized, and therefore they may be sus­
ceptible of benefit when this functional abnormality
is corrected." *
"In the list of common results from bad posture Is
arthritis." 5
" ... the prompt relief in symptoms which often
follow8 a minimal Improvement in bodily alignment
make us wonder whether mild faulty posture does
not play a very important role in the genesis of
many disabilities. 6

1. J. H. Kellogg, "Observations on the Relations of Posture

to Health and a New Method of Studying Posture and
Development", Bull. Battle Greek Sanitarium and Eosp.
Clinic, 22:1 TSept. TiJ27J-,-pTT2------------------
2. Ratnoone, op. clt., p. 10
3* F. A. Hellebrandt, e t a l . , "Posture and Its Cost",
Abstract of Current Studies In Applied Physiology,
Lab. of Physical Education, University of Wisconsin,
1940, p. 3
4. Report of the Baruch Committee on Physical Medicine,
chalrmanHay L. Wilbur, (AprIT-1944), p. 7W
5. B. M. Canter, "The Value of Proper Body Mechanics", Interm.
Jr. Med, and Surg. 45:3 (March 1932), p. 134
6. JoEn GTTCuhns, "The Late Effects of Minor Degrees of Poor
Posture", The Physical Therapy Review 29:4 (April
1949), p. 165
 37 -

"When faulty posture Is present, disalignment is

present and disabilities are slowly developing*" 3.
"In faulty body mechanics, the circulation may be
hindered in several ways. With the sag of the body,
the increased inclination of the ribs and relaxation
of the suspensatory ligament of the diaphragm, the
diaphragm assumes a lowered position; the position
of the heart becomes changed and the great vessels
are pulled down." *
"The importance of good body mechanics is illus­
trated by numerous cases in which improved posture
has resulted not only in better health but also in
increased efficiency and in enhanced esthetics*" 3
"When the alignment is slumpy, the feet are sub­
jected to overstrain and the body weight falls on
the inner borders which produces a valgus position
and stress on the inner plantar ligaments. Pro­
nation results*" 4
"When bad antero-posterior deviations occur (for­
ward head, round shoulders, hollow chest, etc*)
there is a disturbance of body balance which results
In strain or pressure on muscles, blood vessels,
nerves, and lngconeequent impairment of organic
functioning."
"There is clinical evidence that poor posture
affects health* The body adjusts to compensate
for partial deficiencies and many persons are g
satisfied with second or third degree health."

1. Loco clt*
2. , "The Body Mechanics in the
Treatment of Chronic Arthritis", The Physical
Therapy Review 16:3 (May-June 1036), p. 84
3. P. H. Ewerhardt7 "Posture", Medical Physios Year­
book, 1944, D. 1114
4. C. li. Lowman, "Feet and Body Mechanics", Jr.E.PE.R.
11:3 (March 1940), p. 137
5. Evelyn Splndler, "Prevalence of and Correlations
Between Physical Defects and Their Coincidence
with Functional Disorders", The Research Quart*,
AAHPER, 2:2 (March 1931), pr~?0
6. K. 4. Eansson, "Body Mechanics and Posture", Jr.H.PE.R.
16:10 (December 1945), p* 549
 - 38

"Concomitant with external bodily distortion

there is alteration of internal configuration
with displacement of organs due to crowding and
to a shift in the skeletal parts to which they
are attached." *■
"When faults in body mechanics become sufficiently
great the stresses produce pain, but long before the
threshold of pain is reached the nervous system is
irritated to a highly unfavorable degree. On the
contrary, a balanced erect carriage, -- eliminates
the irritating reflexes of strain." 2
"Frequency of deviations of spinal curvatures are
due to; defective accommodation of the individual
to erect posture — 3
"Acute disorders of posture may be low back pains,
which appear as a aacro-iliac syndrome, sacro-iliac
dislocation, lumbo-sacral arthritis, etc." 4
"It should be clear that in a biped position the
viscera have a tendency to descend, to press upon
one another, to impair function by malposition --
and to Impede by pressure the circulation of the
pelvic basin." °
And the writer continues to say;
"In addition to the development of the musculature,
an economical balance of body weights in different
segments is essential for efficient use of the
biped position." ®

1. W. J. Siemsen and G. K. Dolan, "The Problem of Body

Mechanics in the Elementary and Secondary Schools",
Jr.H.PE.R. 6:3 (March 1935), p. 11
2. ClTTforcPSweet, "The Teaching of Body Mechanics in
Pediatric Practice", J.A.M.A. 110:6 (February
1938), p. 420
3. Fritz Kahn, Man in Structure and Function, Vol. II,
1946, p. 89
4. H. H. Jordon, "The Significance of Muscular Balance
in Acute Disorders of Posture and Locomotion”,
N.Y.State Med. Jr. 41:22 (November 1941), p. 2206
5. J.“F. Williams, TEe Principles of Physical Education,
Fifth Ed., 194S7"pT”59
6. Loco clt.
 39 -

"It is not only that postural unbalance results

In the waste of energy In general, but It re­
sults In the deflection of energy and the use of .
It by some parts to the detriment of other parts*"
"It will help the pupil to secure a good funda­
mental standing position If the attempt Is made to
stand as tall as possible -— • In this position the
heart, lungs and abdominal organs have the maximum
amount of room." 2
" ----bodily difficulties are due to man's imper­
fect adaptation to an erect posture and to a biped,
mode of progression. Han Is a made-over animal."
"It 18 easy to assume that a person with such a
posture ( 'A' posture) Is giving every cell the
Ideal environment in which to work. --- If the
correct position Is not assumed ptosis of the
abdominal viscera must eventually result, with
sagging of the stomach, kidneys, and other
organs, resulting In 'D* posture." *
"A poor posture increases the strain on muscles,
but It Is not strengthening. Much of the backaches
In the world is just that strain on muscles because
the body segments are not well balanced." 5
A

"Good body control contributes to dynamic health."

"The proper alignment of body parts made possible
by a balanced strength enables the organs to function
better." 7

1. Todd, op. clt., p. 282

2. J. H. McCurdy, The Physiology of Exercise, 1928, p. 43
3. E. A. J^ooton, "Anthropologlat Hooks at Medicine",
Science 83:2151 (March 20, 1936), p. 274
4. J. A. Jones, "Effect of Posture Work on the Health of
Children", Am.Jr.Dis.of Children 46:1 (July 1933),
p. 149
5. Glassow, op. clt., p. 91
6. Dorothy LaSalle, Guidance of Children Through Physical
Education, 1946, p. StT
7. I b W r r p T fQ
 - 40 -

"Nearly all of the chronic conditions have what

may he termed an orthopedic facet to their solution
In the need of correcting the poor posture of the
body." 1
" — - amongst diseases there is no condition more
entitled to the term pandemic than malposture." ®
"Good posture Is necessary to proper functioning
of all organs." ®
"Increased vigor and alertness In children result
from Improving body mechanics. --- There is no doubt
that good posture and body mechanics favor good
health while poor posture and body mechanics are
unfavorable to health." 4
"Faulty posture may affect digestion, circulation,
and produce disturbances associated with the nervous
system." 5
"Faulty body mechanics does not affect one organ,,
but affects practically every system of the body.w
"The medical profession In general accepts that
habitual poor posture may lead to many functional
and structural disorders of the body." ”
"A correct posture appears to be an appreciable
advantage to circulatory and respiratory function
In the majority of persons, but, in some, a pos­
tural defect may be a compensatory mechanism which
Is Inadvisable to disturb." 8

1. Dart, op. clt., p. 76

2. Ibid., p. 78
3. Helen B. Pryor, As The Child Grows, 1943, p. 127
4. Ibid., p. 128
5. M. E. Breckenrldge and E. L. Vincent, Child Develop­
ment , 1947, p. 258
6. David J. Ansfleld, "Faulty Posture In Children",
The Wls. Med. Jr. 43:7 (July 1944), p. 705
7. VlncenFTJlGTovanna, "A Study of the Relation of
Athletic Skills to Strengths to Those of Posture",
The Research Quart., AAHPER, 2:2 (May 1931), p. 67
8. L."TJ7 iiafUace and J. T. Nicholson, "PhysiologicEffects
of the Correction of Faulty Posture", J.A.M.A., 107:3
(Sept. 1936), p. 1012
 - 41

"It la Inadequately appreciated that organ systems

carry on their work within very wide margins of
safety and that many compensatory mechanisms serve
automatically to protect vital processes." 1
And the writers state further:
"Standing is cheap In terms of metabolic cost. ---
It Is yet to be demonstrated that improvement in
body mechanics is associated with a significant
decrease in energy exchange." 2
"There Is no evidence of a relation of mentality
or morality to carriage unless it be from some
underlying cause affecting both physical and mental
condition." 3
Rogers continues to say:
"The Public Health Service, in Its very thorough
study of 2,200 men and boys, found a complete absence
of relationships between posture and health although .
they noted the tendency to kyphosis In advanced years."
The writer refers to the short and long view of posture
correction In this way:
n from the short view of the subjeot, a so-
called Improvement In carriage can be brought about
in a large percentage of children. — - By the long
view, our carriage la shaped by heredity --- it
cannot be essentially changed for the so-called
better except the position of head and shoulders." 5
"The teaching of body mechanics could contribute
toward an appreciation of normal posture to health
of the public as would make postural training an
integral part of all education." 6

1. F. A. Hellebrandt, et al., "Physiological Study of

the Vertical Stance of Man", Physiol. Rev. 23:3
(July 1943), p. 223
2. Ibid., p. 248
3. J. F. Rogers, "The Long and Short of the Carriage
Business", Jr.H.PE.R. 3:10 (December 1932), p. 13
4. Loco clt • “
5. Ibid., p. 59
6. Baruch Committee on Physical Medicine, op. clt., p. 80
 - 42 -

OBJECTIVES, EXTRACTED FROM THE HYPOTHESES, CONSIDERED

ESSENTIAL FOR TEACHING BODY ALIGNMENT IN STANDING
The following objectives for teaching body align­
ment In standing have been extracted, by the investigator,
from the foregoing representative statements, which serve
as the hypotheses, and represent, In general, the pro and
con opinions of writers In the current literature on
posture surveyed in this study.
It is to be noted at the out-set that in most
Instances the problem of posture has been approached from
the standpoint of correcting the already existing faulty
body posture or alignment. The hypotheses sought were
those that may indicate the teaching of body alignment
as a preventive and educational procedure rather than
corrective or therapeutic. However, it is to be con­
sidered that outcomes of the preventive, educational
approach in teaching would, of necessity, prevent those
results that a lack of posture teaching or faulty body
mechanics may be apt to produce. Hence, the hypotheses
in whloh correction of faulty posture and body alignment
are constantly stated may serve as indicators of faotors
that must be considered preventable.
It must be noted, that all writers surveyed are
in agreement in regard to the social and esthetic bene­
fits of good posture for all Individuals, adults as well
as children, but many are in disagreement in regard to
the physiological benefits of erect standing.
 The objectives for teaching body alignment in
standing as extracted by the investigator from the fore­
going representative statements of writers on the aubjeot
of posture are presented in positive form, as follows:

Social Objectives:

To teach good body alignment in standing to ALL

individuals, not alone to those who present an existing,
observable faulty alignment, but to ALL, in order that
they may profit by the following essential outcomes:
1. An enhanced sense of well-being*
2. A feeling of self-confidence and a courage
to face problems through a sense of physi­
cal presence and poise*
3* A sense of self-respect, self-pride, and
ease of body movement in the every-day
problems of standing, walking, sitting
and other fundamental motor acts.
4* A physical control of the body that adds
to personal appearance, personality de­
velopment and self-possession.
5* A sense of approval by the group and a
belongingness due, in part, to a feeling
of body pride*
To teach body alignment in standing as an essential
skill in movement for the purpose of producing a joy of
accomplishment in the fundamental motor activities of
every-day living comparable to the joy of achievement
involved in sports or play activities.
To teach body alignment in standing for the purpose
of presenting an effective objective and positive body ad­
justment for those whose manner of standing indicates feelings
 44 -

of Insecurity, self-consciousness and inferiority. The

positive approach to body posture offers a new sense of
self-assurance which psychologically may tend gradually
to sublimate the existing attitudes of depression.
To teach body alignment in standing for the
purpose of social acceptance among one's fellows, to
add presence in job getting, and to offer effective
social grace in meeting and greeting others.

Physiological Objectives
The physiological objectives, which were extracted
by the Investigator from the foregoing statements, as hypo­
theses, are, by necessity, empirical and a priori objectives,
since, in general, the representative statements are consi­
dered empirically reasoned.
No writer was found who disclaimed the health values
of posture in their entirety. Some rejected the health
claims on the basis of the lack of scientific proof, yet,
all writers appeared to claim that some correlation between
posture and health did doubtlessly exist. It remains a
problem of the future to prove or disprove scientifically
this correlation, and to ascertain in what aspects of
health and in which pattern of posture the correlation
significantly exists. The writers, on the whole, were
in accord (though expressed empirically) with the opinion
that faulty posture is conducive to some inefficiency in
body functioning and organic fitness.
 - 45

The physiological objectives for teaching body

alignment in standing as extracted from the foregoing
representative statements are presented in positive
form, as follows:
To prevent the Improper functioning of the
organic system of the body by:
1* Permitting the spinal column to assume its
normal curvatures thus insuring its normal functioning.
2. Permitting the diaphragm to assume its
normal range of motion thus encouraging fuller respira­
tory functioning.
3. Allowing adequate room for the internal
organs supported by a taut abdominal wall. Such a
factor may permit the normal functioning of each organ.
4. Freely and easily lifting the chest wall,
without strain, to permit adequate space for the heart
and lungs to function effectively.
5. Placing the body in alignment to release
tension in the lower back thereby preventing the common
occurrence of backache and/or dysmenorrhea that may come
from strain in that region when the posture is faulty.
6. Reducing the sense of fatigue by releasing
neuro-muscular tensions throughout the body when the body
segments sire in balance. Mechanical balance Insures an
inter-acting of muscle forces, without fatiguing effects,
by alternately tensing and releasing in body sway, in suf­
ficient amounts, to keep the body in equilibrium while
standing.
 46

7* Reducing the mechanical strains on joints

and ligaments thus preventing injury to articulating sur­
faces along the spinal column and supporting joints.
8* Relieving Improper weight distribution over
the feet thus permitting proper foot functioning In every­
day activities*
 CHAPTER I I I

PRINCIPLES BASIC TO TEACHING BODY ALIGNMENT IN STANDING

The principles basic to the development of body

alignment in standing are those concerned with: (1) the
learning processes in which the acquisition of a motor
skill takes place, (2) the application of the laws of
mechanics to a human motor act and, (3) the physiologi­
cal factors concerned with the maintenance of an erect
body posture in standing*
The principles so involved have been classified
into three categories, namely; psychological, mechanical
and physiological. They embrace the accepted fundamental
laws and elementary propositions involved in each of the
three categories and serve as the foundation upon which
the achievement of body alignment in standing is based.
The literature in each of the fields of psychology,
physics and physiology was surveyed by the investigator for
documentary evidence from which the principles involved in
the problem of body posture were extracted.
Substantiation or rejection of the extracted prin­
ciples basic to body alignment In standing was sought
through consultations with authorities in each of the
fields of psychology, physics and physiology.
 48

The authorities who served as consultants were

selected by the members of the Sponsoring Committee guiding
this study. Their selection of consultants In each field
was based upon the recommendation made by the heads of the
respective departments in Hew York University.
Following is a list of the consultants and the area
In which each served:
1. Consultants for the Psychological Principles
hr. John Rockwell, Professor of Educational
Psychology, School of Education, New York University; Dr.
Charles E. Skinner, Professor of Educational Psychology,
School of Education, New York University.
2. Consultants for the Mechanical Principles
Dr. Alexander Sandow, Associate Professor
of Biology, Washington Square College, New York University;
Mr. Edgar Grlaewood, Instructor in Physics, Washington
Square College, New York University.
3. Consultants for the Physiological Principles
Dr. Isadore Schlamowlt as, Research Director
in Physiological Studies, Department of Health and Physical
Education, School of Education, New York University; Dr.
Laurence Morehouse, Professor of Physiology, University of
California at Los Angeles; Dr. Peter Karpovich, Professor
of Physiology, Springfield College; Dr. W. W. Tuttle,
Professor of Physiology, University of Iowa.

The procedure involved in securing substantiation

by the selected authorities of the principles basic to body
J
 - 49 -

alignment in standing as extracted from the literature

Included repeated personal Interviews with those located
at New York University and by correspondence with those
outside of New York City.
Each person interview consisted of the presentation
of the principles involved in each specific area of interest.
The principles bad been extracted from the literature sur­
veyed by the investigator and substantiation or rejection
of each principle was sought. The investigator utilized
the many helpful suggestions and comments as authoritative
judgments, made by the consultants, until the final set of
each group of extracted principles was substantiated by
the authorities.
Authorities in the field of physiology outside of
New York City were asked to write their reactions to each
of the physiological principles presented and to indicate
their rejection or approval of them. A copy of the letter
and a set of the physiological principles sent to the
authorities in physiology are presented in the Appendix

P» 140 ■
The following specific consultations occurred:
1. One authority In the field of psychology
was Interviewed three times and one authority was inter­
viewed once before substantiation of the set of psychologi­
cal principles was secured.
2. Both authorities in the field of physics were
interviewed twice before substantiation of the set of mech­
anical principles was gained.
 50

3. One authority in physiology at Now York Uni­

versity was Interviewed three times and each of the three
authorities outBide of New York City responded with one
correspondence before the set of physiological principles
was considered substantiated, though only in part, by each

of the consultants*
The substantiation of the physiological principles
involved in the problem of aligning the body in the stand­
ing position was difficult to secure. This was due largely
to the fact that the great amount of literature on the
physiology of posture was considered by the authorities
to be highly controversial and unscientific in respect
to adequate experimental evidence. The several authori­
ties were in accord in considering that the evidence found
in the literature was largely that of empirical and a priori
reasoning. They considered that experimental scientific
proof is, as yet, too inadequate to show the true relation­
ship that may exist between erect standing and health* For
that reason, the set of physiological principles extracted
from the literature Is based largely upon empirical and a
priori evidence.
In regard to the problem of securing substantiation
of the entire set of physiological principles by all of the
authorities, it must be reported here that no such substanti­
ation was secured. No one authority agreed with all of the
principles and no one disagreed with all of them except for
 51

one principle presented. The conanents were highly diverse

and consisted of many partial substantiations and rejections.
In the case of compiling the final set of physiological prin­
ciples, the investigator was led to subscribe to those prin­
ciples which were accepted by at least one member of the four
authorities, yet rejected either in part or in full by the
remaining members. The investigator, however, did not sub­
scribe to the one principle that was rejected by all of the
authorities, i.e., the detrimental changes occurring in the
viscera caused by poor posture, although such statement had
been documented rather widely in the literature surveyed.
The written responses of the consultants were in
essay form rather than specifically stated rejections or
substantiations which make a report of their comments and
suggestions impractical and cumbersome.

EVIDENCE FROM WHICH THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES WERE EXTRACTED

The acquisition of a motor skill, such as learning how
to align the body in standing, rests upon many factors. Al­
though no clear and valid distinction can be made between
the physical and mental factors involved, certain items,
commonly regarded as psychological, need to be considered
as highly important in acquiring such a skill.
The documentary evidence found in the literature of
psychology and from which the basic psychological principles
involved in teaching body alignment in standing were extracted,
follow.
 - 52

Perceptual-Motor Learning
Perception implies an appreciation of relationships.
In motor acts, tody sensations initiate the process but per­
ceiving is handled in the central nervous system, the brain,
to be specific.
Perception is a dynamic process which results in
activity. Since appreciation of relationships and meaning
are primary attributes of the perceptual process, a high
degree of intensity of the sensation results in keen per­
ceptual activity, a high state of attention, and vigorous
reaction or adjustment.
All learning, motor or otherwise, rests upon per­
ception. Since the essential accompaniment of perception
is the appreciation and understanding of relationships or
meaning, it is apparent that the more sharply defined the
stimuli and the clearer the appreciation of the task to
be performed, the more precise and effective is the mus­
cular response.
Re-conditioning of a motor response, the substi­
tution of a new response for an old one, involves the
introduction of new stimuli under a high state of moti­
vation. So, also, are clearness and intensity of the
stimuli and the appreciation of the end sought.
A subject who is clearly aware of the motor act
to be learned, the reason for learning it, and the direction
of muscular change demanded, is thus "set" for more effective
learning. Under such conditions, the perception of relationships,
 53 -

or meaning, occurs and leads to adjustment in the direction

desired. Stabilizing and fixing this desired muscular
response is accomplished through repetition. Such is
the mechanism by which we arrive at habit which is a
learned response characterized by considerable perma-
1
nency and little variation.

Conditioned Responses
Conditioned responses, essentially, are of two
kinds: (a) native inherited response patterns that have
been changed through learning, i.e., a conditioned re­
flex, and (b) the substitution of a new habit in place
of an old learned activity or habit. Both kinds rest
upon the potentiality of the individual to vary his
conduct through learning. Voluntary muscular control
is learned to some degree. Frequent practice results
in those patterns of neuro-muscular activity which have

1. Charles E. Skinner, et al., Elementary Educational

Psychology, 1945, p. 156-2TS
J. A. Mcdeogh, "The Acquisition of Skill", Psych.
Bull. 26: (August 1929), p. 470-498
Margaret Curti, Child Psychology, 1940, p. 243-278
National Society for the Study of Education, Forty-
first Yearbook, Part III, The Psychology of Learn­
ing, 1942, p. 61-377; 35-51
HeTnz Werner, “Motion and Motion Perception: A Study
on Vicarious Functioning", J. Psych. 19:20 (April
1945), p. 317-327
 - 54

been emphasized in the learning process. ^

Attention and Motivation

The act of experiencing sensory stimuli coiranands
attention. Attention is an essential attribute of the
perceiving-reacting process. We are aware of stimuli;
we are aware, also, of the muscular responses we give
to them. Motivation and attention are inseparably linked,
the end of which is keen perception of and attention to the
stimuli and the neuro-muscular adjustment to be made. Prac­
tice under a high state of motivation establishes the motor
4.
act. 2

Kinesthetic Cues
The numerous individual kinesthetic cues or stimuli,
i.e., muscle tension cues, space perception cues, cues from
the joints, etc. are those involved in the development of
the kinesthetic sense. Some of these are present in con­
sciousness and the individual may be trained to perceive

1. Ivan R. Pavlov, "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes", Trans­

lated from Russian by W. Horsley Hantt and G. Volbroth,
Vol. I, Internatlonal Publishers, 1928
National Society for the Study of Education, op. cit. ,
p. 17-93
Curti, op. cit., p. 200-223
Sir Charles Sherrington, The Integrated Action of the
Nervous System
Royal Haynes, "Postural Reflexes”, Am.J.of P is . Children
36:6 (December 1928), p. 1093-1107 w
Shailer U. Lav/ton, "Certain Neurologioal Aspects of Posture ,
Symposium on Posture, Phi Delta Pi, (March 1938) p. 28-35
2. National Socrety for the Study of Education, op. cit.,
p. 289-326
Skinner, et al., op. cit., Chapter 9, p. 174
P. M. Symonds and D. Chase, "Practice versus Motivation",
J.Ed.Psych. 36: (December 1929), p. 19-35
Gordon Allport, "The Psychology of Participation",
Psych.Rev., 52:3 (May 1945), p. 117-132
Ernest HfTgard, Theories of Learning, 1948
 55

them. The kinesthetic cues, under such circumstances,

assist greatly In effective learning or conditioning
the desired motor act. As applied to the acquisition
of the skill in maintaining body alignment in standing,
kinesthetic cues constitute the main set of sensations
necessary to accomplish that skill, ^

Effect of Active Participation

Good learning of a motor skill cannot be effect­
ively accomplished without effective practice. This means
that the learner must repeat again and again the motor
aspect of the act. He may learn something of the act
vicariously but his most effective motor learning is
through direct participation. If the participant is
highly motivated, and, therefore, highly attentive, and
the motor aspect of the act is always completed, good
learning takes place. For that reason, learning a motor
skill by doing it, or "learning by doing", is the most
suitable way to acquire the skill. Stimuli tend to re­
sult in some kind of reaction. In the learning of a motor
skill the reaction desired is the successful execution of

1. A. V. Hill, Living Machinery, 1927

G. W. Crlle,~The Physical llature of Mental Processes
in Interpretations of Physical Education, Vol. IV,
T S yT Y N ash , e a i-to r T l9 3 3 y " p \' 9 ^ 1 2 2 -------
G. T. Ladd and R. S. Woodworth, Elements of Physiologi­
cal Psychology, 1911
Charles M. Child, Physiological Foundations of Behavior,
1924
G. E. Coghill, Anatomy and the Problem of Behavior, 1929
 - 56

the act. This Is best accomplished by doing It and by

comparing and perceiving the effectiveness of the act as
judged from the standpoint of the goal to be met. 1

Comparison and Differentiation

Effective learning involves analysis, an active
comparison of the act against the goal set, and a Judg­
ment of the degree of efficiency of the various components
of the act. Acts of motor skill may Involve several senses
and many muscle groups. Effective learning involves the
nice coordination of these various muscle groups, together
with the various sensory cues. It helps often to turn
attention to particular parts of the total act and to give
more strenuous practice to these particular aspects. The
generalizations of the relationships of these different
aspects of the act results in further progress toward the
goal.
This dynamic process Involved in learning, analysis
and synthesis, has, In turn, the effect of maintaining or
Increasing the motivation and attention of the learner. In
good learning the very act of perceiving that progress is
being made enhances the motivation and speeds up the early
o
attainment of the goal.

1, National Society for the Study of Education, op. cit.,

p. 333-374
McGeogh, op. cit., p. 470-498
Skinner, et al., op. clt., p. 156-218
John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education, 1913
William H. Burton, TheHjUldance oT Learning Activities, 1944
2, National Society foFThe Study oT"Education, op. cit.,
p. 17-243
 - 57

PSYCHOLOGEGAL PRINCIPLES
The following psychological principles are those
extracted from the foregoing evidence found In the litera­
ture of psychology and which have been substantiated in
full by the two selected authorities In psychology:
1. That the acquisition of a motor skill such as
learning to stand with the body aligned, as developed In
this study, Involves perception of the relationships of
the body parts, included in body alignment, and the
appreciation and understanding of the meaning of these
relationships*
2* That the establishment of body alignment In
standing occurs through the stabilization and conditioning
of the desired response which Is accomplished by substi­
tuting a new habit in alignment for the old learned habit
of standing. Frequent repetition of the new response re­
sults in a new neuro-muscular pattern in standing.
3. That attention and motivation are prime factors
in the establishment of body alignment in standing for through
attention to the sensory stimuli, perception of the act takes
place, and, through a high state of motivation, an appreciation of
the meaning of the act establishes effective learning.
4. That a kinesthetic sense is established through
the several kinesthetic cues or stimuli that constitute the
body sensations in relation to time, space, and direction.
This kinesthetic sense assists greatly in the acquisition
of the motor skill of standing in alignment.
 5. That body alignment In standing is accomplished
through effective practice in which the learner, through a
high state of motivation and attention, learns by success­
fully doing the act again and again.
6. That effective learning for establishment of
body alignment in standing Involves the dynamic process
of analyzetion and comparison of the various aspects of
the act in relation to the goal desired. This process
includes differentatlon between the particular parts of
the act for synthesis and coordination in the accomplish­
ment of an effective total performance. With appreciation
and understanding of the desired goal, the learner may,
then, successfully arrive at the accomplishment of align­
ment in standing.

EVIDENCE FROM WHICH THE MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES WERE EXTRACTED

The problem involved In achieving a balanced erect­
ness in the human upright posture has mechanical significance.
It rests upon the theories of mechanics as determined by the
early physicists and which are still endorsed by the physical
scientists today. Although the neuro-muscular system is con­
sidered a prime factor in regulating human mechanical action,
the process involved in assuming body alignment in the up­
right standing posture is largely a matter of mechanics*
It becomes necessary to comply with natural mechanical laws
when balance and equilibrium are desired.
 59

The problem of balance Is thrust upon the human body

In much the Bame manner as It Is imposed upon the Inanimate
object. It concerns the utilization of forces in counter­
acting the stresses and strains that may be acting upon them.
Thus it is, that the human body resembles the machine. Like
the machine* the human body must work consistently to meet
the forces that operate in opposition. The mechanical
efficiency of each is determined in terms of work output
as forces acting on and through each of them are met.
The mechanical principles basic to the problem cf
aligning the body in the upright standing position are the
fundamental laws of mechanics* as described in the standard
textbooks of physics* and Interpreted in the light of human
motor events. The accepted laws of mechanics* as they apply
to the problem of human standing, have been selected as
follows:
Newton's First Law of Motion: Inertia
Newton's Second Law of Motion: Acceleration
Newton's Third Law of Motion: Action and
Reaction; Forces in Equilibrium
The Law of Gravitation
The Law of the Lever
The Law of Stress and Strain

Newton's First Law of Motion: Inertia

"A body remains at rest* or in a state of uniform
motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by a force.

1. Frederick Saunders, A Survey of Physic a for College

Students* p. 58
 - 60

The law is primarily a definition of force. It

describes the tendency that & body possesses as it per­
sists in remaining in a state of rest or in motion until
another force disturbs that state. The amount of inertia
a body offers is dependent upon the mass of the body and
varies directly with it. It is important that inertia,
as a force possessed by the body, is utilized in terms
of its use in the performance of the task at hand.
In order to maintain alignment of the body in the
upright position, it is necessary to produce force for the
purpose of counteracting the constant demand of gravitational
pull that has been set up. When the body parts are aligned,
the moment of inertia of the body mass 1b very small around
the vertical axis of the body. ^ Inertia, thereby, serves as
a produced force in controlling, neutralizing and balancing
the disturbing gravital pull, and, therefore^ there exists a
tendency to maintain the developed state of alignment and
dynamic balance. It is considered, also, that less energy
is necessary to maintain the standing position when the
moments of inertia are small on the vertical axis. ®

Newton^ Second Law of Motion: Acceleration

"Force creates momentum in its own direction and
is measured by the rate of change of the momentum created

1. M. Feldenkrais, Body and Mature Behavior, p. 66

2. Ibid., p. 67
 This is the law of acceleration which is concerned
with the quantitative values of force that produce change
in motion. The amount, direction, and duration of the
force applied determines the change in momentum, which
is the product of body mass and its velocity. The force
must be proportional to the mass of the moving body times
its acceleration, or the rate at which its velocity changes.
Thus force may be measured by the rate of change of momentum
or acceleration.
The force of gravity produces a change in velocity
in a vertical direction and at a uniform accelerated motion.
Thus, since the human standing body presents such a small
vertical distance to fall, the force of gravity is practi­
cally constant. When muscular effort is exerted in opposi­
tion to the uniformly accelerated motion of gravity, stand­
ing alignment may be maintained with considerable mechanical
ease.
The second law of motion demonstrates that standing
posture in not a static but a dynamic motor event. The body
must constantly work to apply sufficient force in order to
oppose the direction of the downward falling body. There
exists a normal body sway through which this Incessant
Interplay takes place and which, also, furnishes the
stabilization necessary for uprightness.

1. Saunders, op. cit., p. 58

 62

Hewton*a Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction; Forces

— -----------------in Equt'lfbr iuin---------------- -------
"To every force there is an equal and opposite re­
action." ^
This law implies that when a resistant counterforce
reacts to an applying force on a body in the same magnitude
but in an opposite direction to that force, a state of
balance results between these two forces. At this time,
the sum of the effects of the forces must be zero.
When this law is applied to the problem of balance
in the upright position, it is interpreted to mean that an
interplay between the muscular and mechanical efforts of
the body must work together, and, in an opposing direction
to the forces acting on the body in order to counteract
these forces. The most modifying force that opposes the
upright position is gravity. The anti-gravity muscles
of the body must exert sufficient force to counteract
the force of gravity until the skeletal framework, acting
as a lever, may assist in the alignment of the body parts,
one over the other, through which balance is attained#
"When two equal forces act in opposite directions
on a given mass they neutralize and balance each other so
far as any effect on the motion of the mass is concerned."
When parts of a structure, such as the parts of the
human body, are composed of diverse shapes and sizes and,

1. Saunders, op. cit., p. 58

2. Arthur Kimball, A College Textbook of Physics, p. 22
 63

also, lie at odd angles to each other, the problem of

directing forces for equilibrium within that structure
becomes a difficult one. To obtain equilibrium, forces
must be resolved into a set of forces that balance each
other and give a net effect of zero quantity. This means
that the stun of forces in one direction must equal the
sum of the forces in the opposite direction.
In the human body, this is difficult to attain
since the tendency of the forces, acting on each body
part and the body as a whole, is to cause turning or
rotation. This is due to the fact that the articulating
points of the body structure permit pivotal action by
virtue of their form, such as the ball and socket, glid­
ing and hinge arrangements of the supporting joints.
"The tendency of a force to produce turning is
called the moment of force or torque." 1 The shorter
the perpendicular distance from the axis of movement of
the force, the smaller will be the moment of the force.
Thus, if the moments of force are small, the greater will
be the equilibrium, for, then, the sum of the forces will
more closely approximate zero.
Alignment and balance between body parts, then,
become concerned in reducing the rotatory effects of
forces by shortening the distance from which forces are
applied to the long axis of the whole body. For example,
the more erectly the head may relate itself to the aligned
body trunk and the lower extremities, the more closely the

1. Saunders, op. clt., p. 32

 - 64 -

forces acting on the body may be expected to resolve into

equilibrium*

The Law of Gravitation

Newton’s law of gravity states that "probably all
masses great and small, attract each other with a force
proportional to their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
Gravity is a constant force acting on a body which
pulls it downward at a definite acceleration of approxi­
mately thirty-two feet per second per second.
To counteract this gravitational pull for balanced
alignment in standing, two primary actions must take place.
First, the antigravity muscles must act to extend the joints
that maintain the body framework in the upright position*
Secondly, the body parts must so mechanically align them­
selves that their respective centers of gravity may form a
vertical balance line, or line of gravity, throughout the
body. In this way, the body acta as a whole to counteract
the effect of constant uniform acceleration of gravital force.
The center of gravity of each body part, head, trunk,
and lower extremities, represents the mass point at which all
other mass points of that segment centers. This mass center
is expressed as the intersecting point at which the three
primary body planes, sagittal, frontal and transverse meet.

1. Kimball, op. cit., p. 112

 - 65

The line of gravity of the body, as a whole, is represented

by the intersecting line formed by the sagittal and frontal
planes.

The Law of the Lever

The mechanical advantage of the lever, a rigid bar
moving or turning on a fixed axis, is defined as "the ratio
of the force exerted by the machine to the force applied to
the machine. The load is opposite, against which the machine
works, and is equal and opposite to the force exerted on the
machine."
The lever, classified as a simple machine, makes it
possible for greater force to be produced due to its use
than without it. It offers an advantage by operating on
the principle "that a large amount of force m^y be exerted
through a short distance in order to obtain a small force
p
operating through a long distance." As the lever is in­
creased, less force is required to do the given work.
In studying the mechanics involved in maintaining
an upright standing alignment, it is important to consider
the application of the principle of the lever to human
motion. Since bones serve as the levers in the human body
and muscles produce the forces operating on them, mechanical
work done in standing, as in any other motor act, may be
analyzed and interpreted effectively. As the bony lever

1. H. M. Randall, et al., General College Physics, p. 64

2. Ibid., p. 64
 66 -

is moved, greater or lesser force is required of the muscles

operating it. This depends upon the distance through which
the lever moves to carry the load in relation to the distance
through which the force acts on the lever. For example, the
muscles along the spinal column exert less force when the
body is in alignment than when in a disaligned position.
In body alignment, the trunk and head as a whole may operate
as a single bony lever which offers a first class lever ad­
vantage. In this case, the axis for the lever acts at the
hip joints, the force and the resistance operate at either
side of the axis. Thus, a balancing effect takes place and
the aligned trunk and head as a single lever serve to pro­
duce this effect. Furthermore, as the bony framework more
closely assumes alignment, the force arms of the back ex­
tensor muscles become longer and, thereby, less force is
necessary to equilibrate the opposing pulls.

ThA Law of Stress and Strain

Hooke’s law states that "within the elastic limit
the stress is proportional to the strain."
This law shows that when a force acts on an object
beyond the elastic limit of that object distortion occurs.
The force causing the distortion is called stress and the
distortion produced by the stress is the strain.

1. Howard Stearns, Elementary Medlcal Physics, p. 77

 - 67 -

There are five types of stress: (1) Tension, which

involves forces that pull in opposite directions on the o b ­
ject, (2) Compression and pressure, which occur as forces
are directed toward the object, (3) Bending, which results
as forces are directed against one side of the object, (4)
Twisting, which takes place as forces cause the object to
turn in one direction, and (5) Shear, that results from
forces that act on the object in opposing directions.
In standing, as in any motor act, the body is sub­
jected to the forces of stress. It is important, however,
that stress and strain should be kept at a minimum. The
mechanical alignment of body parts serves to reduce the
conditions of stress when the forces acting on the body
are equalized and balanced. Tension is reduced when mus­
cle pulls balance each other throughout the body. Thus
no one group is overworked by an over-load of resistance
and lessened leverage assistance from the bony skeleton.
Compression, pressure, and shear stresses occur at sup­
porting joints when bony parts are out of line. Stresses
of bending and twisting occur along the articulated spinal
column where persistent forces may exaggerate the normal
curvatures.

Interpretations of the Mechanical Adjustments of Body Parts

for Balance an5 TETignment in Standing
During man’s endeavor to assume the upright posture,
the various skeletal parts have had to undergo many mechanical
 68 -

adjustments for balance and equilibrium in standing. In

the light of these required mechanical adjustments, the .
following interpretations have been made:
1. The Pelvi s
The adjustments the pelvis has made have
evolved through a series of changes in its position, during
the evolution of plantigrade to orthograde stance, which
have been described in a wealth of literature by medical
scientists and anthropologists.
In the upright standing position, the pel­
vis is implanted in the body in an oblique direction and
is said to have an appropriate angle of inclination with
the horizontal or transverse plane of the pelvis, which
1
approximates an average range of fifty to sixty degrees.
Such a pelvic tilt serves more properly in
its support of the superimposed weight of the spinal column
above. This is assured when the angle between the sacrum
and lumbar spine, at the lumbo-sacral junction, is com­
paratively small. Thus, the junction is more clearly in
a perpendicular position which offers greater support to
the curving column above. This permits a greater distri­
bution of the pressure stresses that pass through the
junction to be resolved and neutralized.
The pelvic inclination with the vertical
plane of the body is highly important in controlling the

1. Henry Gray, Anatomy of the Human Body, Twenty-second

Edition, 1930, pT 257
 - 69 -

natural curves of the spinal column. When the pelvis tilts

too far forward or too far backward, the anterior-posterior
spinal curvatures are disturbed and the alignment between
the body parts is affected correspondingly. The tilt of
the pelvis, therefore, is said to control the posture of
the body trunk and regulates the concentration of mass
points of the body upon Its longitudinal axis, (see
Figure II, p. 5)
2. The Spinal Column

The human spinal column has evolved to

incorporate the mechanism necessary for standing posture.
It must perform a leverage action along a multi-articulated
column whose curves run concavely and convexly in relation
to the vertical axis of the body.
The problem of spinal balance is one of
complexity. It entails the many deviations that may
occur not only in the anterior-posterior curves but in
the lateral balance of the spinal curvatures as well.
The spinal column is like a vertical spring. When a
disturbance occurs in the curvature of one section there
is a relative disturbance in the other sections of the
spinal column, also.
In the upright posture, where body align­
ment is directed toward the balancing of body parts, the
spinal column more nearly approximates its normal curvature
arcs. The pelvis must tilt properly to support this normal
 - 70 -

spinal column arrangement. When the angle of the pelvic

inclination is small and the pelvis is directed too far
forward and upward, the curvature of the lumbar spine
decreases. The converse case is, also, true. Corres­
pondingly, there occur changes in the curvatures of the
thoracic and cervical regions. Thus, the alignment of
the body is poor and the body parts are out of balance,
(see Figure II, p. 5)
The unbalanced body mechanism permits additional
stesses and strains to take place in the muscular tissue
of the body and additional energy is being expended to
hold the body from complete collapse in the standing
position.
The spinal column corresponds to the theory of
columns. This theory states that when an articulating
column is weighted at Its ends, the column bends and
twists with compelling pulls along its long axis. Thus
it is, that when the weights of the head and shoulders
are directed forward and/or when the pelvis is tilted
too far forward or backward, the spinal column not only
bends increasingly in its curvatures, but rotates
laterally along its long axis.
The body in alignment while standing permits the
spinal column to function mechanically well acoordlng to
its purpose as a supporting, suspending column for the
upright body. Freedom in body movement and the control
of body ereotness depend upon the efficient mechanical
relationship between each spinal vertebra and the spinal
column as a whole.
 - 71 -

3* T3ae Lower Extremities

The mechanical adaptation which the lower
extremities must make for balanced alignment in standing
is, by necessity, one of support. The relationship between
the articulations at the hip, knee and ankle joints must
meet the problem of pressure stresses that develop in
assuming the upright position as they support the weighted
structures above.
Bone growth is said to be influenced not
alone by developmental, biochemical and endrocrine factors
but by mechanical ones as well. The latter has been con­
sidered very important in determing the form and archi­
tecture of the growing bone. Steindler * speaks of the
law of functional adaptation of bone. He states that
bone adapts itself to the stresses placed upon it and
that the pressure stresses have been analyzed through
the study of the trajectory system of bone formation,
particularly in relation to the long bone of the leg,
the femur. The stresses of extrinsic forces to which
bones are commonly subjected are those of tension, com­
pression, shear, bending and torsion.
If mechanical balance is maintained between
the supporting joints in standing, not alone in the grow­
ing child but in adulthood as well, it seems reasonable to
assume that pressure stresses, at least of external origin,

1. Arthur Steindler, The Mechanics of Normal and Pathological

Locomotion in Man, Chapter V, p. 46-63
 72 -

may b© greatly resolved.

The problem of weight bearing in standing as the
body weight centers over the feet has mechanical signifi­
cance. If the vertical balance line of the body falls per­
pendicularly between the navicular bones of the feet at a
point, which investigators 1 state is from three to five
centimeters in front of the ankle joint, mechanical balance
may be assured. Authorities are agreed that control of
body balance over the feet is of equal importance with
2 3
muscle function in sustaining the body weight properly. '
Alignment of the body in standing offers balance in
weight distribution over the feet thus insuring proper
mechanics for support and foot functioning.

MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
The following mechanical principles involved in
aligning the human body in standing are those extracted
from the foregoing evidence found in the literature of
physics and interpreted by the investigator in terms of
the human motor events of standing. The principles com­
piled by the investigator were substantiated in full by
the two selected authorities in the field of physics.
1. That body alignment in standing is a mechanical
event of balance and equilibrium in which the inertia pos­
sessed by the body acts as a stabilizing force through which

1, S. ELrt, E. C. Fries, and F. A. Hellebrandt, "Center of

Gravity of the Human Body", Archives of Physical
Therapy 25:5 (May 1944), p. 2b0-287
2, Dudley J. Morton, "Foot Mechanics: Functional Disorders
and Deformities", Medical Physic s, 1944, p. 457-466
3, Arthur Steindler, "Gait: Physiologic and Pathologic
Mechanics", Medical Physics, 1944, p. 468 t 479
 73 -

body parts may maintain the existing alignment.

2. That standing in alignment is a dynamic motor
event, not a static one, since constant muscular effort must
be exerted to oppose the uniformly accelerated downward pull
of gravity that acts incessantly upon the verticality of the
body.
3. That balance and equilibrium may occur in human
standing due to the mechanical law of action and reaction,
in which muscular forces produced by the antigravity mus­
cles neutralize and resolve the compelling force of gravity.
4. That the standing body may be in alignment when
the centers of gravity of each of the body parts, head,
trunk, and lower extremities, form a perpendicular line
that falls within the supporting base.
5. That the skeletal muscles act on the bones,
which serve as levers, and, thereby, there is produced a
mechanical leverage which served to overcome the resis­
tances that disturb body alignment. The mechanical ad­
vantage produced aids in the reduction of muscular force
necessary to meet the demands of the uprigjht position.
6. That mechanical stresses and strains occur
in the human body, particularly in the supporting joints,
when body parts are disaligned and distortion results.
7. That good mechanical adjustments take place
between the various body parts in standing when the parts
tend to align themselves in a balanced relationship.
 - 74 -

EVIDENCE FROM WHICH THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES WERE EXTRACTED

The physiological adjustments that occur as man assumes
the upright posture are those concerned with the problem of
maintaining physiological balance and coordination between
body systems as the struggle for verticality persists*
An extensive survey of the existing literature In­
volved in this problem indicates a disparity between scien­
tific proof, on one hand, and empirical and a priori reason­
ing, on the other, in the endeavor to show significantly that
an erect posture may be or may not be beneficial to the health
of modern man.
There appears to exist an abundance of empirical and
a priori reasoning in medical, as well as non-medical litera­
ture, which, in substance, may be reflected in the words of
Forrester-Brown when he said: "good posture is fundamental
to health and to efficiency in every walk of life." 1 The
literature is abundant with materials, studies, and obser­
vations based upon experience that reflect deductive reason­
ing through which particular premises concerning effects of
poor and gpod adjustment to the upright posture are obtained.
2
Standard textbooks of physiology reviewed do not

1. M. Forrester-Brown, "Posture and Its Relation to Health",

J. Royal Sanitary Institute 55: (February 1935), p. 429
2. C.HH. Best and IT. "B. Taylor, The Physiological Bases of
Medical Practice, 1945
J. P. Fulton, A Textbook of Physiology, 1949
W. H. Howell, 5 TextbooTE oT Physiology, 1942
J. J. R. Macleod, Physlology~Tn Modern Medicine, 1935
F. R. Winton and L. E, Bayllss, Human Physiology, 1948
Samson Wright, Applied Physiology, 1345 '
W. D. Zoethout ana Tuttle, Textbook of Physiology,
 - 75 -

show, to any extent, scientific evidence that the physiologi­

cal changes, which occur as man assumes the upright standing
posture, are detrimental to health and the physical well­
being of man.
Largely, the concern of posture in these textbooks
pertains to the inherent and integrative nervous mechanisms
involved and through which posture is reflexly controlled*
Physiologists have investigated these mechanisms by means
of experimental studies on animals. The sevefal types of
nervous control, postural, righting and attitudinal re­
flexes have been demonstrated when different areas of the
nervous system were cut off and their separate functions
were thus studied. To what extent man may reflect the
"reflex standing" and the postural or attitudinal reflexes
exhibited by the animal experiments has not been clearly
defined. Macleod 1 states that the standing of the de­
cerebrate animal is a mere caricature of the normal stand­
ing of man since, in the latter, muscle tone constantly
shifts to meet the changes induced by gravity.
Additional concern in the physiology of posture,
as shown by the textbooks, has been to show the functional
changes that take place as the human standing posture is
assumed from the recumbent and sitting positions. These
changes indicate the cardio-vascular adjustments made,
the respiratory and visceral functions involved and the
resultant energy expended, as standing takes place.

1. Macleod, op. clt., p. 1015

 - 76 -

However, since few studies have reported the physio­

logical changes that may be due to prolonged standing, it is
difficult to know to what extent standing, as a major uni­
versal daily requirement, may affect the findings*
Some writers have shown Interest in the effects of
prolonged standing on certain physiological functions of the
body* Currens reported that "over a period of years the in­
crement in the diastolic blood pressure in the vertical stance
is an important factor in the gradual increase of peripheral
resistance." 1 Hines and Kvale stated that "standing from
five to twenty minutes may result in such severe strain on
the postural adaptive mechanism even in normal subjects that
maintenance of cerebral blood flow is decompensated and syn-
2 3
cope results." Turner studied the heart rate and
arterial blood pressure of healthy young women in quiet
standing for fifteen minutes. She showed that during pro­
longed standing there occurred a differentiation between
circulatory adjustments in different persons although all
were considered reasonably healthy. Turner indicated,
further, that "the young women who stood most easily and
successfully from the standpoint of objective appearance
and lack of fatigue were those in whom there was a slow
rate and a relatively large pulse pressure, indicating a

1* J. H. Currens, "A Comparison of the Blood Pressure in

the Lying and Standing Positions: A Study of 500 Men
and 500 Women", Am. Heart J. 35:4 (April 1948), p* 652
2. E. Hines and W. KvaTe, "Circulation: Effect of Heat and
Cold, Exercise and Posture", Medical Physics, 1944,
p . 205
3* A. H. Turner, "The Adjustment of Heart Rate and Arterial
Pressure in Healthy Young Women During Prolonged Stand'
ing", Am. J. Physiol* 81:1 (June 1927), p* 197-214
heart adequately filled between beats#1* Berry, Horton
2
and MacLean refer to tbe problem of cardio-vascular
adjustment in prolonged standing as one of complexity.
They state that motionless standing will cause fainting
due to cerebral anemia and the decreased venous return
to the right heart. Best and Taylor report that "the
blood volume of the human subject after .thirty minutes
or so in the erect posture is some fifteen per cent less
.. 3
than in recumbency."
Repeatedly, throughout the literature surveyed,
writers refer to the remarkable compensatory body mechan­
isms that occur to promote adjustments and adaptations as
4
the upright position is assumed. Bellebrandt and others
refer to standing as "remarkably cheap" due to the inces­
sant Involuntary body sway associated with muscular action
that nullifies the hydrostatic effect of gravity on the
circulation of blood in the body.
To examine, critioally, the literature on posture
in respect to the effect standing may have upon physiolo­
gical adaptation to the upright position, it is Important
to take into account the kind of standing referred to in
the studies. The writers refer to the assumption of the
standing position with a variety of adjectives, such as

1. Turner, op. cit., p. 212

2. M. R. Berry, B. T. Horton and A. R. MacLean, "Importanc
of Studying Postural Responses of Blood Pressure and
Heart Rate with a Note on Method of Taking Blood Pres
sure in Erect Posture", M. Clin. North America 24:4
(July 1940), p. 1 0 9 5 - 1 1 2 5 ------------
3. Best and Taylor, op. cit., p. 20
4. P. A. Hellebrandt, E. Brogden, and R. Tepper, "Posture
and Its Cost", Am. J. Physiol. 129:3 (April-June
1940), p. 773-751 ”
 - 78

erect, rigid, relaxed, comfortable, and quiet or passive,

and, in many instances, the word standing is used alone*
Each modifying term is not clearly defined which makes
interpretation of the variable confusing*
Those who refer to rigid stance seem to be in
agreement as to its meaning. They describe rigidity as
a static, stiff and strained position that Interferes
with body sway and restricts the neuro-muscular adapta­
tion to gravitational stresses* Quiet or passive stand­
ing is referred to as a motionless position in which body
compensatory mechanisms are so reduced in function that
syncope or fainting may result* Relaxed standing seems
to imply that the tension involved in rigid standing is
released and that adherence to the general concept of
erectness is minimized.
Hellebrandt and co-workers, in the physiological
studies of posture conducted at the University of Wisconsin,
refer to the "natural, comfortable stance." They further
consider this type of standing as maintained with "extra­
ordinary economy which argues against the assertions that
poor posture causes fatigue." ^ It would appear from their
conclusions that they consider the kind of standing used in
their studies as poor posture since they found the natural,

1. P. A. Hellebrandt, "Physiology and the Physical Educator",

The Research Quart*, AAHPER 11:3 (October 1940), p. 29
 - 79 -

comfortable stance, thus described, as requiring low energy

cost and indefatigable In comparison to rigidity or the re­
laxed stance with considerable body sway*
The terminology used most extensively In the text­
books and current periodical literature la that of erect
standing. Little attempt Is made to describe erect stand­
ing In scientific or descriptive terms. Most frequently,
the traditional subjective terminology is Implied to mean
"good" posture in which the common postural factors of head
up, chest up, abdomen flat, and so forth, are included.
In no study reviewed has this Investigator found
reference to good body alignment in standing such as that
which 18 reported in this study. It is apparent that no
scientific studies have been made to indicate the relation­
ship between physiological adaptations and adjustments to a
well-defined balanced, mechanically aligned body in standing*
Greater refinement in the control of the posture variable
should be made. Body alignment in standing must be clearly
defined in adherence to the mechanical laws of balance and
equilibrium. Until physiological studies take Into consi­
deration an adequately, reliable and valid criterion of
posture in standing, factual knowledge, concerning the
advantages or disadvantages of health in relation to the
verticality of man, will remain weak.
In search of physiological principles basic to the
assumption of body alignment in standing, as developed In
 80

this study, it has been necessary to gather from the abundant

literature in the fields of medical science, health, and
physical education, any existing scientific evidence that
may Indicate relationships between health and posture.
Little scientific evidence, to date, has been found
to show proof that erect posture is fundamental to good
health. On the other hand, no experimental studies were
found to indicate that the converse is the case.
Such a situation leaves this investigator to record
the materials found in the existing literature and extract
from it those physiological principles that may be considered
essential to the problem of body alignment in standing.
The documentary evidence from which the physiological
principles have been extracted has been classified under the
following headings:
Cardio-vascular Adjustment in Standing
Energy Cost in Standing
Fatigue in Standing
Vital Capacity and Respiration in Standing
Neurological Considerations in Standing
Visceral Considerations in Standing
The evidence involved in these divisions follows:
Cardio-vascular Adjustment in Standing
Compensatory Circulatory Mechanisms
As the standing posture is assumed, certain circu­
latory adjustments must be made in order to pump the blood
up to, and above, the level of the heart in opposition to
the downward force of gravity.
 - 81

The hydrostatic effect of gravity widens the vas­

cular bed and opposes the return of venous blood to the
rigjit heart. Such restriction affects the output of the
heart for, under normal conditions, as Wright says, “the
volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle depends
upon the amount received from the right side of the heart
via the pulmonary circulation." 1 Thus, It Is important
that certain circulatory adjustment mechanisms must be
maintained to provide an increase in venous return which,
in turn, permits adequate filling of the heart and the
normal cardiac output.
2
Pulton calls the mechanism responsible for the
venous pressure in the veins lying below the hydrostatic
effect of gravity the "venous pump", which is the pumping
action maintained by muscular contraction on the veins*
Thus the compression that occurs in the veins sends the
blood heartward, aided by the valves, which drive the
blood in that central direction. The squeezing action
on the veins produced by the leg muscles is highly effi­
cient in forcing the blood back to the heart. It is with
the aid of the contraction of these skeletal muscles that
standing may take place over periods of time without a
great deal of voluntary movement.

1. Wright, op. cit., p. 482

2. Pulton, op. cit., p. 719
 - 82 -

The physiologists further report a similar "pump-

like" action that prevents the pooling of blood in the
splanchic vascular bed of the abdomen by the rhythmic con­
tractions of the viscera; stomach, intestines and spleen,
Wald, Guernsey and Scott 1 speak of the splanchnic vaso­
motor mechanism as highly compensatory to the hydrostatic
effect of gravity in standing. They ascribe the mechanism
as greater in the upright position of man than in the hori­
zontal position of animals, such as cats, dogs, or rabbits.
In these animals, the upright position causes sudden stag­
nation of the blood in the splanchnic area and death may
O
result in a short period of time. Kellogg, however,
states that this does not occur in wild rabbits in which
the abdominal muscles are exceptionally well-developed and
the splanchnic vasomotor tone is strong. The implication
is that strong abdominal muscles, taut and firm, are ad­
vantageous to the compensatory mechanisms in the standing
posture.
3
Howell, in his textbook of physiology, discusses
the Accessory Factors Aiding Circulation and refers to the
importance of respiration in the venous blood flow to the
heart. He states that the "main effect of the respiratory
movements is to force or suck blood from the large veins

1. H. Wald, M. D. Guernsey and F. H. Scott, "Some Effects

of Alteration of Posture on Arterial Blood Pressure1 ,
The Am. Heart J. 14:3 (September 1937), p. 319-330
2. J. 3. 'Kellogg, "Observation on the Relations of Posture
to Health and a Hew Method of Studying Posture and
Development", Bull. Battle Creek San. and Hosp. Clinic
22:1 TSept. 19277, p.'T2------------ 41 -----
3. Howell, op, cit., p. 513
 83 -

of the abdomen and neok Into the thoracic veins and, there-
„ i
fore, into the right aide of the heart." The systems of
veins of the abdominal and thoracic areas he calls the
"venous cistern", which has its disadvantages in the stand­
ing posture. Below the cistern, the veins of the lower ex­
tremity are separated from it by femoral valves at the en-
trace of the pelvis, while, above the cistern, the veins
of the neck and head are cut off by valves in subclavian
and Jugular veins. Howell states that "the lessened intra-
thoracic pressure during Inspiration must tend to aspirate
blood from the abdominal portion of the inferior vena cava
into the thoracic, portion and this movement of blood in the
thorax is probably aided by the rise in pressure in the ab­
domen caused by the descent of the diaphragm, since an in­
crease of pressure in the abdomen would be prevented from
driving the blood toward the legs by the presence of the
o
femoral valves."
Thus, it appears that an interchange between the
intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal pressures, aided by the
diaphragm, respiratory, and abdominal muscles, serves to
empty the "venous cistern" and, thereby, promote venous
circulation and the normal output of the heart.

Changes in Blood Pressures, Pulse Pressure and Pulse Rate

in Standing
The circulatory adjustments that appear to occur

1. Loco cit.
2. Ibid., p. 514
 84 -

as standing Is assumed are those changes found as the sub­

ject rises from the recumbent and sitting position to the
standing posture. Writers, In the literature reviewed,
seem to be In considerable agreement in regard to the
changes In blood pressures, pulse pressure and pulse
rate as standing occurs. They do not agree, however,
on the amounts of the changes that take place.
In general, as reported by the authorities ^
reviewed, the changes that occur, in healthy individuals,
from recumbency to a standing posture are: (1) the dia­
stolic blood pressure rises slightly w^ille the systolic
blood pressure remains practically the same, (2) the pulse
pressure is reduced accordingly, (3) the pulse rate in­
creases with (4) a resulting lowered cardiac output.

1. Best and Taylor, op. cit., p. 218

Howell, op. cit., p. 512
Pulton, op. cit., p. 678
Wright, op. cit., p. 485 and p. 516
Wald, Guernsey, and Scott, op. cit., p. 330
John McMichael, "Postural Changes in Cardiac Output
and Respiration in Man", Quart. J. Exper. Physiol.
27:1 (July 1937), p. 71 “
E. C. Schneider and D. Truesdell, "Statistical Study
of Pulse Rate and Arterial Blood Pressures in Re­
cumbency, Standing and after a Standard Exercise",
Am. J. Physiol. 61:3 (August 1922), p. 429-474
E.~C. Schneider and C. B. Crampton, "The Effect of
Posture on the Minute Volume of the Heart", Am. J.
Physiol. 110:1 (November 1934), p. 14-18
J. C. Scott, "The Cardiac Output in the Standing
Position", Am. J. Physiol. 115:2 (April 1936;,
p. 268-274 “
H. S. Mayerson, H. Sweeney and L. A. Toth, "The In­
fluence of Posture on Circulation Time", Am. J.
Physiol. 125:1 (Jan.-Apr. 1939), p. 481
P. A. Hellebrandt and E, Pranseen, "Physiological
Study of the Vertical Stance of Man", Physiol. Rev.
23:3 (July 1943), p. 233-235
 - 85 -
1
MaoWilliam reports that, as found by many in­
vestigators, certain variations in cardiac change, due to
posture, occur in different subjects. He states that there
appears to be no exact explanation for these variations in
apparently normal individuals. The writer seems to think
that the usual explanations given for the cardio-vascular
changes that occur in standing are inadequate. These he
reviews as (1) the hydrostatic influences affecting the
amount of blood in the splanchnic area and the blood pres­
sure in the head and (2) the varying amounts of muscular
contractions needed to maintain the different postures.
He believes that the changes are regulated by the reflexes
coming from various sources. Some of these are, "the Bain-
bridge reflex from the vena cava and the ri^at heart, and,
the carotid sinus reflex influencing increased internal
pressure in the venous tube (cava) making for cardiac
acceleration, while in the arterial tube, it Induces
slowing through the carotid sinus nerves as well through
the aortic depressors. The carotid sinus reflex has been
shown to have widespread effects on the vascular system,
on both blood-pressure and heart-rate through nervous
channels." ^ The author relates that variation in the
activity of the reflexes is definitely associated with
effects of postural changes on the heart rate.

1. J. A. MacWilliam, "Postural Effects on the Heart Rate

and Blood Pressure", Cj,uart. J. Exper. Physiol. 23:
(August 1933) , p. 1-33
2. Ibid., p. 2
 - 86 -

In discussing the cardio-vascular changes and

variations that occur in the standing posture, Berry,
Horton and McLean say: " ... rough averages for these
changes, in normal persons, are an increase in the pulse
rate of about twelve beats a minute, an increase in the
diastolic blood pressure of about twelve millimeters in
a column of mercury, and a change in the systolic blood
pressure between an increase or a decrease of ten milli­
meters of mercury." ^ They say further: "Only about one-
third of normal people will exhibit an increase in the sys­
tolic and diastolic blood pressures and pulse rate on
standing." The authors continue to say that: "Immedi­
ately after standing, within the first ten seconds, there
is a sharp decrease in the systolic blood pressure amounting
to from five to four millimeters of mercury. This is the re­
sult of the gravitational flow of the blood downward. In
about seventy-five per cent of normal people, the diastolic
blood pressure increases in the first ten seconds. Thirty
seconds after standing, the systolic value is usually higher
than the reclining value." They show further that "the
adaptive mechanisms have overcompensated, whereas, at sixty
seconds, the systolic pressure, diastolic pressure, and
pulse rate have become stablized." These statements were
g
found to be endorsed by Wald, Guernsey, and Scott, and

1. Berry, Horton and MacLean, op. cit., 1098

2. Loco cit.
3. Loco cit.
4. Loco cit.
5. Wald, Ouernaey and Scott, op. cit., p. 330
also, by Schneider and Truesdell.

The Effects of Peripheral Resistance in Standing

The change occurring in the diastolic blood pressure
as standing is assumed reflects the peripheral resistance of
the vascular system. This is measured by the tone of the
aorta, large arteries, the arterioles, capillaries and veins
as the blood flow is resisted from the left ventricle back
2
again to the right atrium, as reported by Green and
3
Wright.
4
The effect of peripheral resistance, relates Howell
is to raise the blood pressure on the arterial side of the
capillary system and lower it on the venous side. Thus an
increase in peripheral resistance is followed by a rise in
arterial blood pressure and a fall in the venous pressure.
k
According to Wright, the heart fails, then, to discharge
the volume of blood that it receives and so undergoes di­
latation.
Since it is said that diastolic blood pressure is
a measure of peripheral resistance, it is important to con­
sider how the general tone or degree of contraction of the
arterioles, especially in the splanchnic area and to some
extent in .the veins and capillaries, is controlled. Wright

1. Schneider and Truesdell, op. cit., p. 429-474

2. H. D. Green, "Circulation: Physical Principles , Medical
Physics, Yearbook, 1944, p. 210
3. Wright, op. cit. , p. 516
4. Howell, op. cit., p. 508
5. Wright, op. cit., p. 486
6. Ibid., p. 525
 88

tells us that the vasomotor center situated in the medulla

controls, by constant excitor impulses, the tonic contraction
responsible for peripheral resistance. The vasomotor center
is richly integrated with the respiratory center which stimu­
lates it during inspiration. The lack of oxygen stimulates
the vasomotor center. It, also, requires an adequate amount
of carbon dioxide tension in the blood. An increase of car­
bon dioxide tension in the blood relaxes the arterioles
while a lowered amount constrict the arterioles. It would
appear, then, that any increase in pulmonary ventilation
which is reported to occur in standing (McMicLael ^ ) may
be associated with reduced peripheral resistance (vasodi­
lation) and, thus, a subsequent effect upon the diastolic
2
blood pressure. McMichael states further that this
hyperventilation is correlated with the fall in cardiac
3
output in the erect position. Berry, Horton and MacLean
indicate that when a decreased diastolic pressure and
lessened peripheral resistance occur in standing, poor
postural adaptation exists.

Energy Cost in Standing

The demand for energy in standing is considerably
more than in sitting or lying since more muscles are used

1. McMichael, op. cit., p. 71

2. Loco cit.
3. Berry, Horton and MacLean, op. cit., p. 1096
 89 -

and the problem of restating gravital stress is greater.

The expenditure of energy In standing is dependant upon
the amount of muscular work made necessary as the rotatory
forces produced in the upright position are met by opposing
forces in order to maintain erectness. The energy used is
evaluated in terms of oxygen consumption or energy metabolism.
The body at rest requires from two-hundred to two-
hundred-fifty cubic centimeters of oxygen each minute, accord­
ing to Schneider and Karpovich, ^ but, as added exertion
occurs, the body must have an increase in oxygen supply.
Since the activity, such as standing, is moderate, the
oxygen in-take rises proportionately and in a very short
time, a minute or two, it is expected to level off to re­
main fairly constant.
In case the other body functions, such as blood
pressures, pulse rate and respiration, along with the
oxygen in-take, maintain a steady rate, the oxygen con­
sumption in the body may be expected to be adequate to
the need. Such an adequacy, again, depends upon the
amount of work involved, the number of muscle groups
used, and the capacity of the individual for oxygen in­
take.

1. E. C. Schneider and P. V. Karpovich, Physiology of

Muscular Activity, p. 35
 - 90 -

1
The contribution of A. V. Hill, in studying the
differences in oxygen consumption between trained and un­
trained individuals (athletes and non-athletes), are well-
known* In general, he shows that the trained individual
may greatly exceed the untrained in oxygen in-take and,
thus, give rise to a greater level of energy metabolism.
The energy required to maintain life in a basal
state (during period of fasting and at rest, usually ten
to twelve hours following the last food in-take) is con­
sidered the basal metabolism of the individual. This re­
presents the rata at which the individual consumes oxygen
in the minimal state of work, lying at reBt. The rate of
energy metabolism depends upon the body size, age, and sex
of the individual.
2
Schneider and Karpovich state that it takes nine
per cent more energy to Btand than to lie. While Best and
3
Taylor report a twenty-five to sixty per cent increase
of metabolism above the basal level in light muscular ex­
ertion, in which they include standing. They speak of the
tonic contraction of muscles as an economy in the expendi­
ture of energy. Hellebrandt et al report that "the energy
expenditure in standing is very small and the oxygen con­
sumption during graded degrees of gravitational stress de­
viates insignificantly from normal variations characteristic

1. A. V. Hill, Muscular Activity of Man, 1927

2. Schneider and Karpovich, op. cTI., p. 55
3. Best and Taylor, op. cit., p. 526
of recumbency.” ^ This conclusion is based upon a study
made on ten healthy students. Seven of the subjects were
suspended in tanks of water at room temperature to nullify
the effect of gravity. The remaining three assumed free
and fixed states of passive, rigid and relaxed standing
postures. After two-hundred and ninety-two observations
of the three posture types were made, the relaxed posture
was considered most costly, in which a percentage deviation
of thirty-six from the mean basal metabolic determinations
occurred. The rigid stance had a twenty-eight percentage
deviation, while the passive posture had only a twelve per­
centage deviation.
The significance of this study appears to lie in
the relationship of artifical resistance to gravital stress.
For instance, when the subject was mechanically "fixed” in
her vertical posture, the energy cost was low, but, when the
restraining clamps were removed and a relaxed posture assumed
the energy cost Increased considerably. When rigid posture
was maintained in which strong muscular contractions occurred
the cost became greater than in passive standing described as
"leaning against a tilting table." It would seem upon criti­
cal examination of the findings that a clearer distinction
between the passive and relaxed types of stance would throw
more light upon the interpretation of energy cost in this
study.

1. Hellebrandt, et al., op. cit., p. 781

 McCormick ^ found that standing increased the
oxygen consumption of fifty healthy college women approxi­
mately eighteen per cent over the recumbent basal. Her
study included scientific determinations of energy meta­
bolism based upon the relaxed, "natural'* stance described
as the position most comfortable for the subject to assume.
Again, the posture variable appears to be neglected. Thus
the findings may be interpreted to indicate an energy cost
of considerable degree in any posture the subject may have
found comfortable.
A highly comprehensive and revealing study of the
2
energy cost in standing has been made by Kelly. She re­
ports that a reduction in energy expenditure may be expected
when the neuro-muscular mechanism involved in standing has
been re-conditioned for greater efficiency. According to
her findings, an average gain in efficiency (conservation
of energy) was found to be 61.59 percent over the basal
rate. The standing position assumed by the twenty-three
healthy college men, who served as subjects, was one taken
at will, and the degree to which re-conditioning, in this
position, occurred was indicated by the reduction of energy
over a period of fifteen weeks of training. The principle
feature of the re-conditioning training was baaed upon the
lessening of muscular effort involved in standing by reduc­
ing the number of muscle fibers stimulated. This, Kelly

1. Harriett McCormick, The Metabolic Cost of Maintaining

a Standing Position, 1942
2. Alma 6. ffelly, Reduction of Energy Expenditure in the
Standing Position, Ph.t). thesis, New fork University,
 93 -

accomplished by the use of procedures based upon mental

imagery of "lines of action" taking place in and through
the body while the subject, for the most part, rested
quietly and relaxed upon a table. The "lines of action"
1
referred to are those developed by Sweigard. She des­
cribes them as "visualized action without voluntary move­
ment” on the part of the subject. "The mental images on
which the individual concentrates to promote the lines-of-
action are so designed that the resultant of the action
in the image will be identified with the desired line-of-
g
action," explains Sweigard.
Kelly says of her findings in summary: "The degree
to which re-conditioning can take place may be influenced
by the amount of practice (repetition of stimuli), thereby,
affecting progress in reducing habitual expenditure of
5
energy while standing." She further states that "less
effort is used by the individual when range of motion in
joints has become more nearly that permitted by the struc­
ture of the respective joints, and when muscle action becomes
synchronous and more efficient. Fatigue then appears more
slowly and endurance increases. ti 4

It would appear, in this study, that the increased

efficiency, or the reduction of energy, obtained is a
measure of muscular relaxation, in which for the most part,

1. Lulu E. Sweigard, ^Psychomotor Function As Correlated with

Body Mechanics and Posture", Trans, N.Y.Aca, Sci. 2:7,
Ser. II (May 1949), p. 243-2^5 ---
2. Ibid., p. 247
3. Kelly, op. cit., p. Ill
4. Loco cit.
 - 94 -

the problem of gravital stress Is absent. Sweigard

differentiates between efficiency and relaxation in
muscular work. She refers to Jacobson’s definition
of muscular relaxation aa ’freedom from effort, physical
and mental*. 2 Thus, relaxation, she says, does not
change skeletal framework relationships because no mus­
cular action is present to cause the changes that are
necessary. Muscular efficiency, on the other hand, she
claims, is due to neuro-muscular re-coordination which
should include less muscular effort. She further holds
that relaxation is not necessarily "accomplished by an
increased degree of efficiency, even though the metabolic
3
rate may be lowered."

Fatigue in Standing
Since investigators have shown that the metabolic
reaction to standing is relatively small, fatigue of stand­
ing, due to the depletion of energy reserve, can no longer
be considered the outstanding causative factor.
4
Turner refers, however, to the evidence that
poor circulatory adjustments in standing are indicated by
sensations of fatigue and dizziness. Syncope may result
from insufficient orthostatic circulatory adjustments.

1. Sweigard, op. cit., p. 248

2. Loco cit.
3. Loco cit.
4. Turner, op. cit., p. 202
 - 95

Larsen corroborated statements made by other in­

vestigators, such as Eellebrandt, and Turner, when the
writer stated that "sensations of stance may be due to
more or less acute hypoxemia of higher brain centers
which exert a regulatory influence over muscle tonus
and cardio-vascular respiratory mechanisms." ^ The
investigator studied seventeen healthy young women in
standing to investigate the effect of fatigue upon the
mechanisms of stance equilibration* Fatigue was Induced
upon the lower extremities while sitting with legs ex­
tended and holding for five minutes heavy sandbags on the
ankles. Following the induced fatigue while sitting,
standing oscilliations of the center of gravity of the
body were recorded for a fifteen minute interval. The
writer found that both extremely relaxed and certain
rigid stances appeared to create no sensations of fatigue*
The indefatigability of the rigid posture, the author con­
tended, may be due to "lack of perception of the excessive
generation of sensory stimuli" and that the relaxed stance
"may not produce excessive volleys of sensory which reach
« 2
consciousness as sensations of fatigue.
In that sense, fatigue in standing refers to an
excessive generation of sensory stimuli that originate in
the nervous tissue of the body. The brain, which in the

1. E. M. Larsen, "Fatigue in Standing", Am. J. Physiol.

150: (July 1947), p. 109-121 “ — ----
2. Ibid., p. 110
 - 96 -

erect posture, Is sensitive to oxygen lack and disturbances

of innervation, can no longer send out motor responses to
the working anti-gravity muscles. Thus, the oscillations
occurring in standing become altered and stance fatigue is
considered a phenomenon of "release.” Larsen aptly states
his hypothesis when he says that "If disease releases equi-
libratory mechanisms from higher neural control, it seems
reasonable to assume that stance due to subacute cerebral
hypoxia might affect vulnerable higher equilibratory mech­
anisms and induce a similar release phenomenon."
In summary, it appears that fatigue in standing may
be due more to excessive nerve impulses to the higher brain
centers than to muscular effort involved in standing. The
tonic contractions of the anti-gravity muscles produce sen­
sations of discomfort through excess of sensory stimuli to
the higher centers, which may be impinged upon conscious­
ness as fatigue.
Best and Taylor report that "posture is maintained
for long periods with little or no evidence of fatigue, e.g.
2
-— standing or sitting in the normal person." They con­
sider that muscle groups alternate in periods of rest and
activity which explains the ability of tonic contractions
in standing to take place for periods of time wi thout the
occurrence of fatigue.
It would appear, therefore, that the standing to be
maintained should be dynamic in which no one set of muscle

1. Larsen, op. cit., p. 119

2. Best and Taylor, op. cit., p. 828
 97 -

groups may be expected to remain excessively contracted

without a shift to an opposing set. Therefore, intermit­
tent and alternate tonic activity of the several muscle
groups involved in standing should constantly take place.
1 2
Dill, and, also, Rathbone discuss fatigue as
a psychological state of boredom, a subjective condition
that strongly reflects a lack of personal satisfactions
and interests, and, which is represented in consciousness
as a feeling or bodily sensation of unpleasantness.
Fatigue, in relation to the physiological aspect,
has been described as hypertension of the neuro-muscular
system which may give rise, also, to the feelings of de­
pletion and exhaustion. These feelings may be states of
tension or hyper-excitability with nervous and muscular
elements inter-related. It is this type of fatigue that
accompanies the rigid posture in which tense, stiff,
straight body relationships exist. Conversely, the re­
laxed, passive attitude may reflect the posture of bore­
dom and become characterized as one of fatigue.

Vital Capacity and Respiration in Standing

Vital capacity of the lungs is defined by physiolo­
gists as the greatest volume of air that may be expelled
from the lungs by forcible expiration after the deepest
possible inspiration.

1. D. S. Dill, "The Economy of Muscular Exercise”, Physiol.

Rev. 16:2 (1936), p. 263-291
2. Josephine Rathbone, Corrective Physical Education, 1949,
p. 158-183 " ""“ ''
 - 98 -

This definition would indicate that vital capacity

is not so much a measure of chest expansion as a measure
of cheat flexibility achieved by active respiratory muscles
and full action of the diaphragm.
It has been shown by physiologists that vital capa­
city is closely related to amounts of physical work and
physical fitness. Turner ^ found that college women of
hi^i vital capacities were superior physically to those
of low vital capacities. When the low vital capacity sub­
jects were given special exercises to increase respiratory
function, the gains in vital capacity were highly perceptable.
Vital capacity, then, may be said to reflect, to some
degree, the status of pulmonary ventilation since the gaseous
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen must take place in the
lungs during respiration. It is the degree of pulmonary ven­
tilation that is so important in physical condition.
2
Pulton considers a reduction in vital capacity as
an indication of a clinical condition and which serves to
guide the prognosis of several diseases. Trunk deformities,
scoliosis, poor posture, and cardiac diseases are spoken of
3, 4
by writers as related to low vital capacities.
The effect on vital capacity as the standing position

1. A. H. Turner, "Vital Capacity in College Women", Arch.

Int. Med. 46: (1930), p. 930 ---
2. Pulton, op. cit., p. 792
3. A. E. Flagstad and S. Kollman, "Vital Capacity and Muscle
Study in One Hundred Cases of Scoliosis", J. Bone and
Joint Surg. 10:4 (October 1928), p. 724-734
4. K. d. Bansson, "Vital Capacity in Trunk Deformities",
Research Quart., A AH PER 10:2 (May 1929), p. 72-77
is maintained la one of considerable concern. Main states
that alveolar carbon dioxide drops as the erect posture is
assumed which he attributes to several factors. He considers
that the increased vital capacity may be responsible for this
condition or it may be due to the disadvantage in circulation
of the erect posture. He states, also, that pulmonary ventil­
ation is increased which means that more fresh air reaches the
alveoli, hence, in turn, there is offered a greater supply of
oxygen for body tissues.
Pulton shows that "posture itself by redistribution
of body mass can affect the vital capacity: the volume is
from two-hundred cubic centimeters to five-hundred cubic
centimeters greater in the erect than in the supine posi­
tion." ^
Hansson studied the vital capacity of a thousand
patients with trunk deformities in two groups of lateral
and antero-posterior curvatures. He states: "the poor
posture group represents 88.4$ of patients with a vital
capacity of leas than half of the normal one." And he
continues further to say: "The significance of a low
capacity is undoubtedly related to the general health
.. 4
of the patient. His study indicates that an abnormally
low vital capacity means a reduced action of the diaphragm

1. R. J. Main, "Alterations of Alveolar C02 in Man Accom-

paning Postural Change", Am. J. Physiol. 118:3 (March
1937), p. 435-440 P”
2. Pulton, op. cit., p. 792
3. Hansson, op. cit. , p. 74
4. Loco cit*
and lessened respiratory muscular action. Since efficient
respiratory action is important in promotion pulmonary ven­
tilation, the venous return of blood to the heart, and ade­
quate interchange between the intra-pulmonic and intra­
abdominal pressures, it would seem that an erect position
in standing would be encouraged.
1
Franseen and Eellebrandt studied respiratory be­
havior of two subjects in different postures and found that
pulmonary ventilation increased 98.8$ and 71,1$, respectively,
from the horizontal to the erect position, with body sway re­
stricted. While standing comfortably the two subjects had an
increased ventilation of 36.1$ and 28.8$, They concluded
that "the augmented ventilation seems to reflect the general
slowing of the circulation which the medullary centers de­
prived of oxygen (as changes in posture occurred) combatted
„ 2
the pull of gravity on the blood column. Again, it would
appear, that the rhythmic squeezing action of the muscles of
the lower extremities is of considerable importance in this
event.
Schneider and Karpovich state that respiratory ven­
tilation is. a result of a number of independent factors,
"such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concen­
tration in the blood, and the reflex stimulation from the

1. E. B. Franseen and F. A. Hellebrandt, "Postural Changes

in Respiration", Am. J. Physiol. 138:2 (January 1943),
p. 364-369
2. Ibid., p. 364
 - 101 -

passively exercised muscles. tf 1 The total effect of these

separate elements appear to stimulate the respiratory center
situated in the medulla. Such stimulation results in in­
creased lung ventilation.
To what extent erect standing is related to efficient,
continued lung ventilation seems to be a problem still to be
scientifically determined. Zoethout and Tuttle discuss the
relationship between a high thoracic index indicated by a
narrow, flat chest and a low thoracic index represented by
a high chest. They say of this: "In healthy, normal chests,
the anterior-posterior diameter is about sixty-seven per cent
of the lateral diameter; in this chest the vital capacity may
be as much as fifty per cent greater than a chest with a
.. 2
higher index. Apparently, the size of the chest and the
relationship of its diameters may be augmented by the develop­
ment of the chest muscles, which, in turn, would give rise to
an increased vital capacity. An erect posture is considered
conducive to a lifted chest and one that should increase the
thoracic anterior-posterior diameter. It seems reasonable
that in this case the respiratory muscles and diaphragm, in
particular, would be permitted greater freedom for movement,
and, thus a more efficient lung ventilation.

Neurological Considerations in Standing

Standing is a dynamic event and it occurs as a result
of the coordination of many reflexes in which many parts of
the central nervous system cooperate.

1. Schneider and Karpovich, op. cit., p. 98

2. W. D. Zoethout and W. W. Tuttle, Textbook of Physiology,
1949, p. 281 -------------- ------
 - 102 -

Brock speaks of the mechanisms underlying man’s

erect posture: "In man, the center controlling the ex­
tension of the lower limbs has been placed in the brain
stem; while this is a part of the mechanism concerned in
erectness, the most important element concerns the exten­
sor relationship of the trunk to the lower limbs at the
hips. Since erectness is so late an achievement in mammalian
evolution, there is reason to believe that the main centers
lie in the cerebral cortex," * The writer continues: ---
"The essential motor patterns of erectness at the cortical
level probably arise in the motor centers situated in the
posterior parts of the first frontal convolutions. However,
there probably are infracortical centers also concerned in
O
the maintenance of erectness,"
Ranson states that the cerebellum is closely re­
lated to voluntary muscular movement. It is through cere­
bellar function that an adjustment of many muscles takes
place even when the slightest shifting of body position
occurs. He describes this function specifically when he
says that "proprioceptive information from the entire bodily
musculature must be brought into use simultaneously by the
cerebellum and that the action of the cerebral motor tracts
in setting off activity of voluntary muscles must be synch-
4
ronized with the action of the cerebellum." The cerebellum

1. Samuel Brock, The Baals of Clinical Neurology. 1945, p. 365

2. Loco ci t ,
3. Stephen Ranson, The Anatomy of the Nervous System, 1947,
p. 241
4. Ibid., p. 233
 103

by virtue of this function serves, then, as a connecting

and correlating center through which information from the
proprioceptors in muscles and joints and the higher centers
in the cerebrum may properly integrate and thus send out
impulses to the entire body musculature at a given time.
It appears that the anti-gravity muscles, or those
engaged in reflex postural tonus, are the extensors through
which the upright position is obtained. Brock speaks of
this postural muscle tonus as a "muscle-back-to-muscle
reflex" and show that "this simple reflex arc begins in
the ’stretch* receptor in the muscle and the sensory sti­
mulus is carried by the deep sensory nerves to the poster­
ior root ganglion cells and posterior roots." ^ The arc
is completed through the motor nerves from the anterior
root horn. He states further that, "the spinal cord and
higher part3 of the central nervous system weave reflexly
postural patterns of variegated design and much complexity;
the loom which executes the pattern is composed of many
motorneurones in the grey matter of the anterior horns of
the spinal cord and higher parts. The higher the animal,
the greater is the shift of ’pattern making* to higher
supraspinal levels of the central nervous axis." ^ It
is expected, therefore, that man should be able to attain
a greater refinement of postural patterning by virtue of
the higher brain centers involved.

1. Brock, op. cit., p. 354

2. Loco cit.
 - 104 -

Magnus ^ calls the process of the tonic postural

reflex the "supporting reaction." It involves a passing
from the flexed state to one of extension or support. He
calls the extensory support a positive supporting reaction
and the relaxed state, the negative supporting reaction.
He classifies the various postural static reactions as
local, segmental, and general, in which he shows that the
various parts of the body may work independently or in
close cooperation. The body parts respond in accordance
to their locale in the central nervous system. For instance,
local static reactions are concerned only with one part of
the body, such as one arm, or one leg; the segmental static
reaction involves one segment, such as the neck, both arms,
or both legs; while, the general static reaction would have
to do with more than one segment or the body as a whole.
The well-known classical studies made on experimental
animals, in which portions of the nervous system were removed,
have demonstrated the postural static reactions and postural
reflexes, such as the righting, attitudinal, and tonic neck
reflexes.
The specific and general reactions of each experi­
mental animal of the decerebrate, thalamic or spinal pre­
parations, gave evidence of the postural responses dependent
upon certain areas of the central nervous system controlling
them.

1. R. Magnus, "The Physiology of Posture", Lancet 2:

(Sept. 11, 1926), p. 531-536; (Sept. lS,'"iyS6) ,
p. 585-588
 - 105

Through tho works of Sherrington and others, the

importance of reflex muscular tonicity in body posture has
been explored at length. Sherrington says: "Evidently,
the distribution of reflex tonicity embraces just those
muscles whose contraction tends in the erect position of
the animal to counteract the effect of gravity on the
various several regions, the muscles which prevent those
parts and the animal as a whole, from sinking to the
ground. The reflex tonus is postural contraction.11
2
He continues to show, as did Magnus, that the reflex
tonicity of the skeletal muscles is dependent upon the
proprioceptors in the muscles themselves. Standing pos­
ture occurs through afferent nerves producing and main­
taining the postural reflex within the postural muscles.
3 „
Sherrington discusses his principle of "reci­
procal innervation" as it occurs in postural reflex stand­
ing. He explains it as one set of muscles innervated in
reflex contraction while the opposing set of muscles in­
hibit the action. He calls one action, reflex contraction,
the other action, reflex inhibition. Thus it is, that one
set of muscles gives while the other set takes. This,
Sherrington maintains, occurs through a fstretch reflex1
of the lengthening muscles in which, although a lengthen­
ing is required, tension in the muscle is constant. Magnus

1. C. S. Sherrington, "Postural Activity of Muscle and

Nerve", Brain, 38:3 (November 1915), p. 197
2. Magnus, op“ cit., p. 531-536
3. Sherrington, op. cit., p. 202-212
 106

explains the myotatic reflex, demonstrated by Sherrington,

when he says: "The reflex begins with a stretch and an
increase of tension, and continues as maintained tension
.. 1
at a constant, increased length. The myotatic reflex
comes into play when standing takes place. The extensors
of the spine, neck, hip and knee joints are antagonists to
the flexors and the pull of gravity. These anti-gravity
muscles, thus, obey the law of reciprocal innervation and
there is set up a stretch reflex permitting constant ten­
sion. The problem of balance between the flexors and ex­
tensors in the erect standing must entail, by necessity,
a constant dynamic interplay of myotatic reflexes between
them. Standing, therefore, is a dynamic event, not a
static one.
Langworthy ^ classifies the nervous impulses that
affect posture in four categories, namely; labryinthine,
proprioceptive, exteroceptive, and teleoceptive.
The tonic labyrinthine reflexes affect the position
of the head in space and they play an important role in
posture. The afferent impulses arise solely in the ves­
tibular apparatus of the inner ear, a complex sense organ,
affected by gravity and rotatory movements of the head and
body. The semi-circular canals and otolith organ of the
vestibular apparatus reflexly maintain the upright position

1. Magnus, op. cit. , p. 532

2. 0. R. Langworthy, The Control of Posture by the Central
Nervous System", Physiol. Rev. 8:2 (April 1928),
p. 151-190
 107

of the head. The attitudinal tonic neck reflexes, also,

join the labyrinthine reflexes to affect the head position
in respect to the posture of the body. Magnus ^ says that
when the body responds to attitudinal reflexes there is re­
cognized a naturalness and pleasantness of manner but when
the attitudinal laws are disobeyed, the body is caricatured.
"The entire body follows the direction of the head," declares
Magnus further, "this being very often moved in a certain di­
rection under the influence of the teleraceptive higher sense
organs. This provides one of the ways in which the relation
of the body to its environment is regulated." 2
The proprioceptive influences are those concerned,
largely, with the anti-gravity muscles in maintaining tonic
contraction.
The exteroceptive Influences are those arising from
the exteroceptive pressure receptors, particularly those of
the skin and soles of the feet. Howell describes the extero­
ceptive reflexes in this way: "Assymetrical pressure stimu­
lation of the skin starts reflexes through the mid-brain
which results in the righting of the head or body when dis-
placed from the normal position." Exteroceptive pressure
receptors in the soles of the feet influence the supporting
reaction when the body is placed on its feet.
The teleoceptive receptors are those found in the
eyes and which are concerned with the reflex control of

1. Magnus, op. cit., p. 536

2. Loco cit.
3. Howell, op. cit., p. 217
 1 08 -

righting the head in posture.

Although the reflexes that have been discussed are
those concerned with involuntary action and are capable of
maintaining postures of the body in response to propriocep­
tive stimulation and the many other tonic reflexes, there
is an additional system that involves the higher nervous
centers. This system concerns the cortico-spinal tract
which mediates voluntary skilled movements and dictates
a refinement in postural attitudes and balancing action
of the body.
Ranson discusses in detail the role of the motor
cortex, known as Area Pour in the cerebrum, in respect to
this additional system of postural control:
"The nervous system works as a whole and a
voluntary muscular action may be influenced not
only by thoughtful consideration of its desira­
bility and its consequences, but by a host of
influences which we are accustomed to think of
as occurring on a reflex level involving many
paths and centers in all parts of the nervous
system, all aiding in the nicety of control of
the muscles involved." 1

Again he states further:

"Motor areas not strictly motor are indicated
by an over-lap of sensory connections in them. -—
The various parts of the cerebral cortex are inti­
mately interconnected by association fibres and
the entire mass tends to function as a unit." *

1. Ranson, op. cit., p. 299

2. Ibid., p. 313
 109

Continuing Ranaon says:

"The great motor path, from the cerebral cortex
to the skeletal musculature, through which bodily
activities are placed directly under voluntary con­
trol, is in all mammals, but especially in man, the
dominant factor in the motor mechanism.” 1

From the foregoing discussions of the neurologi­

cal considerations of posture, one must conclude that many
complex influences are actively concerned in the maintenance
of erect standing.
In the first place, one recognizes that posture is
the basis of movement and that movement is posture under
primary reflex control. Secondly, it is apparent that,
although posture is under the control of many cooperating
reflexes, it ultimately depends upon the character of the
efferent impulses that end in the muscles themselves. It
is in the anterior root horn that many tracts from the
brain converge and it is their summation, exciting and
inhibiting in influence, that control the way the related
muscle fibres react. Thirdly, that "thinking influences
action" as Mabel Todd so ably expressed it in her book,
The Thinking Body. ^

Visceral Considerations in Standing

The problem of the upright position as it affects
the viscera of the body has long been one of conjecture.

1. Ranson, op. cit., p. 327

2. Mabel E. Todd, The Thinking Body, 1935
 110 -

The literature, both medical and non-medical, presents

myriads of statements based upon empirical and a priori reason­
ing that tend to show the impairment of visceral function when
poor adaptation to the upright posture occurs.
Many of the prevailing hypothetical statements appear
to have bases in years of medical experience, in which experi­
mental research, clinical practice, and observation have in­
fluenced these conclusions.
In the search for experimental evidence to substan­
tiate or reject the prevailing claims regarding the effect
of posture on visceral form and function, this investigator
reviewed the medical literature involved, from which the
material to follow were derived.
The general complaints made in regard to poor
adaptation to erect posture are those centered upon the
encroachment of the drooping skeletal framework on body
cavities causing a displacement of viscera. This, it is
claimed, impairs function. Such a view is widely expressed
by many writers on the subject of posture. Goldthwait, et
1 ? 3 4 5
al«, Dickson, J Kellogg, Baker, Cyriax, and

1. J. E. Goldthwait, at al., Body Mechanics: In the Study

and Treatment of Disease, 193*77 p. 40-48
2. Kellogg, op. cit., p. 20-54
3. P. D. Dickson, Posture; Its Relation to Health, 1931,
p. 10-23
4. P. Baker, "Functional Disorders Attributable to the
Development of the Erect Posture", Archives Physical
Therapy 23:7 (July 1942), p. 389-595
5. E. Cyriax, "Some Common Postural Deformities and Their
Treatment by Exercises and Manipulation", British Jr.
Phys. Med. 1:5 (May-Jun© 1938), p. 161-165
 - Ill -

Forrester-Brown 1 are but a very few tliat may be reported

who have expressed this claim*
Goldthwait, et al., report tiie effects on the abdomi­
nal wall caused by change in the abdominal cavity, due to
faulty posture, when they say: "the amount of change in the
shape of the abdominal cavity and the effect of this change
must vary with every individual because no two individuals
are built alike and the habits of faulty mechanics will be
different in each one. But, of whatever build, if the body
is used incorrectly, sooner or later, the compensations for
such use will fail." ^
The writers discuss the change in the shape of the
abdominal cavity from good to poor body mechanics. They
say that the abdominal cavity is pear-shaped with the
larger end upward in good body mechanics while iri faulty
mechanics the cavity is elliptical or pear-shaped with
the larger end downward. They say further: "The chest
having drooped downward, the lower ribs become crowded
together. The anterior posterior and lateral diameters
change so that at the same vertebral level there is less
depth and more width or it may be more depth and leas
„ 3
width than is found in good body mechanics.
The implications gleaned from these statements
would indicate that these writers believe that the ab­
dominal viscera show a tendency to compensate for changes

1. M. Forrester-Brown, "Posture and Its Relationto Health",

Jr. Royal Sanitary Institute 55:8 (Feb.1935), p. 429-435
2. GoTcTthwa11, et al. , op. cit". ,”p. 44
3. Ibid., p. 43
 112 -

occurring in the abdominal cavity. They indicate that the

"potential trouble" lies in the continued compensation of
the viscera to the disturbing change in the shape of the
abdominal cavity in which the organs are located.
Dickson 1 speaks of the integrity of the abdominal
viscera as dependent upon the proper anatomic relations of
the spinal column, the lower ribs and tonicity of the ab­
dominal musculature. He blames faulty posture in which
the rib cage drops and the diaphragm "vault" flattens as
"forcing the liver, spleen, and stomach downward and for­
ward out of their normal position in the space at the
2
sides of the spine and within the curve of the ribs."
J. H. Kellogg, well-known in the medical field for
his interest in the problem of posture, draws these conclu­
sions: "In searching for the causes of displacement of the
viscera of the abdomen and pelvis, especially by making a
oareful study of the bodily contours and attitudes of per­
sons suffering from displacement of the abdominal and pel­
vic viscera, I am convinced that the habitual posture is one
.. 3
of the largest single factors in producing these conditions."
He discusses the anatomical changes in faulty posture and their
effects: " — - the pressure of the head and shoulders inclines
the body forward beyond the line of gravity. the result is
the shortening of the distance between the sternum and the
pubes and the relaxation of the abdominal muscles." And he

1. Dickson, op. cit. , p. 10

2. Ibid., p. 23
3. Kellogg, op. cit., p. 4
 113

describes the effects of this position as: "this destroys

the natural support of the viscera and of the large blood
vessels that are found in the lower cavity of the trunk and
which have so great a capacity that they are capable of
holding all of the blood of the body. When the pressure
of tense muscles is removed from these blood vessels, the
result is a great increase of blood in the vascular area -
1

Visceroptosis is considered by many writers as

2
closely related to postural faults. Moore and Wheatley
describe visceroptosis (gastroptosis and enteroptosis) as
a sagging of the stomach and intestines from their normal
positions. They say: "that these organs (stomach, in­
testines and colon) depend largely for their support upon
correct posture can be easily shown. The esophagus is
attached to the diaphragm as it passes through it. When
the posture of the individual is normal, the chest is high
and the anterior margin of the diaphragm is, therefore,
high, so the dome of that muscle must, of necessity, be
high; therefore, the cardiac end of the stomach is well
supported." ^
4
A study made by Redewill on industrial workers
in 1946 regarding the effects of posture on visceral con­
ditions reveals some interesting conclusions. The subject

1. Kellogg, op. cit., p. 11

2. H. Moore and P. E. Wheatley, ’teastroptosis and Enteroptosis",
Boston Med. and Sure:. Jr. 196:6 (Feb. 1927}. d . 226-232
3. iSt'T.', pT"227
4. P. H. Redewill, "What Part Does Posture Play in Ischemia
and Stasis of the Pelvic Organs", Urol, and Cutan. Rev.
50:9 (Sept. 1946), p. 535-542 ---
 114

were men truck drivers and women seamstresses, tailors and

factory workers. The conditions consisted of chronic pro­
statitis, low back pain, dysmenorrhea, and other pelvic
disturbances. He found that improper posture while at
work, sitting or standing, contributed, in part, to the
pelvic stasis. He concludes that the improper tilt of
the pelvis, such as i s found in faulty sitting and stand­
ing, disturbs the position of the pelvic viscera for, says
he: "when the low back flattens, the pelvis tilts upward
in front and the axis of the abdominal and pelvic cavities
more nearly approach each other." And he continues, "there
results a lowered diaphragm and the support of the pelvic
„ 1
viscera from the sacrum is lost.
The problem of dysmenorrhea has long been associated
p
with faulty posture. According to Mosher malpositions of
the uterus, enteroptosis, and a train of symptoms, such as
constipation and digestive disorders are results of poor
posture. She considers faulty posture as one of the direct
causes of dysmenorrhea.
3
Miller conducted a study for four years, 1927-
1931, involving several hundred healthy college women who
complained of dysmenorrhea. He wanted to determine a

1. P. H. Redewill, "What Part Does Posture Play in Ischemia

and Stasis of the Pelvic Organs", Urol, and Cutan. Rev.
50:9 (Sept. 1946), p. 537
2. C. E. Mosher, "Habit Postures in Relation to Pelvic Con­
ditions", Women’s Med. Jr. 27 (October 1917), p. 198-
199 ---
3. N. P. Miller, "Posture and Dysmenorrhea", Am. Jr. Obst.
and Gynec. 27:5 (May 1934), p. 634-691 r’~
 115

relationship, If any, between faulty body mechanics and

dysmenorrhea. The method of study included physical ex­
aminations and shadowgraph pictures. In the first two
years, considerable improvement was noted in both the
posture and the condition of dysmenorrhea; but in the
last two years of the study, when no formal physical edu­
cation classes were taken, dysmenorrhea increased while
the good posture seemed to continue to obtain. The author
came to the following conclusions: (1) no cause and effect
relationship appeared to exist between poor posture (based
on present day standards) and dysmenorrhea, (2) the presence
of desirable posture does not necessarily indicate that dys­
menorrhea is less likely to occur and (3) attainment of good
posture does not insure that existing dysmenorrhea will be
relieved. Yet the author states: "in the minds of ortho­
pedic surgeons there exists little doubt concerning the im­
portance of proper body mechanics. Without a balanced re­
lationship, symptoms develop.” ^ The writer critically
analyzed his own study and acknowledges that the posture
determinations were not too reliable and, thereby, the
conclusions must be qualified with that in mind,
o
Billig thinks tint dysmenorrhea and postural
defects are very closely interrelated. He considers a

1. Miller, op. cit., p. 684

2. H. E. Billig, Jr.. "Dysmenorrhea: The Result of a
Postural Defect , Arch. Surg. 46: (May 1943),
p. 611-613
 116

postural defect as one that contracts the ligamentous bands

and, thereby, restricting the normal range of the tilt of
the pelvis in relation to the legs and spine as causative
to dysmenorrhea. lie states that "the contracture of the
ligaments causes compression of nerve pathways producing
irritation of peripheral nerves. This irritation gives
rise to painful symptoms in the region of the distribution
of these nerves and is proposed aa the mechanics involved
in producing symptoms of dysmenorrhea." This writer de­
veloped an exercise, known as the Billig exercise, which
stretches these ligamentous bands. Billig reports excel­
lent results of this exercise in relieving dysmenorrhea
among women engaged in industry.
In search of existing evidence contrawise to the
foregoing statements in regard to organic functioning
(visceral) due to postural change, the work of Ilellabrandt
and Pranseen stand out in taking issue with these assertions.
They say in part: "Many clinical papers in the current litera­
ture on posture indicate that stance defects may result ulti­
mately in a variety of malfunctions including lessened respi­
ratory efficiency, prolapse of abdominal viscera, impairment
of digestion, pressure and derangement of the pelvic organs,
dysmenorrhea, hemorrhoids, varicose veins, constipation,
cyclic vomiting, foot strain, backache, neuritis and arth­
ritis. Barring orthopedic disabilities few of the etiologi-
2
cal associations are based on demonstrable fact."

1. II. E. Billig, Jr., op. cit., p. 612

2. Hellebrandt and Pranseen, op. cit., p. 221
 117 -

Barclay reports a study made in 1917 of twenty-five

hundred patients of gastric disturbances that indicated "no
causal relationship between form and position of the stomach
and digestive symptoms." ^ Yet in the same article, the
author states: "the main factors responsible for the change
in shape and position of the stomach are (1) the posture of
the subject, (2) the tonicity of the gastric muscle, and
(3) the movements of the diaphragm." The investigator
further reported a study on three healthy subjects using
X-rays and photographs to indicate the position of the
stomach and colon in various postures, one of which was
standing. He made a composite picture of the superimposed
radiographs of the organs on the photograph of the subject
in the several positions. His conclusions were: "Posture
affects the whole of the large intestine. The position of
the transverse colon in the upright posture depends entirely
on the stomach, for the colon hangs from it, attached by the
transverse meso-colon. Hence, if the stomach becomes atonic
.. 3
and drops, the whole colon drops." The author describes
the change in the position of the kidneys and liver as low
in standing but higher in lying. He discounts that a "kink"
in the colon is a fixed condition and indicates that it may
"kink" quite normally.

1. A. E. Barclay,"The Mobility of the Abdominal Viscera",

Quart. J. Med.1:2 (April 1932), p. 257
2. Ibid. ,— p. 26IT
3. Ibid., p. 270
 - 118 -

Abbott ^ made a study on patients with duodenal

stasis and in whom symptoms were relieved by postural cor­
rection yet viscera were not replaced and little change in
the condition of visceroptosis and the duodenal stasis could
be demonstrated. The implication of this study would indi­
cate that visceroptosis may exist in healthy individuals*
2
Wakefield and Mayo consider the upright position
/

as in no way "hindering, hampering, or decreasing" the effi­

ciency of the digestive system. They think that due to the
short distance, ' the alimentary substances need to be moved
(about twenty-two cubic millimeters) it is improbable that
gravity has much effect on the digestive apparatus. They
say conclusively that "supposed symptoms attributable to
fstasisf or fangulation’ of any part of the alimentary
3
canal as a result cf the upright posture are spurious."
4
Osgood describes visceroptosis as a lowering or
dropping cf the organs. Yet he questions what an anatomic
norm for the position of the organs may bo and states that

1. W. O. Abbott, "Study of the Relation of Chronic Duodenal

Stasis to Symptoms of Visceroptosisby Use of Postural
Correction", M. Clinic North Am. 18: (July 1934),
p. 155-165 ~ —
2. E. G. Wakefield and C. W. Mayo, "The Digestive Qualifi­
cations of Man", Am. J. Digestive Dis. 4:5 (July
1937), p. 287-291 ~
3. Ibid., p. 291
4. Robert B. Osgood, "What Evidence Can Be Brought Forward
to Show That Visceroptosis Is Anything More Than a
Variation From An Anatomical Norm and Is Of Frequent
Causative Clinical Significance?" Am. J. Orth. Surg.
14:9 (Sept. 1916), p. 533-544 *~
 119

there are wide variations in visceral position. He consi­

ders that there are two types of viseeroptotic individuals.
One, an acquired type with slumped, sagging, displaced vis­
cera and the other, the anatomic type, who anthropologically
may Lave "low slung” viscera by nature, such as the slender
hyper-ontomorphs. He concludes that, by X-ray evidence, the
stomach is lower in the recumbent position than in standing.
The endeavor to place the stomach in an anatomical
norm and, thereby, consider it as "dropped” if it occupies
1
a fairly long position in the abdomen is refuted by Wright.
He states that a long stomach is considered normal. The tonic
activity of the stomach wall is reflexly controlled and the
lower border has demonstrated changes in position under
situations of stress or alarm. The stomach overcomes the
influences of gravity by expanding laterally as it fills.
2 3
Both Pulton and Howell discuss the form and
position of the normal stomach as one of elongation with
the fundus occupying a vertical position, tubular in shape,
and at a sharp angle with the pyloric end. The curvature
between the two portions, pylorus and fundus, is called the
incisura angularis. Thus the normal stomach is considered
fish-hook in shape, and, it undergoes a considerable change
in contour as the stomach fills and empties. Kowell states
in brief: "The shape and relations of the stomach in man
a
vary somewhat with the posture and the amount of food."

1. Wright, op, cit., p. 753-754

2. Pulton, op. cit., p. 989-990
3. Howell, op. cit., p. 725
4. Loco cit.
 120 -

Summary of Documentary Evidence

Cardio-vascular Adjustments in Standing

1. The cardio-vascular adjustments that occur in
standing are due to many compensatory mechanisms that meet
the hydrostatic effect of gravity on the blood column In
the vertical position.
2. The response of the cardio-vascular system varies
with individuals as standing takes place. Therefore, no ex­
act statement can be made of an established standard for in­
dividuals in cardio-vascular adjustments during standing.
3. The efficiency of the cardio-vascular adjustments
in standing is closely related to the status of peripheral re­
sistance in the arterioles. When peripheral resistance in the
arterioles offers a normal tonic effect to the blood flow,
adaptation in standing takes place effectively.
4. Higjhly cooperative in cardio-vascular functioning
is the pulmonary ventilation in the lungs. An adequate rate
of blood flow through the lungs and aeration of the alveoli
must take place and there appears to be some evidence to
show that an erect standing position aids in this function.

Energy Cost in Standing

1. The energy cost in standing is greater than in
sitting or lying due to the added amount of muscular work
necessary to meet the mechanical forces involved in assuming
the upright position.
 121 -

2. The oxygen consumption In the body may be expected

to be adequate to the need in standing in case the other body
functions essential to oxygen intake maintain a steady rate.
The adequacy of oxygen intake depends upon several important
factors such as the capacity of the individual for oxygen in­
take and the amount of work and the number of muscle groups
involved in standing.
3. The energy cost of standing has been found to be
low when the vertical posture is assumed as a "normal and
comfortable" stance. A rigid posture and restriction of
body sway produce the greatest expenditure of energy,
4. Re-conditioning of the neuro-rmiscular system is
found to lessen muscular effort and reduce energy cost in
standing.

Fatigue in Standing
1. Discomfort in short periods of standing may be
due to poor circulatory adjustments indicated by sensations
of fatigue and dizziness. Syncope may result from insuffi­
cient orthostatic circulatory adjustments during prolonged
standing.
2. Acute hyoxemia of the higher brain centers in­
duce sensations of fatigue. The brain which is sensitive
to oxygen lack and disturbances of innervation in the stand­
ing posture can no longer send out responses to the working
anti-gravity muscles. In this case, stance fatigue is con­
sidered a phenomenon of "release."
 - 122 -

3. Fatigue in standing may be due more to excessive

stimuli to the higher brains centers than to the muscular
effort involved in standing. The tonic contraction of the
anti-gravity muscles produce sensations of discomfort when
excessive nervous action takes place.
4. Fatigue in standing has often been considered a
psychological state of boredom.
5. Fatigue in standing has been described as a
hyper-tension of the neuro-muscular system which may give
rise to feelings of depletion and exhaustion. This type
of fatigue is most apt to accompany the rigid and stiff
body posture in standing.

Vital Capacity and Respiration in Standing

1. There is some indication to show that a high
vital capacity is related to standing erectly as against
standing slumpily. This indicates respiratory efficiency
in which the diaphragm and rib-cage movement gives rise to
a more effective interchange of the intra-thoracic and
intra-abdominal pressures.
2. A lifted chest offers a greater range of move­
ment for the respiratory muscles and the diaphragm which,
in turn, permits an efficient lung ventilation.

Neurological Considerations in Standing

1. Standing is controlled reflexly through an inter
relationship of postural, attitudinal and tonic reflexes.
Nervous influences from the sense organs cooperate in producing
the standing position. They orient the body in its relation
 - 123 -

to space, direction and movement.

2. Balance in the upright position is maintained
by the action of the myotatic reflexes induced by the pro­
prioceptors in the anti-gravity muscles. Reciprocal inner­
vation of the agonistic and antagonistic muscle groups is
considered responsible for this coordination.
3. There exists an additional system involving the
higher brains centers (cortico-spinal tracts) that assists
in refining the skill of standing and serves as the respon­
sible agent in influencing conscious action by thinking and
willing body alignment.

Visceral Considerations in Standing

1. Little or no scientific experimental proof has
been brought forth to show that visceral form and function
are affected by improved standing.
2. It has not been significantly proved that dys­
menorrhea is related to faulty posture. Some evidence,
though largely empirical, has indicated that dysmenorrhea
in some subjects has been relieved as the posture was cor­
rected.
3. The condition of visceroptosis as it relates
to posture has no valid scientific proof of an inter­
relationship.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The following physiological principles were those
extracted from the foregoing documentary evidence and
 124 -

substantiated in part by all of the authorities who served

as consultants in physiology.

Cardio-vascular Adjustments in Standing

1. That, to date, no scientific experimental proof
has been produced to show that standing erectly is conducive
to efficient adjustments of the cardio-vascular system in the
upright position.
2. That empirical evidence has been brought forth to
show that erect standing, which offers increased rhythmic milk­
ing action of the muscles in the legs and abdomen, aids the
venous return of the blood to the right heart.
3. That some evidence appears to indicate that erect
standing serves as a safety factor in pulmonary ventilation,
by allowing greater aeration of the alveoli and adequate blood
flow through the lungs, when the rib-cage and chest-wall are
permitted to assume a position conducive to lung space and
freedom in respiratory movement.

Energy Cost in Standing

1. That energy cost in standing is comparatively
small when a normal, comfortable stance takes place, but the
expenditure of energy increases as rigidity in stance occurs
or when body sway is restricted. Thus, balanced alignment in
standing is conducive to little energy cost since it includes
a normal, comfortable stance where rigidity is discouraged
and body sway is unrestricted.
 - 125

2. That the alignment of body parts in segmental

balance is conducive to reduction of energy in standing be­
cause excessive muscular tensions are reduced through the
reciprocal and cooperative action of the muscle groups in­
volved. In this way, no one muscle group is overworked.

Fatigue in Standing
1. That fatigue In standing may be prevented for a
longer period of time when balance of body parts takes place.
In this case, the muscle groups work alternately to assume
their respective functions in the neuro-muscular coordination
necessary to maintain the balanced upright position. There
occurs a dynamic balance of body parts which is conducive to
little fatigue. Certain muscle groups in poor posture are
called upon to work excessively which, in turn, produce
sensations of fatigue.
2. That fatigue in standing often considered a
psychological state of boredom reflects the lack of interest
in and knowledge of body posture in relation to its social
value. The premise that mental health is related to postural
attitudes implies that the assumption of good body alignment
in standing would result in a more pleasing appearance and a
sense of well-being. The cause and effect relationship in
this instance is interchangeable.

Vital Capacity and Respiration in Standing

That erect standing is considered conducive to a high
vital capacity and augments efficient lung ventilation.
 126 -

Neurological Considerations In Standing

1. That standing may become refined as a skill
through the conscious control of the higher brain centers
which additionally serve in the function of reflex standing.
It is, therefore, possible to train the body to control the
alignment of its parts.
2. That coordination and balance between body parts
for alignment proceed through the cooperative neuro-muscular
action of the anti-gravity muscles that control the upright
position.

Visceral Considerations in Standing

That the form and function of the body viscera have
not been found to be affected detrimentally by the standing
position. Therefore, improved standing, such as the align­
ment of body parts, appears to have no apparent influence
upon visceral condition.

Summary of Principles Basic to Teaching Body Alignment in

Standing
The following is a summary of the principles which
are considered basic to teaching body alignment in standing
as extracted from the foregoing documentary evidence involved
in the literature on posture surveyed in the fields of psy­
chology, physics and physiology.

Psychological Principles
1. That learning to stand in alignment involves a
perceptual-motor learning of the relationships between the
body parts and the meaning of their relationships.
 2. That learning to align the body occurs through
the substitution of a new habit in the place of an old
habit of standing.
3. That learning to stand in alignment occurs
through attention to stimuli, a high state of motivation
and an appreciation of the meaning of the act.
4. That learning to stand in body alignment in­
volves the establishment of the kinesthetic sense through
the kinesthetic cues and body sensations.
5. That body alignment in standing is learned
through repeated practice and motivation in the desired
act.
6. That learning to stand in body alignment in­
volves analyzetion and comparison of the different aspects
of the act and a synthesis of these aspects for accomplish­
ment of the desired total performance.

Mechanical Principles
1. That the inertia possessed by the body during
alignment tends to stablize and control the body for balance
and equilibrium.
2. That standing in alignment is a dynamic motor
event created by the muscular foroes opposing the incessant
gravitational pull on the body.
3. That standing in balance and alignment results
from the neutralization of forces between the anti-gravity
muscles and the compelling force of gravity.
 128 -

4. That alignment in standing occurs when the

centers of gravity of each body part form a perpendicular
line that falls within the base of support.
5. That standing in alignment offers a mechanical
leverage for the reduction of muscular force necessary to
meet the resistance which disturb upright standing.
6. That mechanical stresses and strains occur in
the body when disalignment is present between body parts.
7. That good mechanical adjustments occur between
body parts when body alignment takes place.

Physiological Principles
1. That no scientific evidence Indicates that
erectness in 'standing is conducive to efficient cardio­
vascular adjustments during standing.
2. That empirical evidence indicates that in
erect standing the venous return of blood to the heart
is aided by the milking action of the muscles on the
veins in the legs and abdomen.
3. That erect standing may serve as a safety
factor in pulmonary ventilation.
4. That energy required in balanced standing
where rigidity is lacking and body sway is unrestricted
is comparatively small.
5. That excessive muscular strains are reduced
when the alignment of body parts occurs, thus a lessened
amount of energy is expended in the standing position.
 - 129

6. That fatigue is apt to be reduced when the body

is aligned since sensations of fatigue are not excessively
produced when muscle groups work cooperatively to maintain
the standing position. No one muscle group is overworked
when body alignment takes place.
7. That fatigue in standing is often considered a
psychological state of boredom.
8. That standing may be refined as a skill through
the conscious control of the higher brain centers.
9. That coordination and balance of body parts re­
sult from neuro-muscular control of the anti-gravity muscles.
10. That body alignment appears to have no effect
upon the form and function of the body viscera.
 CHAPTER IV

PROCEDURE IN COLLECTING DATA

The procedure employed In collecting the data for

testing the hypotheses of the developed technique for
teaching body alignment in standing consisted of the use
of radiographs, photographs and a constructed instrument.
These techniques were applied to experimental and control
groups for the purpose of producing the experimental evi­
dence necessary for validation of the tested hypotheses.

SELECTION OP SUBJECTS
The selection of the experimental groups In this
study was as follows (All subjects of the experimental
groups were students of the Cortland State Teachers College
except the high school group who were students of the Cort­
land High School) :
1. One young college woman student, twenty-one years
of age, a junior in the Division of Health, Physical Educatio
and Recreation served as the subject selected for measurement
of the developed technique by means of radiographs and photo­
graphs. The subject was selected by the investigator for her
proficiency in the habitual practice of body alignment accord
ing to the developed technique. It was necessary to select a
subject who could demonstrate effectively the investigator’s
 - 131 -

technique of alignment in order to measure It against the

traditional criterion of body alignment indicated by the
line of gravity (perpendicular reference line or plumb
line) of the body.
2. Twenty-four college men, twenty-one to thirty-
three years of age, junior and senior students in the Division
of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation served as sub­
jects for the measurement of hypotheses of the technique by
means of the constructed instrument.
The technique of random selection was not employed
since a selection of any group, trained or untrained in the
technique, could serve as subjects to test the objectivity
of the instrument and the reliability of the investigator
as an examiner of the developed technique by means of the
instrument.
The students who served in this measurement were
members of a beginning class in body mechanics, taught by
the investigator, which most suitably met the program
schedule of the assisting examiner and the investigator.
3. Thirty college men and women, nineteen to thirty-
three years of age, junior and senior students in the Division
of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, were selected
by the investigator for measurement of the validity and the
reliability of the developed technique by means of photographs.
The subjects were selected by the investigator as
those students who exemplified body alignment according to
the developed technique. All subjects had been students of
 - 132 -

the investigator in a body mechanics course during the pre­

vious year. The final selection of subjects., however, was
restricted to those students who were able, by virtue of
their program schedules, to meet the appointed testing
period.
Trained subjects were selected in this measurement
to assure the control necessary to show relationship between
the two characteristics, the landmarks of the sterno-pubic
line and the traditional landmarks of the criterion for body
alignment. Since these two characteristics are so closely
related, an unbiased sample would not adequately show the
degree of proportion of relationship between them. To assure
bias, the sterno-pubic line was made constant In order to
measure the consistency that may exist in the relationship
between the technique described by the sterno-pubic line
and the criterion. Only trained subjects could be expected
to show significantly a relationship between the two charac­
teristics. 1
4. One hundred eleven college men and eighty-five
college women in the Divisions of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, and General Education, eighteen to thirty
years of age, freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors, were
subjects in the measurement of the significance of the develop­
ed technique as a measure for teaching body alignment in stand­
ing.
The subjects included in this measurement were those
who were assigned, by administrative scheduling, to body

1. E. P. Linquist, Statistical Analysis in Educational

Research, 1940, p. 4-6
 133 -

mechanics classes, taught by the investigator, during the

school year, September 1948 - June 1949. Students in the
Division of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation are
required to take body mechanics in either the sophomore or
junior years to meet the requirement of the Activity Program.
Students in the Division of General Education may elect body
mechanics in the freshmen year as an activity in their re­
quired Physical Education program.
All subjects were considered orthopedically normal
by the College Physician and, thereby, all class members
were participants in this study.
5. One hundred eighteen elementary school boys and
girls, nine to fifteen years of age, grade four through
eight, in the School of Practice, were subjects for the
measurement of the significance of the developed technique
as a measure for teaching body alignment on the elementary
school levels.
All children in the School of Practice, grades four
through eight, participated in this measurement as a regu­
larly assigned body mechanics class in their physical edu­
cation program.
Only two students in the population were considered
orthopedically handicapped by the College Physician, and,
therefore, were not included in the study.
6. Forty-eight high school girls, fourteen to seven­
teen years of age, sophomores, juniors, and seniors of the
Cortland High School, were subjects for the measurement of
 134 -

the significance of the developed technique as a measure for

teaching body alignment on the high school level.
The high school girl's class in body mechanics was
assigned to the investigator by the Director of Physical
Education of the Cortland Public Schools and the Instructor
of Physical Education for Girls at the Cortland High School.
The assigned class was a regularly scheduled physical education
class in the high school program which met the investigator's
teaching schedule.
The entire group of high school girls in the assigned
class was considered orthopedically normal as determined by
the physical examination records in the office of the School
Physician and School Nurse at the Cortland High School.
The selection of the control groups in this study
proceeded as follows:
1. One hundred fifteen elementary school boys
and girls, nine to fifteen years of age, grades four through
eight, in the George Washington Elementary School of Endicott,
N. Y., were subjects for the measurement of the significance
of the developed body alignment teclmique in a controlled popu­
lation where no instruction in the technique had been given.
The George Washington Elementary School in Endicott,
N. Y. was assigned as the controlled sample by the Superin­
tendent of Schools of Endicott and the Director of Training
of the Division of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
at the Cortland State Teachers College.
 135 -

The selection of the school was based upon three

reasons: (1) because of its distance from Cortland in order

to eliminate, as much as possible, contact with the experi­

mental group study being conducted in Cortland; (2) because

the school population appeared to be highly comparable in

socio-economic status with the experimental elementary groups

in the School of Practice in Cortland; and (3) because there

were no teachers of Physical Education or practice teachers

in the Endicott school who had been students of the investi-

ga tor •

PROCEDURE EMPLOYED IN THE COLLECTION OF DATA

The procedure employed in collecting and organizing

the data for experimental measurement in this study consisted

of the following:

1. Radiographs and Photographs of a Selected Experimental

Subject'------------
The experimental procedure involved in the measure­

ment of the developed technique for teaching body alignment

in standing by means of radiographs and photographs of a

selected subject is described in detail, which follows.

Procedure in Taking Radiographs and Photographs

•Two different sets of lateral view X-rays of the

upper trunk and pelvis of a junior woman student in the

Division of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation of

the Cortland State Teachers College, were taken four weeks

apart at the VerNooy Sanitarium and Hospital in Cortland,

The radiographs were taken by the regularly employed expert

X-ray technician of that institution.

 - 136 -

The young woman student was selected by the investi­

gator as one who demonstrated proficiency in maintaining a

balanced body alignment in standing according to the developed

technique. The reason for the selection of one experimental

subject for this measurement has been advanced under Limitations

of the Study (p. 10).

Triangular shaped lead markers, with one inch sides,

were held in place on the two body landmarks, the center of the

sternum and the superior border of the symphysis pubis, by

means of adhesive tape and bands of string. The marker for

the center of the sternum was determined by placing two addi­

tional markers on the chest, one on the superior border of

the sternum at the xiphoid process, and locating a mid-point

between the two markers. This mid-point determined the marker

for the center of the sternum. A triangular lead marker was

also placed at a point between the spinous processes of the

third and fourth lumbar vertebrae to aid in indicating the

tilt of the pelvis. (When the markers of the symphysis pubis

and the lumbar spine are connected by a line, the direction of

the pelvic tilt may be readily observed).

A steel plumb line with a weighted bob was dropped

from the superior edge of the X-ray film carrier to serve as

the perpendicular reference line against which the sterno-

pubic line was measured.

Two positions in each set of radiographs were assumed

by the subject; (1) an assumed d u m p to indicate the relation­

ship of the upper trunk and the pelvis while in disalignment

(see Figure III a, p. 138) and (2) an assumed perpendicularity

 137 -

between the center of the sternum and the symphysis pubis

to indicate alignment between the pelvis and the upper trunk

(see Figure IV a, p. 139).

Separate films of the upper trunk and pelvis in each

of the two positions assumed were required due to the lack

of an X-ray film the length of the subject’s trunk. However,

it was observed, by the investigator, that less than one minute

was consumed b y the expert X-ray technician in changing the

films and the highly stable subject did not shift perceptibly

in her alignment during the entire procedure of film changing.

It was necessary to superimpose the two films, upper trunk and

pelvic region, upon each other in order to form a single film

in each position. (see Figures III and IV a, p. 138, 139).

This process was accomplished by the investigator under the

supervision of Dr. Robert Kerr, Chief Physician, and the

radiograph technician, both members of the VerNooy Sani­

tarium and Hospital staff.

Immediately following each X-ray filming, photographs

of the same subject, in the identical assumed positions, were

taken by an expert professional photographer, Mr. Fred Spauld­

ing, at his studio in the city of Cortland. (see Figures III

and IV b, p. 138, 139). Photographing of the subject at the

hospital while the radiographs were being taken was not per­

mitted.

The exact method was used in placing the markers on

the subject for the photographs as was used for the X-ray

filming. Photographs of the two assumed positions, slumped

and aligned, in lateral view, were taken as nearly identical

 FIGURE III

Radiograph and Photograph

of selected subject in
an assumed body slump
 139

FIGURE IV

Radiograph and Photograph

of selected subject In
assumed body alignment
 140 -

as was humanly possible with those assumed by the subject

when the radiographs were filmed. The plumb line used in

the radiograph filming was dropped from the back-drop screen

to assure, likewise, a perpendicular reference line in the

photographs.

Procedures Involved In Measuring the Radiographs and Photographs

The photographs taken of the X-rays and the actual photo­

graphs of the subject were studied identically in the following

manner:

Under a circular magnifying glass, supported by a

vertical wooden rod at a distance of six inches, the

photographs were squared and anchored on a wooden

block base for study.

First, the point of each marker, as it touched the

subject’s body, was dotted with a sharp #6H Dixon

pencil.

Secondly, a line was drawn to connect the markers,

the center of the sternum and the superior border of

the symphysis pubis, to form the sterno-pubic line.

Thirdly, perpendicular lines were drawn to connect

the center of the sternum marker and the perpendicular

reference line on the photograph and radiograph, and,

the symphysis pubis marker and the line of reference,

also. These lines, so drawn, measured the distances

between the stern-pubic line and the perpendicular

reference line, which characterizes the line of gravity

of the body. A line was drawn, also, to connect the

 141 -

markers of the lumbar spine and the symphysis pubis

to indicate the direction of the tilt of the pelvis.

All lines, except the pelvic tilt line, were then

measured in millimeters with a six inch celluloid

metric scale ruler under the circular magnifying

glass and the findings were recorded on the photo­

graphs and radiographs.

For a more meaningful record of the measurements, a

photograph was taken of the original radiographs and photo­

graphs with the added measured lines. (see Figures III and

IV, p. 138, 139).

Two different sets of radiographs and photographs

were taken of the same subject in which identical procedures

were utilized.
Each set of radiographs and photographs was studied

for agreement between the measured lines in which a geo­

metric parallelogram was sought. Such a measure would in­

dicate the relationship between the sterno-pubic line of

the investigator’s technique for body alignment and the

plumb line which demonstrated the actual alignment of the

body.

2. Construction of the Measuring Instrument

A measuring instrument, named fcioe alignometor,

(see Figure V, p. 142) y/as designed and constructed by

the investigator for the purpose of measuring objectively

the technique which she had developed for teaching body

alignment in standing.
 - 142 -

FIGURE V

PH'-! ALIGBOKET-M
 - 143 -

The instrument was developed in order to serve not

only as a measuring tool for the resolution of the technique

into experimental data but as a teaching device through which

the technique may be more readily interpreted and practiced.

The instrument was constructed to offer refinement and visual

description to the developed technique for teaching body align­

ment in standing. The constructed instrument cannot be in­

terpreted as the developed technique itself since it serves

only as a descriptive tool of that technique. The developed

technique is a dynamic skeletal adjustment that is sought by

the individual. The instrument may serve only to evaluate

this adjustment of body parts for alignment.

The alignorneter consists of a simple arrangement of

two sliding pointers attached to a perpendicular steel pipe

rod, one inch in diameter and six feet in length. The rod

is firmly supported on a wooden plank, 2" by 11" by 22".

The two sliding pointers have a possible extension of three

and one-fourth inches or eighty millimeters from the ends

of their supporting arms, which are three and one-eighth

inch hollow steel rods. (The sliding pointers were cali­

brated in millimeters for use in measuring the line lengths).

Additional similar but uncalibrated sliding pointers are

•located above and below the sliding pointer for the center

of the sternum marker. A rod calibrated in millimeters

connects these two additional pointers for use in deter­

mining the exact center between the upper pointer, which

locates the superior border of the sternum, and the lower

 - 144

pointer, which locates the base of the sternum. The sternal

center is then marked by the central sliding pointer which

supports the center of the sternum marker.

As the subject stands facing the instrument, the

sliding pointers are extended until the markers touch the

body landmarks of the center of the sternum and the superior

border of the symphysis pubis of the pelvis.

Method of Measuring Body Alignment with the Instrument

The subject stands on the v/ooden base facing the

arms of the instrument. The sliding arms are then raised

or lowered to agree with the body landmarks to be located

on the subject.

The landmark of the center of the sternum is located

by first extending the sliding upper arm pointer tc locate

the upper border of the sternum and by extending the lower

sliding arm pointer to indicate the lower border of the

sternum. The exact center between the upper and lower

pointers is then determined by reading the half-way point

on the calibrated rod connecting them. The pointer for

the center of the sternum is then set at that point and

extended to touch the marker on the center of the sternum

of the subject.

The landmark of the superior border of the symphysis

pubis is then located by having the subject follow down the

abdomen with his hands until the bony prominence of the

superior border of the symphysis pubis is reached. The

 - 145 -

sliding pointer of the lowest arm of the instrument is then

extended at that point until the marker touches the located

pubic landmark.

As each marker Is set to touch the landmarks, the

center of the sternum and the symphysis pubis, the pointer

is clamped in place by means of a screw located in the sup­

porting arm. The calibrated rod is then firm for reading

and the line of the sliding rod is read to the nearest milli­

meter.

Procedures in Testing the Objectivity of the Instrument and

the ~HeTiability of the fhvestlgahor as Examiner

The procedures involved in testing the objectivity of

the instrument follow.

The objectivity of the developed technique, by means

of the alignometer, was found by testing a group of twenty-

four college men students in three separate tests at the

same hour one week apart with the investigator and a de­

partment colleague as examiners.

The collaborating examiner, Mr. Karl Horak, was a

colleague of the investigator in the Division of Health,

Physical Education, and Recreation of* the Cortland State

College of Education. lie is a Physical Therapist and the

Athletic Trainer at the College as well as instructor in

Anatomy and Physiology and one whom the investigator con­

sidered as highly proficient in giving the alignometer test.

The subjects involved in the measurement were junior

and senior major Physical Education men students who comprised

 - 146 -

a body mechanics class taught by the investigator. The test

subjects wore the regular gymnasium uniform required for

activity courses which consists of T shirt and regulation

trousers.

Each examiner tested each subject independently at

which time the other examiner left the examining room. The

record of results was also kept independently by each examin­

er until the three testing periods were completed.

The test data were organized for the calculation of

the coefficient of correlation from the ungrouped scores

when the deviations were taken from the assumed means of

the distribution. These data were treated statistically

to determine the relationship between the scores of the

two examiners which would indicate the objectivity of the

instrument for measuring body alignment in standing accord­

ing to the developed technique.

The procedure employed in testing the reliability

of the investigator as an examiner of the developed tech­

nique for body alignment in standing by use of the instru­

ment, follow.

The reliability of the investigator in measuring

body alignment with the instrument was determined by re­

peating in two d a y 3 , at the same hour, the first test taken

of the twenty-four men students who comprised the experi­

mental group.

The Product-moment method of correlation was used

to compute the interrelationship between the scores of the

first test and the scores of the second test.

 - 147 -

3* Procedures In the Measurement of Photographs of Experi­

mental Subjects
The data necessary to determine the relationship b e ­

tween the developed technique and the traditional criterion

of body alignment (described in Chapter I, p. 3) were col­

lected by means of photographing experimental subjects in

three sets of tests as they demonstrated the developed tech­

nique with the use of the measuring instrument.

Method of Taking Photographs

Three sets of photographs were taken of thirty se­

lected subjects, seventeen college women and thirteen college

men, of the junior and senior classes in the Division of

Health, Physical Education, and Recreation of the Cortland

State Teachers College, as they stood on the alignometer

for body alignment measurement.

The subjects were selected by the investigator as

those students who, in her opinion, were proficient in main­

taining body alignment in standing, according to the developed

technique, and, who had been students of the investigator.

Each subject stood on the wooden block with the right

side to the camera facing the alignometer in a position which

he or she considered good body alignment in standing without

tension or strain. Each woman student wore a light weight

bathing suit and each man student wore swimming trunks w i t h ­

out a shirt.

The men and women students were photographed on

separate evenings of each week for three consecutive weeks

 148 -

between the hours of six-thirty and eight o ’clock and after

they had eaten their evening meal.

The procedure for placement of the alignometer arms

and pointers on the subjects to determine the location of

the center of the sternum and the symphysis pubis was the

same as previously described (see p. 144-145). The sternal

and pubic pointers were set at forty millimeters in order to

assure a constant between the center of the sternum and the

symphysis pubis. This was done to measure the relationship

of the traditional criterion of body landmarks to the de­

veloped technique. The sterno-public line of the developed

technique was assured consistency by means of the aligno­

meter while the traditional line of body landmarks offered

only inconsistency due to the human elements of the chang­

ing skeletal adjustments. For instance, the head, knee,

and ankle landmarks may be highly variable in their re­

lationships from one moment to the next. Thus, it was found

necessary to hold the sterno-pubic line constant against

which the degree of agreement between the criterion of tra­

ditional body landmarks and the sterno-pubic line could be

measured.

One inch square lead markers v/ere attached by means

of adhesive tape to the right side of the body of each stu­

dent on each of the following five external body landmarks

that are accepted as the traditional criterion for body align­

ment j (see Figure I, p. 5) (a) lobe of the ear, (b) acromion

 149

process of the scapula, (c) great trochanter of the femur,

(d) center of the knee joint, and (e) just in front of the

ankle joint (external malleolus) at approximately two inches.

The ankle joint location was taken to agree with the findings

of Hellebrandt and others 1 who reported that the line of

gravity or the vertical balance line of the body falls appro­

ximately five centimeters or two inches in front of the ankle

joint.

Equipment Used

The following equipment was used to take the

photographs:

Camera:

German-made 35mm. Retina, Compur shutter, f: 3.5

lens; speed at l/lO second, f.ll camera placed on a photo­

graphers tripod, four feet from the floor and eighteen feet

from the subject.

Films:

The films used were 35 mm. Super Pan Supreme

(A n s c o )

Lighting:

Two photofloods with aluminum reflectors were placed

eight and six feet from the subject and four and seven feet

from the floor. One photoflood with a #1 bulb was placed at

an angle, camera-ward, four feet from the floor to the front

1. F. Hellebrandt, et al. , "The Location of the Cardinal

Anatomical Orientation Planes Passing Through the
Center of Weight”, Am. J. Physiol. 121:2 (February
1938), p. 465-470 “
 - 150 -

of the subject, at a distance of eight feet, and, the other

photoflood, with a #2 bulb, was placed aeven feet from the
.floor and six feet from the subject at an angle, camera-ward,
to the baok of the subject*The photofloods afforded direct
body Illumination for each subject.
A 1000 watt bulb without reflector hanging from the
celling directly above the subject and twelve feet from the
floor gave general room lighting for over-all illumination.
Screen:
A black cloth screen, 4 r by 7*, served as a back­
ground against which the subject was photographed while
standing on the alignometer. The screen fetood two feet
behind the alignometer.
Plumb line:
A weighted white cord plumb line was hung from the
upper edge of the screen to serve as the perpendicular refer­
ence line on the photographs.
Labels:
Numbers made of white cardboard were pinned on the
black cloth screen to designate the number of each subject
and the test being photographed.
Diagram of Photographic Set-up
black screen

6*
Photoflood, Bulb /j* 18» Photoflood, Bulb #1
#2, 7* from floor ^ 4* from floor

Camera 4 ’ from floor

(3) A 1000 watt bulb overhead, 12* from floor
 151 -

The photographs were taken by the Investigator who

had become experienced In the photographic method, having
taken approximately two hundred pictures with the same
photographic set-up in a pilot study of the developed
technique of body alignment, during the year previous
to this Investigation. The films were developed and
printed by a licensed photographer in Cortland.

Procedures for Taking Linear Measurements on the

flbotographa
The method used in marking the photographs was the
same as the method described in marking the radiographs
and photographs in the initial experimental study, (see
p. 137, 140), with the exception that the five traditional
body landmarks were marked and conneoted to indicate the
line of gravity or vertical balance line of the body.
This relationship of the traditional landmarks describes
the traditional criterion of body alignment.
Lines were drawn on the photographs between the
extended sterno-pubic line and each marker of the five
external traditional body landmarks, (see Figure VI,
p. 153). Each marker designating the traditional body
landmark was dotted at its center and a perpendicular
line was drawn with a sharp #6H Dixon pencil to connect
the center point and the sterno-pubic line. (The sterno-
pubic line had been drawn to parallel the plumb edge of
the perpendicular rod of the alignometer and the plumb
line of the screen).
 - 152 -

All measurements were made under the circular magni­

fying glass as described on p. 140. All markings and read­
ings were made by the investigator and only twn were measured
at one sitting in order to reduce as much as possible inaccura­
cies due to eye strain or weariness. The measurements were
made in the daylight In a quiet, relaxing environment during
the June vacation.
The length of each line was measured by an ordinary,
sturdy spring divider used by engineers and draftsmen and
the dlstanoe was read by means of a Starrett micrometer
caliper, Mo. 209, to the nearest 1/1000 th of an inch.
Practice in taking the reading measurements before actual
final scores were recorded enabled the investigator to
arrive at agreement after two readings of each line. Each
line reading was recorded on the photograph.

The legend of the five lines B, C, D, and E,

(see Figure VI, p. 153) is as follows:
Line A is the line distance between the ear
lobe, the traditional anatomical landmark of the
head, and the sterno-pubic line*
Line B is the line distance between the
acromion process of the scapula, the traditional
anatomical landmark of the shoulder girdle, and
the sterno-pubic line;
Line C is the line distance between the
great trochanter of the femur, the traditional
anatomical landmark of the pelvis, and the
 - 163 -

FIGURE VI

College students demonstrating body alignment

in standing: A,B,C,D, and E indicate location
of lines connecting the sterno-publo line and
the five traditional body landmarks-
 - 154

sterno-pubic line;
Line D is the line distance between the center
of the knee joint, the traditional anatomical land­
mark of the legs, and the sterno-pubic line; and
Line E is the line distance between a point
approximately two inches in front of the ankle
joint, the traditional anatomical landmark of the
supporting base, the feet, where the line of gra­
vity falls, and the sterno-pubic line.

The scores of each line measurement in each of the

three sets of photographs were arranged and organized for
the statistical calculation of their Interrelationships by
means of the Product-Moment method of correlation. Each
linear measurement was correlated against each of the
remaining linear measurements in each of the three sets
of tests to determine the validity and reliability of the
measure.

4. Procedures Employed in the Experlmental Measurement of

the Application of tEe Developed Technique
The procedure employed in the experimental measure­
ment of the application of the developed technique were those
which were necessary to determine the effectiveness of the
technique for teaching body alignment in standing. These
procedures proceeded in two ways:
a. by the application of the technique in body
mechanics classes of experimental groups
comprised of students on all grade levels
from the fourth grade through college, age
 - 155

range of nine to thirty years, and of both

sexes, except on the high school level in
which only girls participated
b. by testing the effectiveness of the techni­
que as a measure in posture education, when
no instruction in the technique was given,
with control groups of elementary school
boys and girls, grades four through eight*

Organization of Body Mechanics Classes for Application

or the Developed technique with Experimental Groups
The developed technique which involved the alignment
of the body landmarks, the center of the sternum and symphysis
pubis, was taught by the investigator in eleven separate body
mechanics classes during the school year, September 1948 to
June 1949, in the Cortland State Teachers College and the
Cortland High School*
The general organization of the body mechanics classes
in which the developed technique was applied follows*
a* The Experimental College Groups:
A total of one hundred ninety-six comprised the
college group in which one hundred eleven were men and
eighty-five were women* The groups included students from
the two major divisions of the College; Health, Physical
Education and Recreation, and General Education.
Each body meohanlcs class in which instruction in
the body alignment teohnique was given covered a period of
ten weeks (one-half semester) with three fifty minute class
meetings each week totalling approximately thirty class hours
 - 156

or eight and one-third olook hours of work. One-half semes­

ter hour of credit is given for the body mechanics course
which is in the Activity Program curriculum of the College.
The men and women students of the Division of Health,
Physical Education and Recreation were from the Sophomore,
Junior and Senior classes, while the men and women students
from the Division of General Education were from the Fresh*
men class.
The assignment of the students to the body mechanics
classes was made through the regular administrative scheduling
program of the College.
Table I, p. 157, presents a distribution of the college
groups, according to sex, age, class size, and total amount of
Instruction in the application of the developed technique for
body alignment in standing.
b. The Experimental High School Group:
A total of forty-eight high school girls comprised
the body mechanics class in which the effectiveness of the
application of the developed technique may be ascertained
on that age-grade level. The age range of the high school
group was from fourteen through seventeen years. The grade
levels comprised the Sophomore and Junior classes largely,
although two students were Seniors and one was a Freshman.
The group was a regular physical education class
assigned to the investigator by the Director of Physical
Education of the Cortland schools and the woman instructor
in the High School Physical Education program. The assign­
ment was made to meet the teaching schedule of the investi­
gator and the class schedule of the high school physical
 - 157 -

TABLE I

DISTRIBUTION OP EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS ACCORDING TO CLASS SIZE,

AGE, SEX, LENGTH OP C U S S PERIOD, AND TOTAL INSTRUCTION IN
THE APPLICATION OP THE DEVELOPED TECHNIQUE IN BODY MECHANICS
CUSSES

Class Number-length Total

Group size Sex Age-Range class period clock hours

College
ftroup x -
(Jr. Sr. Phys. 50 min. 3 per
Ed.) 48 M 19-30 wk. for 10 wka. 25
Group II -
(So. Jr. Phys.
Ed.) 57 M 19-26 50 mln. 3 per
wk. fo r 10 wks. 25
Group III -
(Pr. Gen. Ed.) 26 M 18-26 50 mln. 3 per
wk. for 10 wks. 25
Group IV -
(So. Phys. Ed.) 26 P 19-20 50 min. 3 per
wk. for 10 wks. 25
Group V -
(So. Phys. Ed.) 35 P 18-22 50 mln. 3 per
wk. for 10 wks. 25
Group VI -
(Fr. Gen. Ed.) 24 P 17-25 50 mln. 3 per
wk. for 10 wks. 25
High School
Group VII -
(So. and Jr.) 48 F 14-17 50 min. 1 per
wk. for 16 wks. 13
Elementary School
Group VIII -
(Grade four) 26 M&P 9-10 20 min. 1 per
wk. for 36 wks. 13
Group IX -
(Grade five) 27 M&F 10-11 30 min. 1 per
wk. for 18 wks. 9
Group X -
(Grade six) 29 M&P 11-13 30 min. 1 per
wk. for 18 wks. 9
Group XI -
(Grades seven
and eight) 36 M&F 12-15 50 min. 1 per
wk. for 12 wks. 10
 158 -

education program.
The high school class In body mechanics In which
the developed technique was taught met for one semester,
approximately sixteen weeks for one fifty minute period
each week, totalling approximately sixteen class hours or
thirteen clock hours of work, (see Table I, p. 157).
The class was taught, during one of the two regu­
larly scheduled physical education periods per week for
that group, in the girl*s gymnasium of the Cortland High
School.
The forty-eight high school girls who participated
In this study were found to be orthopedically normal accord­
ing to the records In the office of the School Physician and
School Nurse of the High School.
c. The Experimental Elementary School Groups:
A total of one hundred fifteen elementary school boys
and girls In the School of Practice of the Cortland State
Teachers College comprised the experimental groups for the
age-grade levels of nine to fifteen years of age and grades
four through eight.
The number of subjects and the age range In each
grade are as follows:
Grade IV: Eleven boys and fifteen girls totalling
twenty-six. Ages; nine to eleven, with
an average age of nine years
Grade V: Fourteen boys and thirteen girls totalling
twenty-seven. Ages; ten to eleven, with
an average age of ten years
 159 -

Grade VI: Twelve boys and seventeen girls totalling

twenty-nine. Agea; eleven to thirteen
with an average age of eleven
Grade VII
and VIII: Thirteen boys and twenty-three girls
totalling thirty-six. Ages; eleven to
fifteen with an average age of twelve
years in Grade VII and thirteen years
in Grade VIII.

The classes in body mechanics for each grade met

during the entire school year, totalling approximately thirty-
six weeks of instruction. The fourth grade met each week for
twenty minutes with a total amount of instruction of approxi­
mately twelve clock hours. The fifth and sixth grades met
for thirty minutes once every two weeks with a total amount
of Instruction of approximately nine clock hours. The seventh
and eighth grades met for a fifty minute period every three
weeks with a total amount of instruction of approximately
ten clock hours.
The boys and girls were separated for their body
mechanics classes as arranged by the Supervisor of Physical
Education in the School of Practice. This was considered
expedient in meeting the problems of scheduling the elementary
physical education classes and in meeting program interests*
However, the application of the developed technique did not
vary while dealing with the separated sex groups*
 - 160 -
The body mechanics classes of the elementary school
groups were taught in the Body Mechanics room, a small gym­
nasium, assigned to the investigator for special classes In
body mechanics and as a laboratory for work in remedial or
adapted physical education.
The distribution of the elementary school groups
according to size of class, sex, age, length of class period,
and total instruction is presented in Table I, p. 157.

Organization of Control Groups to Determine the Effect­

iveness of the Application or the Developed Technique
for teaching Body Alignment in Standing
Control groups of elementary school boys and girls,
comparable in age-grade range and apparent socio-economic
status to the experimental elementary school groups, were
assigned to the investigator by the Superintendent of Schools
of the cooperating city, Endicott, N. Y. and the Director of
Training of the Division of Health, Physical Education and
Recreation of the Cortland State Teachers College.
The control groups consisted of one hundred fifteen
elementary school boys and girls, grades four through eight,
with an age range of nine to fifteen years, in George Wash­
ington Elementary School in which there were approximately
one thousand children from kindergarten through the eighth
grade•
The Principal of the cooperating school assigned
each grade room for participation in the study.
Grade four consisted of eleven boys and eleven girls,
totalling twenty-two, with an age range of nine to eleven and
 161

an average of nine years; Grade five comprised twelve boys

and twelve girls, totalling twenty-four, with an age range
of ten to twelve and an average age of ten years; Grade six
consisted of thirteen boys and twelve girls, totalling twenty-
five, with an age range of eleven to twelve and an average of
eleven years; Grade seven comprised nine boys and ten girls,
totalling nineteen, with an age range of twelve to fifteen
and an average age of thirteen years; Grade eight consisted
of thirteen boys and twelve girls, totalling twenty-five,
with an age range of thirteen to fourteen and an average
age of thirteen years.
Table II presents the distribution of the control
groups according to class size, sex and age.

TABLE II
DISTRIBUTION OP CONTROL GROUPS ACCORDING TO
CLASS SIZE, SEX, AGE RANGE AND AVERAGE AGE

Grade Sex Number Total Age Range A v • Age

Grade IV boys 11 9-11 9

girls 11 22 9-11 9
Grade V boys 12 10-12 10
girls 12 24 10-11 10
Grade VI boys 13 11-13 12
girls 12 25 11-12 11
Grade VII boys 9 12-15 13
gi rls 10 19 12-15 13
Grade VIII boys 13 13-14 14
girls 12 25 13-14 13
 - 162 .

Procedures Employed In Statistical Measurement of

the Application of the Developed Teclinlque
a. Experimental Groups:
The procedures employed with each experimental
group for testing experimentally the effectiveness of the
developed technique for teaching body alignment in standing
in body mechanics classes Involved an alignment test, by
means of the measuring Instrument, at the beginning and
again at the end of the instructional period. The test
was given to determine the alignment of body parts before
instruction in the developed technique in order to ascer­
tain improvement, if any, when the instruction period ended.
The scores for each test were recorded and organi­
zed for statistical treatment.
The statistical procedures were employed to deter­
mine the effectiveness of the developed technique as a measure
for teaching body alignment. This was accomplished by comput­
ing the significance of the difference of the means between
the pre-instruction test, Test I, and the post-instruction
test, Test II. Test I and Test II contained the scores ob­
tained from the test administered to the same group and,
thereby, become correlated scores in which their differences
and the significance of their differences furnish evidence
for evaluation.
The reliability of the difference between the means *
of the two distributions of related measures was found first

1, Garrett, op. cit., p. 198

 - 163

by determining the reliability of each mean and then by

testing for significance the ratio between the obtained
difference of the means and the standard error of the dif-
1
ference.
b. Control Groups:
The procedures employed with the control groups,
to teat experimentally the effectiveness of the application
of the developed technique for teaching body alignment in
standing, involved administering the alignometer test at
the beginning of the school year, and, again, at the close
of the school year. The test was administered by the in­
vestigator at both periods.
During the interval, between Test I and Teat II,
no instruction in the application of the developed technique
for body alignment was given, although, the participating
control groups had posture education in their physical edu­
cation classes. This condition was substantiated by the
instructors of physical education of that school. They
claimed no knowledge of the procedures involved in teaching
the developed technique, thus, eliminating possible effects
of Its formal instruction upon the participating groups.
However, some learning was inevitable, since the very
nature of the test itself is one of easy comprehension
and enquiry, especially among the upper grade levels.
The scores of each test were recorded and
organized for statistical treatment to determine the

1. Garrett, op. cit., p. 190

 - 164

effectiveness of the technique where instruction involving

the use of the developed technique did not take place.
The statistical procedures used in the analysis
of these data were the same as those used for the experi­
mental groups.
 CHAPTER V

RESULTS OP THE STUDY

The results of the experimental measurements employed

in this study to determine the significance of the simplified
technique for teaching body alignment in standing, as developed
by the investigator, follow.

1. Results of Experimental Measurement of the Radiographs

and Photographs
The radiographs and photographs taken of a selected
subject were utilized experimentally for the purpose of j
(a) the determination of the reliability of the investigator
in locating the actual anatomical body landmarks, the center
of the sternum and the superior border of the symphysis pubis
(landmarks of the developed technique), (b) the determination
of the validity of the developed technique by measuring the
relationship between the sterno-pubic line (line connecting
the center of the sternum and the superior border of the
symphysis pubis) and the perpendicular reference line re­
presenting the line of gravity or the vertical balance line
of the body (indicated by the plumb line on the radiographs
and the photographs), and (c) the observation of the anatomi­
cal changes that may take place as the subject assumed align­
ment of the body parts from an assumed slump position*
 - 166

The reliability of the investigator in locating the

anatomical body landmarks of the center of the sternum and
the superior border of the symphysis pubis was determined
when the X-rays revealed agreement between the superficially
located markers and the actual skeletal locations on the body
in the two sets of tests. (see Figures III and IV, p. 138 and
139).
The actual center of the sternum was determined on the
X-rays by bisecting the arc formed between the base and the
upper border of the sternum* The actual center of the ster­
num found on the X-ray coincided with the lead marker placed
by the investigator on the body of the subject to indicate
the superficial body landmark of the center of the sternum.
The superior border of the symphysis pubis was located on
the X-ray by its bony anatomical location. The lead marker
placed superficially on the pubic landmark of the subject*s
body by the investigator was found to coincide with the
actual bony landmark of the superior border of the symphysis
publs•
The agreements of the superficial and actual bony
body landmarks between the two sets of X-rays were endorsed
and substantiated by the chief physician, Dr. Robert Kerr,
of the VerNooy Sanitarium and Hospital, where the radiographs
were taken.
Each set of radiographs and photographs of the stand­
ing subject gave Identical results. They revealed the follow­
ing: (a) each assumed alignment position, which demonstrated
 167 -

the application of the developed technique, produced a geo­

metric rectangular parallelogram which determined alignment
between the body parts, the cheBt and the pelvis, and (b)
each assumed slump position resulted in disalignment of body
parts demonstrated by the failure to produoe the geometric
rectangular parallelogram with linear measurements.
An illustration of the resultant geometric rectangular
parallelogram when the trained subject assumed body alignment,
according to the developed technique, is shown in Figure IV,
a and b, p. 139. The radiograph reveals a geometric rectangular
parallelogram formed by equal parallel sides; 66 mm and 17 mm
respectively. The photograph reveals a geometric rectangular
parallelogram of equal and parallel sides of 10 mm and 27 mm.
Figure III, a and b, p. 138, Illustrates a geometric
figures whioh does not form a parallelogram. The parallel
sides are unequal.
The formation of a geometric rectangular parallelo­
gram in each of the two sets of radiographs and photographs,
when the developed technique was demonstrated by the selected
subject, indicates ttae validity of the measure.
A study of the radiographs and photographs when the
assumed slump was taken by the experimental subject revealed
the following: (see Figure III, a and b, p. 138).
a. A disalignment of body parts in which the
anatomical landmarks of the sterno-pubic line were not
perpendicularly aligned.
b. The spinal column appeared to assume slightly
exaggerated curvatures.
 168

c. The pelvic tilt, as Indicated by the pelvic

tilt line, presented a forward-upward direction lessening
the distance between the sternum and the pelvis and flat­
tening the lumbar spine*
d# The chest wall appeared to lower and the head
to incline forward-downward.
e* The linear measurements between the sterno-
pubic line and the line of reference (plumb line) were un­
equal. Therefore, a geometric rectangular parallelogram
did not obtain and a disalignment of body parts was evi­
denced.
The body alignment assumed, according to the de­
veloped technique, in each radiograph and photograph re­
vealed the following: (see Figure IV, a and b, p. 139).
a. A perpendicular line, parallel to the per­
pendicular line of reference (plumb line), occurred between
the anatomical landmarks, the center of the sternum and the
symphysis pubis. The linear measurements between the sterno-
pubic line and the line of reference were equal. These con­
ditions determined the resulting geometric rectangular parallel­
ogram which indicated that alignment of the trunk had been
validly obtained.
b. The spinal column appeared to assume the normal
anatomical curvatures and the chest wall appeared high.
c. The pelvic tilt appeared to be directed in a
mid-way position between a forward-upward and a downward-
backward tilt.
 169 -

2. Objectivity and Reliability of the Measuring Instrument

ana the ReliaBTirEy or thelnvestfgator as Examiner ~
The experimental measurement for the determination of
the objectivity and reliability of the measuring instrument
involved the calculation of the relationship between the body
alignment scores of twenty-four subjects tested by the inves­
tigator and another examiner in three seta of tests.
The relationship between these test data was computed
by the Product-Moment method of correlation from ungrouped
scores when the deviations are taken from the assumed means

of the series. ^
The coefficient of correlation, r, in Test I waa
.901 - .039; in Test II, .845 t .059; and in Test III,
.911 - .035. These relationships with their standard
errors indicate that the instrument may be considered
an objective and reliable measure in determining the
alignment of the body according to the developed technique
since the obtained r's reached the requirements of .8 and
.9 correlations for objectivity of a measuring tool.
The results of the intercorrelations between the
alignment scores, measured by the investigator and another
examiner by means of the measuring instrument, of twenty-
four subjects in three sets of tests are presented in
Table III, p. 170.

1. Henry Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Education,

p. 288-291
 - 170

TABLE III
OBJECTIVITY AND RELIABILITY OP THE MEASURING
INSTRUMENT DETERMINED BY THREE SETS OP TESTS
WITH TWENTY-POUR EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS

Test r or

I .901 .039
II .645 .059
III .911 - •035

The reliability of the Investigator as an examiner

of body alignment was determined by correlating the scores
of her first and second tests of the twenty-four experi­
mental subjects. The Product-Moment method of correlation 1
was used to calculate the correlation.
The coefficient of correlation of the examiner's
scores between Test I and Test II was .923 - .03. This
would indicate that the investigator may be considered re­
liable as an examiner of body alignment according to the
developed technique since an r of .923 meets the require­
ments for reliability between scores made by a single
examiner.

3. Results of the Measurement of Linear Interrelationships

between IHe Sterrio-pubic T ine and the Traditional Cri­
terion
The validity and the reliability of the developed
technique as a measure of body alignment were determined by

1. Garrett, op. cit., p. 282-288

 171 -

computing the Interrelationships between linear measurements

on three sets of photographs of thirty experimental subjects.
The interrelationships of the linear distances between the
sterno-pubic line, representing the developed technique for
alignment, and the five body landmarks of the traditional
criterion of body alignment were calculated by the Product-
Moment method of correlation. Coefficients of correlation
and their standard errors were computed between each line
in the three sets of tests.
The coefficients of correlation in the three tests
between Line A, as the line distance from the aterno-pubic
line to the ear lobe landmark of the traditional criterion,
and Line B, which is the line distance from the sterno-pubic
line to the shoulder landmark of the traditional criterion,
were as follows: Line A and Line B in Test I, r r .655 -
.104; Test II, r = .780 i .071; Test III, r s .701 i .092.
The inter-correlations in each of the three tests
between Line A and Line C, which is the line distance from
the sterno-pubic line to the landmark on the femur of the
traditional criterion, were as follows: Line A and Line C
in Test I, r » .507 - .135; Test II, r = .638 - .108; Test
III, r s .441 I .147.
The coefficients of correlation in each of the three
tests between Line A and Line D, which is the line distance
from the sterno-pubic line to the knee joint landmark of the
traditional criterion, were as follows: Line A and Line D
in Teat I, r a ,486 £ *139; Test II, r * .611 - .114; Test
III, r = .543 £ .128.
In each of the three tests, the coefficients of cor­
relation between Line A and Line E, which is the line distance
from the sterno-pubic line and the ankle joint landmark of the
traditional criterion, were as follows: Line A and Line E in
Test I, r a .501 £ .136; Test II, r s .544 £ .128; Test III,
r s. .496 I .137.
The interrelationships between Line B, which is the
line distance from the sterno-pubic line to the shoulder land­
mark, and the remaining body landmarks have the highest inter-
correlations in the three tests of the entire set of linear
relationships. Their correlations are; Line B with Line G,
r .870 £ .044 in Test I, r .932 £ .023 in Test II, and r .867 -
*045 in Test III. Line B and Line D correlate in the three
tests with a range of r*s from .596 - .117 to .771 - .074 and
Line B correlates with Line E from .654 £ .104 to .808 - .063
in the three tests.
The line distances between the knee and ankle joints
correlated with the sterno-pubic line in a range from .542 -
•128 to .969 - .011 in the three tests. This can be expected
since the anatomical relationships between the knee and ankle
joints have a smaller margin for instability than between the
other segments of the body in the standing position.
Table IV, p. 174, presents the intercorrelations and
their standard errors between each of the linear measurements,
in each of the three sets of tests.
 - 173 -

It was found that the highest linear Interrelationships

In the three sets of tests occurred between Line B and Line C.
This represents a high relationship between the sterno-pubic
line of the developed technique and the two traditional body
landmarks, the acromion process of the scapula and the great
trochanter of the femur. The intercorrelations between these
two lines were r *870, r .832 and r .867 in Tests I , II, and

III, respectively, which may be interpreted to Indicate that

when the center of the sternum and the symphysis pubis are
aligned the shoulder girdle and the pelvis are considered
aligned to a high degree. The converse would be the case,
also. Such a correlation assures an approximate alignment
of the upper and lower parts of the body trunk. The average
coefficient of correlation between Lines B and C Is ,889 which
was found by computing the arithmetic mean of the r fs of the
three tests* This gives a generalized picture of the relation­
ship between the two variables in the series when the r*s do
not differ greatly in size.
The inter-correlations between Lines A and B, which
are the lines connecting the sterno-pubic line and the body
landmarks of the ear lobe and the acromion process of the
scapula, are .655, .780 and .701 in Tests I, IX, and III,
respectively. The average coefficient of correlation between

1. Garrett, op. cit. , p. 303

 - 174

TABLE IV

INTERRELATIONSHIPS OP LINEAR MEASUREMENTS BETWEEN THE STERNO-

PUBIC LINE AND THE TRADITIONAL CRITERION OP ALIGNMENT IN THREE
TESTS

►T
H
H
Lines Test I (r) Test Test III (r!
A-B (head and shoulder
to sterno-pubic
line)
A-C (head and pelvis to
.655 £ .104 .780 - .071 .701 t .092
A A
sterno-pubic line) .507 £ .135 .638 £ .108 .441 t .147
A-D (head and knee to
sterno-pubic line) .486 i .139 .611 ^ .114 .543 / .128
A-E (head and ankle to A
sterno-pubic line) .501 / .136
mm .544 ^ .128 .496 r .137
B-C (shoulder and pelvis
to sterno-pubic
line) .870 / .044 .932 - .023 .867 £ .045
B-D (shoulder and knee
to sterno-pubic A A
line) .771 L .074 .596 - .117 •669 r .100
B-E (shoulder and ankle
to sterno-pubic A A
line) .740 t .082 .808 ^ .063 .654 r .104
C-D (pelvis and knee to /
sterno-pubic line) .677 £ .098 .542 £ .128 .767 £ .075
C-E (pelvis and ankle to A j
sterno-pubic line) .711 / .090 .654 £ .104 .780 t .071
D-E (knee and ankle to A a
sterno-pubic line) .969 t .011 .651 ^ .105 .844 t .052
 r - 175 -

the two lines in the three testa is, r .712. This indicates,
in general, the relationship of the head to the shoulder
girdle when thp center of the sternum and they symphysis
pubis are aligned.
The linear relationships between the shoulder girdle
and the knee Joint with the sterno-pubic alignment, Lines B
and D, are r .771, r .596, and r .669 in the three sets of
tests with an average coefficient of correlation of r .678.
The correlations in the three tests between the shoulder
girdle and the ankle joint, Lines B and E follow closely
the degree of relationship that appears to exist between
Lines B and D. The average coefficient of Lines B and E
is .734.
The linear relationships between the pelvis, knee
joint, and ankle joint to the sterno-pubic line in the
three tests are highly comparable to the linear relation­
ships between the shoulder, knee and ankle joints. ' The
average correlation between Line C and D (pelvis and knee
joint) is .662; between Line C and E (pelvis and ankle
Joint) the average r is .715 and between Lines D and E
(knee and ankle Joints) the average correlation is .821.
Table V presents the average intercorrelations be­
tween the linear measurements in the three tests.
 - 176 -

TABLE V
AVERAGE INTERCORRELATIONS BETWEEN
THREE TESTS OP LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Line8: A-B A-C A-D A-E B-C B-D B-E C-D C-E D-E

Av. r .712 .528 .546 .513 .889 .678 .734 .662 .715 .821

The proximity of these intercorrelations indicated by

the average coefficients of correlation, shows that the body
parts are closely related when the sterno-pubic line and the
traditional body landmarks tend to parallel each other at
equal distances between the lines connecting the two vari­
ables*
The relationships of the head to the other body parts
were lowest in amount* They were as follows; Lines A and B
(head and shoulder girdle) had an average correlation in the
three tests of r *712; Lines A and C (head and pelvis) an
average r of .528; Lines A and D (head and knee joint) had
an average r of *546, and Lines A and E (head and ankle
joint) intercorrelated with an average r of *513* It is
to be expected that as the distance becomes greater between
the body parts, the less will become their relationship since
a body part is less stable the farther away it is from its
supporting base* Thus, the head relationships have greater
variability than the other body parts due to the fact that
the head is farthest removed from the center of gravity and
the base of support.
The validity of the developed technique as a measure
of body alignment in standing bas been determined against the
 177 -

traditional criterion for body alignment by computing the

linear interrelationships between them in three seta of
photographs of experimental subjects. The range of the
coefficients of correlations between the two measures was
from r .411, Lines A and E (head and pelvis) to r .969,
Lines D and E (knee and ankle joints). The range of the
average coefficients of correlation of the three tests
was from 5 .513 of Lines A and E (head and ankle joint)
to r .889 of Lines B and C (shoulders and pelvis). Thus,
the ranges of the r*a and the average r fs offer an estimate
of the range of validity or representativeness of the linear
relationships between the sterno-pubic line and the criterion.
Such an estimate of the validity between these measures
may be said to indicate, for Instance, that an average r of
•889 between the shoulder and the pelvis shows that the devel­
oped technique which purports to align the sternal and pubic
landmarks for alignment is found to be comparable in measure­
ment with the criterion for alignment between the shoulders
and pelvis. Likewise, the extended line formed between the
sternum and the pubis representing the developed technique
for body alignment purports to indicate comparably the align­
ment between the remaining body segments. But the validity
which has been indicated by these remaining interrelationships
of body parts possesses a lesser amount of agreement as shown
by the lower intercorrelations.
The reliability of the interrelationships between the
linear measurements in the three sets of photographs was de­
termined by computing the standard error of the r«
 178 -

4* Results of the Experimental Measurement of the Application

o t the Developed Technique'"for Teaching Body Alignment In
BTandTng
The effectiveness of the developed technique as a
measure for teaching body alignment In standing was deter­
mined (a) by the application of the technique In body mech­
anics classes of experimental subjects, and (b) by the lack
of application of the technique in control groups.
(a) Experimental Groups:
A body alignment test, by means of the measuring in­
strument, was given before instruction in body alignment in
the body mechanics classes of eleven groups of students com­
prising college, high school and elementary levels, and again
at the close of the instruction period. This was done to de­
termine the improvement, if any, in body alignment between
Test I and Test II.
The determination of the effectiveness of the appli­
cation of the developed technique was made by computing the
reliability of the difference between the means of the two
tests and then testing for significance by use of the Mt"
test.
The significance of the difference between the means
of Test I and Test II was found by testing for the value of
"t" in the Table of t. ^ This was done to establish the re­
liability of the difference of the means in order to accept
or reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis assumes

1. Garrett, op. cit., p. 190

 - 179 -

that no true difference exists between the compared means,

and, that the two samples differed only through test acci­
dents or sampling errors. *
The evidence obtained from the computations of the
significance of the difference of the means between the two
tests in the eleven experimental groups indicates that the
null hypothesis was rejected. This was indicated when the
wtw value of all of the groups, except two, reached the .01
level of significance. The "t" value of the remaining two
groups reached the .02 level of significance, however.
Of the six groups on the college level of both men
and women students, all but one group, the Freshmen men In
the Division of General Education were significant at the
•01 level. The scores of this group were significant at the
.02 level. This Indicates that ninety-eight per cent of the
time the difference between Test I and Test II would occur
for this sample within the limits of the obtained difference
of the mean and its standard error. All other groups were
assured a confidence that ninety-nine per cent of the time
their difference between means would occur within the limits
of the obtained difference and the standard error of the
difference.
The results of the college experimental group tests
indicate that the application of the developed technique on
the college level was found to be significant since the scores

1. Garrett, op. cit., p. 208

 180 -

of Test II Indicated significant improvement over the scores

of Test I.
On the high school level, the significance of the
developed technique as a measure for teaching body alignment
was significant at the *01 level of confidence, also* This
shows that significant improvement occurred in body align­
ment between the beginning and the close of the body mechanics
class in which the developed technique was taught*
Only Grade V of the experimental elementary group of
boys and girls from Grade IV through Grade VIII failed to
reach the .01 level of significance. The "t" value for Grade
V was 2.40 which lacked .08 points of reaching the .02 level.
However, the results of the significance of the differences
between the means of Test I and Test II for the elementary
school groups indicates that improvement in body alignment
took place significantly on that level.
Table VI, p. 181, presents a tabulation of the data
of the eleven experimental groups on the college, high school
and elementary school levels that were given instruction be­
tween Test I and Test II in body alignment, according to the
developed technique, in body mechanics classes.

(b) Control Groups:

The measurement of the data taken of control groups, who
did not receive instruction in the application of the developed
technique between Test I and Test II, was identical with those
taken of the experimental groups. (see p. 178).
 - 181 -

TABLE VI

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE OF THE MEANS BETWEEN PRE­

INSTRUCTION AND POST-INSTRUCTION TESTS OF EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS
Slgnl-
No. of Mean Mean <T* °my Obt. ut n ficant
Groups mX dlff diff value levels
cases X y

College
Woilpl -
(Phy3 .Ed.men) 48 11.40 4.54 1.49 .59 1.60 6.86 4.28 .01
Group II -
(Phys.Ed.men) 37 9.35 3.43 .73 .34 .81 5.92 7.30 .01
Group III -
(Gen.Ed. men) 26 10.04 5.00 1.83 •66 1.94 5.04 2.59 .02
Group IV -
(Phys.Ed.women) 26 10.50 3.30 .60 .53 .80 7.20 9.00 .01
Group V -
(Phys.Ed.women) 35 11.77 4.11 1.46 .58 1.57 7.66 4.88 .01
Group VI -
(Gen.Ed.women) 24 15.79 4.96 1.47 .98 1.78 10.8 3 6.08 .01

High School
(Jroup tLl -
(girls) 48 15.00 5.42 1.75 .86 1.95 9.58 4.91 .01

Elementary School
W p vnr -
(Grade four) 26 11.12 4.42 1.18 .73 1.39 6.70 4.82 .01
Group IX -
(Grade five) 27 10.00 5.78 1.53 .86 1.76 4.22 2.40 .02
Group X -
(Grade six) 29 9.76 4.97 1.21 .63 1.37 4.79 3.42 .01
Group XI -
(Grade seven
and eight) 36 12.83 7.61 1.44 .92 1.70 5.22 3.07 .01

x * pre-instruction test
y * post-instruction test
ctl s standard error of mean of pre-instruction test
mx
cC
my
■ standard error of mean of post-Instruetion test
standard error of the difference between means of the
°diff pre-instruction and post-instruction tests
Obt. diff. = obtained difference between the means of the pre­
instruction and post-instruction tests
 - 182 -

The significance of the difference of the means of

the two tests for each group of elementary school boys and
girls, Grades IV through VIII and comparable with the ex­
perimental elementary school groups, Indicated that the null
hypothesis was accepted and that the difference between the
means must have occurred largely by chance. This was estab­
lished by testing for the value of "t".
The "t" values were not significant at the .01 and
.05 levels of confidence except for one sample, Grade IV,
which reached the .05 level. The scores of Grades VII and
VIII showed significance at the .50 level, but those of
Grade VI did not reach any level of significance as deter­
mined by the Table of "t"• ^ Grade V scores were signifi­
cant at the .10 level.
These data indicate that the lack of a high degree
of significance show that the obtained difference between
the means of the two tests may have occurred by chance since
instruction in the developed technique had not been given.
The means of each sample increased in size from Test I to
Test II which should not have occurred if improvement were
to be indicated. The body alignment test as measured by
the alignometer requires the score of zero for the align­
ment of body parts, thus, the lesser the score, the better
the score. By the same token, an improvement in test scores
requires a reduction of the size of the scores. Since the
teat scores of the control groups increased in size, it may

1. Garrett, op. cit., p. 190

 - 183 -

be Interpreted to mean that the alignment, as measured by

the measuring instrument, was poorer at the close of the
school year which included Test II than at the beginning
of the school year when Test I was given*
Table VII presents a tabulation of these data In
the measurement of body alignment between Test I and Test
II of the control groups to whom Instruction of the developed
technique had not been given.

TABLE VII
SIGNIFICANCE OF TEE DIFFERENCE OF THE MEANS BETWEEN
TEST I AND TEST II OF CONTROI, GROUPS
signi­
No. Mean Mean cr or cr Obt. «tw ficant
Groups cases mY mx “y diff diff. value levels
“y
...

Elementary School
(Boys ana Sirls)
Grade four 22 8.86 13.18 1.44 1.57 2.13 4.32 2.02 .05
Grade five 24 10.46 15.08 1.82 1.98 2.69 4.62 1.72 .10
Grade six 25 13.32 13.64 1.86 1.32 2.28 •32 .14 not slg.
at any
level
Grade seven 19 14.21 18.16 1.92 2.06 2.82 3.95 1.40 •50
Grade eight 25 15.20 18.40 1.83 2.01 2.72 3.20 1.18 •50

x ■ pre-instruction test
y s post-instruction test
oz. z standard error of mean of pre-instruction teet
mx
cr s standard error of mean of post-instructIon test
my
g. standard error of the difference between means of
diff the pre-instruction and post-instruction tests
Obt. diff. - obtained difference between the means of the
pre-instruction and post-lnstructlon tests
 CHAPTER V I

APPLICATION OF THE BODY ALIGNMENT TECHNIQUE

During the school year, September 1948 - June 1949,

the investigator taught body alignment, according to the
developed technique, in eleven separate body mechanics
classes to both male and female students, from grade four
through college, ages nine to thirty years. This was done
for the purpose of determining the effectiveness of the
application of the developed body alignment technique in
the teaching of other fundamental motor skills.
The classes consisted of the regular subject-matter
content, commonly included in body mechanics classes, in
which the good mechanical use of the body in the every-day
fundamental motor skills of standing, walking, sitting,
lifting, carrying, stair climbing, and so forth, were
taught. Emphasis was placed upon the application of
standing body alignment as basic to the interpretation
and practice of balance and alignment in the other funda­
mental motor skills.
The body alignment of standing is so closely inter­
woven into the mechanics of walking, sitting, climbing stairs,
etc. that its application is considered, by the investigator,
 - 185 -

to be highly essential to the accompliahment of these acts*

One does not stand still; one stands dynamically by shifting
the body weight constantly from side to side or forward and
backward, yet, at the same time, the alignment of the body
parts may take place effectively with ease and economy*
Standing with the body parts aligned is mechanically
basic to walking in good mechanical use of the body since the
shifting of body weights occurs by directing the vertical axis
of the trunk in the direction of propulsion impelled by the
alternating pendular action of the lower extremities* Thus,
it may be said simply, that the body parts in alignment "go
for a walk" when walking takes place in good mechanics of
body balance and alignment*
In sitting the same case occurs also* The standing
alignment of the body parts is utilized in the body trunk
while sitting. The application of the developed technique
in teaching alignment between the center of the sternum and
the symphysis pubis is Important to the sitting alignment
of the body trunk*
Climbing stairs utilizes the alignment of body parts
for the best mechanical use of the body in propelling itself
in the forward upward direction*
In the meohanical problem of lifting and carrying
heavy weights, the understanding and the practice of balance
and alignment of body parts are highly essential in reducing
the stresses and strains that may occur due to the improper
support and control of the loads to be lifted or carried*
 - 186 -

Throughout the teaching of body alignment In the classes

of body mechanics, the application of the developed technique In
standing was made basic to teaching the best mechanical use of
the body In the other fundamental motor activities.
The investigator endeavored to teach body alignment in
standing and its application to the other fundamental motor
skills in planned units of Instruction as learning-situations
based upon the present day educational practices. She planned
the learning-situations on the belief that the acquisition of
motor skills, such as the skills of standing, walking, sitting,
etc. which are considered basic to all motor activities, is
achieved through the same learning process that is involved
in the learning of any skill, mental or physical.
The essential factors basic to the teaching of body
alignment are common to all learning. They embrace the range
of mental skills involved in learning the motor act, i.e.,
attention, analysis, comparison, generalization, reflection,
planning and understanding. Certain attitudes and emotional
responses, common to all learning, are expected to accompany
the learning of motor skills.
The psychological principles basic to learning the
motor skill of standing in alignment have been reported in
Chapter III, p. 57-58. Their application was considered
fundamental to teaching body alignment in standing in the
body mechanics classes.
The learning-situations, which were developed for
teaching body alignment in the classes of body mechanics,
 - 187

were based upon the accepted principles of teaching and

theories of learning as expressed in the present-day liter­
ature of education. ^
The learning-situations embraced the organization of
lessons in which the learner was expected to achieve the
ability to stand in alignment, and apply it to walking,
sitting, climbing stairs, and carrying heavy weights, etc.
with good mechanical use of the body. Equal in importance,
the learner was expected to gain knowledge and understanding
of the basic meanings through which the skill in every-day
motor activities may be accomplished. The importance of
unifying participation and practice in the acts with the
appreciations and understandings of their meanings was
strongly emphasized in planning the body alignment learning-
situations.

1. John Dewey, Experience and Education, 1938

William H. Kilpatrick, Education for a Changing Civili-
zation, 1926 “
Henry c7 Morrison, The Practice of Teaching in the
Seoondary School, 1935
William H. Burton, The Guidance of Learning Activities,
3.944
James L. Mursell, Successful Teaching; Its Psychological
Principles, 1946
p. (J. Bdacomber, Guiding Child Development in the Elementary
School, 1941
A. T. Jersild, Child Psychology, Third Edition, 1948
National Society'Tor TEeTTEudyof Education, Philosophies
of Education, Part I; Psychology of Learning, Part n ,
E o r EyTffrT E ^ e arb“ook , I M S T “ ------------------- ------------------
National Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc­
tion, Twelfth Yearbook, 1940, New Instruetional Practices
of Promise
G . T . Yoakam and R. G. Simpson, Modern Methods and Techni­
ques of Teaching, 1944
 - 188 -

The following characteristics dominated the planning

and organization of the learning-situations for the develop­
ment of body alignment in the body mechanics of every-day
motor skills:
(1) Each learning-situation must have a defined
purpose basic to its development
(2) Each learning-situation must be geared to
meet the age-grade level of the partici­
pant for understanding and appreciation
of the problem involved
(3) Each learning-situation must be coordinated
with the activities of the learner in his
ordinary every-day experiences of living
(4) Each learning-situation must furnish an
opportunity for direct experience by
actually doing the learning activity
(5) Each new learning-situation must be built
upon the past experiences of the learner
(6) Each learning-situation must have variety
and change in both the intellectual and
motor aspects of the learning activity
(7) Each learning-situation must offer oppor­
tunity for emotional accompaniments in the
learning activity, such as satisfaction
and achievement in the selected goal.

Principles of Teaching
The principles of teaching, basic to the organization
of the learning-situations for teaching body alignment in
standing as it applies to other fundamental motor skills in
body mechanics classes, were those that deal with the learner
"as one who learns" and which result in a learning that must
enter into his developing personality, his thinking, and his
behavior. * This means that the learning must be meaningful
and real to the learner and which must have social value in
order to arouae purpose for successful accomplishment of the
learning activity.
o
Mursell offers six principles of teaching which
the investigator utilized in the development of the learning-
situations for teaching body alignment in the body mechanics
classes. They are as follows:

T*18 Principle of Context

This principle entails the use of subject-materials
that proceed to exemplify the meanings involved in the learn­
ing-situation. Through them the learner*s interest is engaged.
The materials embrace the experiences within the scope of the
learner* s comprehension and understanding. They must be varied
and simple.
The principle of context in the teaching of body align­
ment entailed the use of illustrative materials* i.e., pictures,
posters, movies, posture mannikins, and diagrams. Teaching de­
vices, such as the use of the bony skeleton, mirrors, and the
alignometer were important motivators in the establishment of
the principle of context.

2. The Principle of Pocus

Mursell speaks of this principle as related to the
first principle in this way, "context generates motive, focus
mobilizes it." Thus, it is, that all learning to be effective

1. Mursell, op. clt., p. 6

2. Ibid., p. 78-304
3. Ibid., p. 122
 190 -

must center around a focal point and be organized in such a

way that its purpose has a source from which emerges the on­
going learning process*
Focalization gives unity in the 1earning-situation*
It gives a sense of direction which leads to meaningful and
effective learning*
In the teaching of body alignment in the body mechanics
of other fundamental skills, there had to occur a focalpoint
and a motive in the learning-situation that centeredupon the
acquisition of alignment and balance in movement* The recog­
nition of balance and the appreciation of its meaning in
standing alignment became the focus from which and through
which mechanical balance and alignment in other fundamental
every-day motor activities was to be learned*
The principle of focus, therefore, enabled the learner
to become aware of the meaning of the learning activity and to
appraise his progress by the success he experienced in being
able to unite the subject material and its meaning*

3. The Principle of Socialization

Learning takes place effectively and with meaning if
the learning-situation has social setting. The socializing
influence of the class environment is strongly interwoven in
the learning fabric. It may affect the learning favorably or
unfavorably.
The social setting for effective learning must include
a spirit of democratic and friendly interaction in which all
 191 -

members of the group may have the opportunity to participate.

It must Include opportunities for the group or the individual
himself to set the pace of the learning-situation.
There must be engendered in the learning-situation a
social incentive through which the learner may gain approval
from the group and from the teacher. The learner benefits
greatly by suggestions and recommendations that lead him
toward the goal sought. The motivation must be positive
rather than negative, kindly rather than unkindly, to re­
sult in effective learning.
The learner learns from example. The general color­
ing of the learning-situation, organized and planned for
social setting, Influences unmistakably the learner in his
learning. Thus, an atmosphere of pleasantness and coopera­
tive group activity is conducive to the learning.
The application of this principle in teaching body
alignment in the body mechanics classes was demonstrated when
group members responded cooperatively to the planned social
pattern of the learning-situation. It was demonstrated by
responsible action on the part of the learners as they were
given opportunities for leadership and creative expression.

4. The Principle of Individual!zation

If learning is to be meaningful, the learning-situation
must take into consideration the needs of the individual. This
Includes his abilities, aptitudes, attitudes and interest. It
refers not alone to the mental and social aspects of the indi­

vidual make-up but to his physical equipment as well. It

 - 192

embraces the recognition of individual differences as one

of the most important problems in learning.
Mursell speaks of "vertical differences" among
human beingsas differences, either mental or physical, that
appear to be general, such as general Intelligence or general
physical condition. But classification of individuals in re­
lation to "vertical differences" does not go far enough to
insure effective learning. There must be a recognition of
the qualitative, individualized differences of individuals
in order to meet successfully all needs.
The specific interests and attitudes of the indivi­
dual must be taken into consideration not for guidance pur­
poses alone but for bases of approach and the organization
of the learning-situation. The speoific physical needs and
physical limitations of the individual become equally impor­
tant in the learning activity.
The principle of individualization was strongly uti­
lized in the teaching of body alignment. The very nature of
the learning in the body mechanics learning-situations contri­
buted to the recognition of individual needs to some length.
In these classes, there were offered Investigation and follow-
up of the observed individual needs for improved mechanical use
of the body in the motor activities involved. There was an
endeavor to guide the individual in specific practices for
improved and satisfying adjustments to meet the appraised
needs.

1. Mursell, op. cit., p. 190

 - 193 -

The qualitative aspects of the learner require great

care. The attitude toward and the interest in the learning-
situation must be carefully appraised in order to approach
wisely the problems of the learner. He must be led to ap­
praise himself with the guidance of the teacher; he must
appraise others and be allowed to compare and differentiate
his problems with them. Thus, the recognition of his own
needs in relation to others may often lead to changes in
attitude and Interest in relation to himself.
It is strikingly true that physical imperfections
seem to produce highly subjective and negative attitudes
toward change. Physical defects and quite pointedly those
of poor posture often cause attitudes of indifference, apathy,
and even denial. The recognition of this tendency in the
learning-situation a characteristic that had to be carefully
and wisely attended with kindliness and understanding.

5. The Principle of Sequence

The organization of instruction, even though it may
be made up of separate units within a subject-matter content,
must be planned with sequence between the several units for
meaningful and effective learning.
"The sequence of meaningful learnings must itself be
meaningful, if authentic results are to be obtained." 1 The
sequence that becomes meaningful is that sequence which

1. Mursell, op. cit., p. 228

 194 -

demonstrates growth In knowledge, appreciation and practice

of the learning activity.
No learning-situation must be isolated from those
that make up the subject field content. Each situation must
be built upon the background of past experience and learning.
Each must progress and grow through sequence from those before
it. Such a sequence offers a continuous and on-going learning
that is meaningful and purposeful to the learner.
The learning-situation8 in teaching body alignment in
the body mechanics classes were organized to meet this princi­
ple. They were constructed to permit a sequence in pattern in
order that growth in understanding and practice could take
place as progress ensued from the simple to the complex com­
ponents of the learning activity.

The Principle of Evaluation

The necessity for appraisal of any learning activity
is highly recognized. It becomes a measure of learning and
must be made an integral part of teaching. Appraisal includes
measuring, testing, making records, observation, surveying
situations, and so forth, which serve as factors of evaluation
and scrutiny of the learning activity.
Not alone must appraisal be done by the teacher but,
also, by the individual members of the group, and the group
as a whole. This offers an opportunity for the learner to
appraise himself and his progress in the learning activity.
It offers him the sense of responsibility and cooperation
within the group which in itself is conducive to effective
learning.
 - 195 -

The principle of evaluation was strongly adopted In

the organization and execution of the learning-situations
for teaching body alignment. They were so developed that
each individual student was able to specifically appraise
his progress. This was accomplished by repeated opportuni­
ties to observe and test his efforts. Be was given the oc­
casion repeatedly to appraise others and offer suggestions
for improvement.
Through the cultivation of sincere and honest apprai­
sal, appropriate to the learning-situation, learners often
developed greater appreciation of their specific needs and
endeavored more earnestly to practice for improvement*

LEARNINQ-SITUATIONS OF SUB^ECT-MATSRlAl OONTSNT

Learning-sltuations were organized to meet the pro­
blem of teaching body alignment in standing, according to
the developed technique, and its relationship to the develop­
ment of good mechanical use of the body in other every-day
fundamental motor skills commonly termed basic body mechanics.
Each learnlng-situation embraced many phases or approaches to
the central focus of a specific subject-material content.
These subject-material phases were developed in sequence and
through them the developed technique for teaching body align­
ment in other fundamental motor skills was applied*
The phases involved in the application of body align­
ment in the development of the subject-material content that
composed each learning-situation are outlined as follows:
 196

The Meaning of Efficient Mechanical Use of the Body

1* The Interpretation of the meaning of body mechanics
in all motor activities, such as sports, dancing, swimming, etc*
is based upon the interpretation of the body mechanics involved
in the every-day fundamental motor skills of standing, walking,
sitting, and so forth* Thus, the body mechanics of standing is
of first importance since it precedes all other fundamental motor
skills of the upright posture of man*
2* Social values are involved in the achievement of
efficient mechanical use of the body in standing and the other
basic body mechanics*
3. The basic principles, mechanical, psychological
and physiological, involved in the accomplishment of body
alignment in standing are fundamental to achievement of good
mechanical use of the body in other motor skills*

The Body as a Machine

1* The human body is mechanically related to the
machine. The skeletal framework resembles mechanically the
body framework of the machine*
2* The mechanical functions of the skeletal framework
of the body relate to the mechanical functions of the machine,
are demonstrated by the bony levers of the human body.
3. The controlling factors in the function of the
inanimate machine resemble those of the human machine* The
muscles, nerves and other body components control body move­
ment in much the same way that fuel, pistons, and the power
generating mechanisms control the function of the machine*
 197

4. The effects of poor mechanical functioning in

the body are similar to those that occur in the machine.
There exists in both cases inefficient action, waste, and
detrimental results.

The Mechanical Balance of Body Parts for Structural Alignment

1. The problem involved in maintaining alignment in
the upright position concerns the universal laws of mechanics;
the centers of gravity of each segment must align to fonn a
vertical balance line (line of gravity) which must fall with­
in the supporting base.
2. The problem of balance and alignment of the stand­
ing body presents difficult adjustments of the body parts due
to their diverse shapes and sizes and unbalanced relationships.
The standing body resembles an inverted cone.
3. The incessant shifting of the center of gravity,
the need for widening the base, and lowering the center of
gravity are additional controlling factors in establishing
balance and stability in standing.

The Body Landmarks and Their Structural Alignment in Standing

1. The five traditional body landmarks of the bony
skeleton, viewed laterally, represent the centers of weight
or the centers of gravity of their respective body parts, which,
when aligned, give the body alignment.
2. The alignment of body landmarks demonstrates the
law of mechanical balance of segments.
 - 198 -

3. The alignment of additional body landmarks, the

center of the sternum and the superior border of the symphy­
sis pubis, is a new and simplified means of demonstrating
body alignment in standing. (see Figures VII and VIII, p. 200).

The Adjustment Technique for Body Alignment in Standing

1. The body trunk may be aligned with ease by adjust­
ing the upper trunk and the pelvis to form a perpendicular line
between the body landmarks, center of the sternum and the su­
perior border of the symphysis pubis.
2. The specific technique involved in the adjustment
of body parts demonstrates how the human body may be easily
aligned just as the automobile is aligned when its front wheels
are in an exact straight line with the back wheels.
3. The steps of the adjustment technique for standing
alignment are as follows:
a. Locate the pubic landmark by placing a finger
of one hand on the superior border of the.' symphysis pubis.
(This is accomplished by drawing the hands down the abdomen
until the bony prominence of the symphysis pubis is felt).
b. Locate the sternal landmark by placing a finger
of one hand on the center of the sternum. (The center of the
sternum is located half-way between the superior border of the
sternum at the interclavicular notch and the inferior border
of the sternum at the xiphoid or ensiform process).
c. Assume a characteristic slump in which the
chest is lowered and the pelvis is thrust forward and upward
in direction.
 d. Slowly roll the pelvis downward and underward
and then lift through the abdominal wall until the two land­
marks, located by the fingers, are visualized to f o m a per­
pendicular line to the floor.
e. Drop the hands, release tension that may occur
in the shoulders or any place in the body. Sense an alignment
between the upper and lower body parts.
f. Align the head with the trunk by placing the
back of one hand horizontally under the chin, then draw the
head backward on a horizontal line until the ear lobe is in
line with the shoulder tip. Test the e&r-shoulder alignment
by placing the thumb on the shoulder tip and the first finger
of the same hand on the ear lobe so that a straight line in
the same plane is formed between them*
g. Drop the hand, close the eyes, and visualize
a straight line being drawn down through the body to rest
just In front of the ankle joints at a spot between the feet.
Then slowly visualize the line being drawn again upward through
the body to the very top of the head. The line is perpendicular
to the spot in the supporting base.
h. Open the eyes and sense the adjustment of body
parts and the poise without tension.

The Importance of the Pelvic Tilt in Body Alignment

1. The pelvis is considered the supporting keystone
to the body structure above it. The anterior-posterior cur­
vatures of the spinal column increase and decrease from their
natural curves as the pelvis shifts in its obliquity with the
long axis of the body. (see Figure II, p. 5).
 FIGURE VII FIGURE VIII

A fifth grade student An eighth grade student

aligning body parts aligning body parts
in standing in standing
 201 -

2. It is important that the natural curvatures of

the spinal column be retained in order to insure flexibility
in movement, protect the spinal nerves and support many mech­
anical and muscular functions of the back region.
3. The tilt of the pelvis must be controlled for
body alignment in standing and efficient mechanical use of
the body in other motor activities.
4. The bilateral symmetry of the pelvis is important
in balanced alignment of the body. The prolonged practice of
standing on one foot is conducive to bilateral asymmetry and
exaggerated lateral curvatures of the spinal column.

The Importance of Muscular Control in Efficient Mechanical

Tfse or the Bocfy
1. Muscles of the body provide support for the bony
framework in standing by producing muscular force which holds
parts together and permit action between them. Muscles
lengthen and shorten to produce these functions.
2. In establishing balance and equilibrium in the
standing body, the forces produced by the muscles provide
the resistance in opposite and equal amounts to the downward
pull of gravity.
3. For alignment of body parts, muscle forces must
be stronger in the extensors of the back, hip, knee and ankle
Joints than in the opponents, the flexors.
4. Balance in which the upright body does not fall
or collapse to the floor and alignment of parts does not
obtain, places additional stress and strain on supporting
joints and muscles. Thus a slumper may be balanced against
 202

falling but not balanced with alignment. In this case, the

supporting muscles are overworked and become excessively
tensed.
5. Balance between muscle groups will provide align­
ment of body parts in standing, walking, sitting, etc., In
which the muscles of the anterior part of the body may even
assist the muscles of the back to resist gravltal stress.
6. Muscle strength and tonus are states of muscle
function which serve to control body movement.

The Body Mechanics of Walking

1. The mechanical problems of every-day walking
Involve balance and alignment similar to standing except
that the body mass is being transported forward in which
there are moments of non-support and instability. The body
maintains its trunk alignment while the body weight is being
shifted to the forward foot. As the forward foot supports
the body weight momentarily, the vertical balance line of
the body, at that moment, falls just in front of the ankle
over the navicular bone. This gives a moment of support in
which there is balanced alignment.
2. Alternate arm swing gives oppositional lateral
balance and forward drive to the moving body. The pendulum
swing of the leg comes from the hip joint and the pelvis
drops very slightly to permit the forward swing. During
the opposition of arm and leg action mechanical balance la
transported to the moving trunk which permits it to maintain
alignment between its upper and lower parts. Inclination of
 203 -

the trunk takes place only as a whole body inclination which

occurs at the supporting ankle joint not at the hip joints.
3. Hip, knee and ankle joint action must be suffi­
cient to give release on the forward swing while the oppos­
ing supporting action is giving initial drive to the forward
moving body.
4. The forward swinging leg and foot maintain their
sagittal plane, which gives them mechanical balance with the
opposite supporting leg and foot, as they maintain their
sagittal plane position also. This relationship between
the supporting and swinging phases of walking insures mech­
anical efficiency and economy of movement.
5. Muscular balance between the supporting and
swinging phases in walking assures smoothness and rhythm
where the length of one stride is equal to the stride
length of the other. Flexibility in the hip, knee and
ankle joints means muscular balance and freedom of move­
ment in walking. Reciprocal action of muscle groups is
unimpaired and no one set of muscles restricts normal
action. Muscular support in trunk and head alignment
is equally important in walking as in standing.
6. Foot balance in walking is important since only
one foot at a time receives the whole body weight. When the
mechanical balance line of the foot, heel through the second
toe, is maintained as the swinging foot strikes the ground,
walking may be achieved with economy and balance.
The Body Mechanica of Sitting in Alignment
1. The relationship of the upper and lower parta of
the body trunk is the same in sitting as in standing. In
sitting for listening, the head is aligned with the trunk,
as in standing. The pelvis must retain its standing tilt
which can be done comfortably and easily if the lower back
is supported. The individual must sit far enough back in
the seat to allow the upper legs to be supported. The long
axis of the upper legs must approximate a right angle with
the long axis of the trunk.
2. The relationship of the various body parts in
sitting for studying, writing or reading at a table or desk
are the same as for listening except that the whole trunk
inclines forward from the hip joints. The head must be
lowered when writing takes place, but, if the trunk is well
aligned in its inclination over the desk, the head position
presents a lessened problem.
3. Sitting with both hips evenly supported assures
a bilateral symmetry in the pelvis and reduces the tendency
to slump.
4. The importance of sitting in alignment involves
social and physiological values. The spinal column is per­
mitted to maintain its normal curvatures, the respiratory
functions are undisturbed, and there are lessened pressure
stresses upon the vital organs of the trunk. Socially, sit­
ting aligned presents a sense of well-being, self confidence
and pride of appearance, which in themselves favor prestige
and respect.
 - 205 -

The Body Mechanics of Stair Climbing

1. The relationships of the body parts of the trunk
and head in ascending and descending stairs are the same as
those in standing alignment. As ascending the stairs takes
place, the aligned trunk, head and supporting leg slightly
incline forward as one long lever with its fulcrum at the
supporting ankle joint. The forward upward drive of the
supporting leg is initiated by strong extension in the hip
joint prior to the forward inclination of the aligned body.
Alternate arm swing in stair climbing is important for
lateral balance. Stair climbing, with steps of the stand­
ard seven inch height, is very similar to walking on a hori­
zontal surface except that a far greater upward component
must be exerted. This is achieved by the driving action of
the extensors of the hip joint of the supporting leg and the
reciprocalknee joint extension of the stepping leg.
2. On descending the stairs, the trunk and head
assume their alignment over the supporting foot. The hip,
knee and ankle joints of the supporting leg sharply flex
while the stepping leg drops to the step below to become
immediately the means of support. Thus, the weight distri­
bution of the body is constantly centered over the support­
ing foot, with all body parts in alignment, as the vertical
balance line shifts only slightly from one supporting foot
to tbe other, as the descent is made. Mechanical exactness
must occur in the strong flexion of the supporting hip, knee
and ankle joints in order to maintain alignment while des­
cending stairs.
 - 206

The Body Mechanics of Lifting and Carrying Heavy Weights

1. The mechanics of lifting and carrying weights
involve the universal law of balance and equilibrium. All
weights must be held close to the body to bring all mass
points as close to the center of weight as possible. In
this way, mechanical balance may be maintained and the
necessary muscular force may be reduced for support of
the load.
2. In lifting, the body is first lowered by sharp­
ly bending the hip and knee joints and then strongly extend­
ing them. One foot is placed slightly in advance of the
other to broaden the supporting base. The aligned trunk
is inclined only slightly at the hips so that all centers
of weight may remain as close to the vertical balance line
and within the base as possible.
3. Carrying heavy weights with mechanical leverage
in which muscular force is held at a minimum is accomplished
by holding the weights as close to the body as possible.
Opposite and equal forces are also exerted, such as slight
extension sideward of the free arm and swinging it freely,
forward and backward. The trunk is aligned but may incline
laterally from the hip joints to aid in offering opposite
forces for balance and equilibrium in carrying the load.
4. The importance of good mechanical use in lifting
and carrying heavy weights involves physiological values.
Lessened stress is placed upon the joints, muscles and
 - 207

ligaments in supporting the weights when balance and equi­

librium occur in the body during the act. Stresses are
equalized and the on-set of discomfort and fatigue is
delayed.
5. The implication for reduction of fatigue in
industrial and household tasks are highly important when
good mechanical use of the body is executed during lifting
and carrying heavy weights.

The Effect of Stresses and Strains in the Mechanical Use

oT~t'Ee ~go~5y---------------------------------------------
1. Mechanical stresses and strains occur in every­
day motor activities. These stresses are; tension, compres­
sion, pressure, bending, twisting and shear.
2. The alignment of the body parts serves to mini­
mize the stresses and strains on joints, muscles and liga­
ment s.
3. Excessive stresses and strains often result in
orthopedic defects, such as knock-knees, bowlegs, spinal
curvatures, sacro-iliac disturbances, pronated feet, etc.
4. Excessive stresses and strains are considered
conducive to certain diseases involving the joints of the
body, such as arthritis and rheumatism.
5. The results of stresses and strains in the body
are illustrated by Wolff's physical law which holds that
"function governs structure." This is demonstrated by the
study of the stress lines in the architecture of bone as
the bone grows under stress and strain. Alignment of body
parts and balance maintained at the joints permits bones to
grow normally.
 - 208

Training Habit Patterns of Body Alignment

1. Training habit patterns for body alignment in­
volves willing, thinking and visualizing skeletal alignment
between body parts.
2. Old habit patterns must be destroyed and new
patterns substituted. Practice is important until the new
pattern is set. Thereafter, when disalignment occurs, an
awareness serves to return the body to its aligned pattern.
The skill of standing in habitual alignment is attained by
repeated practice of the new pattern.
3. Willingness to make an adjustment and change
in the old body posture pattern and interest in atttaining
the new pattern often result from a satisfying kinesthetic
sense of achieved balance and alignment of the body.

The Importance of Relaxation for Efficient Body Mechanics

1. Relaxation is the release of neuro-muscular
tension. It results when there is no excessive supply of
muscular tonus beyond that which is necessary to do the
given work effectively. Relaxation does not mean slump­
ing or slouching in the standing position. Rather, it means
a balanced alignment in which no one muscle group is persis­
tently and excessively required to do more than its share of
work.
2. Relaxation in the mechanics of the body is
essential in delaying fatigue and discomfort.

3. Relaxation is achieved by thinking and sensing

a release of tension throughout the body during activity
and rest.
 209 -

EVALUATION OF TEE OUTCOMES OF THE LEARNING ACTIVITY

The measurement and evaluation of the outcomes of
the learning activity in aligning the body during standing,
and the application of standing alignment to other every-day
motor activities were continuous and tangible*
The problem of evaluation of learning outcomes has
been one which has faced educators for centuries. To deter­
mine what the student has learned and the changes in his
attitudes and appreciations that have taken place due to
the learning, is, Indeed, a problem that perplexes every
teacher.
Learning outcomes must be evaluated in terms of
the whole child, which means that an evaluation must be
made not through one or two measurements but through many
measurements that make up an array of abilities, under­
standings, appreciations and skills.
Thus it is, that such a task is one of inadequacy
and discouragement, for behavior to be evaluated must be
specific, and the outcomes, so often, are in terms of
generalities and abstractions.
The evaluation and measurement of the outcomes of
the application of the learning-situations just outlined
were subjective and objective in character.
Subjective evaluations were made through; (a) dis­
cussion, to reveal growth in attitudes and appreciation of
body alignment as a personal asset, (b) evaluation of the
knowledge and understandings of the meaning of body align­
ment and the body mechanics of the other motor skills studied,
 210

(c) evaluation of observed practice and achievement of the

skill not alone during the learning-situation but in the
carry-over into every day use, outside of the class, and,
(d) evaluation in terms of observed social behavior, in
which the student received and gave approval in achieve­
ment and sensed new standards of body control as socially
satisfying*
The objective measurements were made by the use of
the measuring instrument, the alignometer* Thus, the align­
ment of the students was appraised repeatedly. All of the
college men and women learned to give the alignment test
proficiently and, at least once during the year, each
elementary school student had the opportunity to test
the alignment of a fellow classmate*
These evaluations, in themselves, were learning-
situations and were aimed toward the desirable outcome of
learning by participation* Mursell 1 speaks of this type
of evaluation as highly essential to learning. Thus, the
students learned to judge and evaluate each other object­
ively through the learning activity.

1* Mursell, op. cit., p. 265

 CHAPTER V I I

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this problem was to study the hypo­

theses of a simplified technique, developed by the investi­
gator, for teaching body alignment in standing. The study
sought to evaluate the developed technique further through
its application in teaching other fundamental motor skills
involved in body mechanics classes.
The developed technique consists of the adjustment
of body parts for alignment based upon simple mechanical
and anatomical relationships that may be readily compre­
hended and easily executed.
The study sought to meet its purpose in the follow­
ing ways:
(a) By the development of social and physiological
objectives based upon documentary evidence that would serve
as the directives of value in terms of the outcomes toward
which the application of the developed technique of body
alignment was aimed.
(b) By the presentation of derived psychological,
mechanical and physiological principles basic to the develop­
ment of body alignment of standing and its application for
the achievement of balance and alignment in other fundamental

motor skills*
 212

(o) By constructing an instrument to serve as a

tool In measuring and teaching body alignment according to
the developed technique*
(d) By utilizing radiographs, photographs and the
constructed measuring instrument to determine experimentally
the significance of the measure#
(e) By application of the developed technique in
body mechanics classes to determine its effectiveness as a
measure for teaching body alignment in standing and its re­
lationship to other fundamental motor skills, such as walking,
sitting, lifting, carrying, stair climbing, etc.

A general summary of the accomplishments of this

study follows:
1# Objectives Essential to Teaching Body Alignment
The objectives essential to teaching postural align­
ment were extracted from representative statements, as hypo­
theses, made by writers in the current literature on posture
in health, physical education and medical science. The object­
ives were classified into two categories, social and physio­
logical, into which they logically fell in view of the out­
comes they were expected to produce.
The literature survey presented positive claims that
good posture had social and esthetic value to the individual.
No claims to the contrary were found in the literature surveyed.
The physiological values of posture were positively
stated by many writers although a few gave little credenoe to
 - 213 -

the physiological value of good posture and indicated that

the value of erect standing was more social and esthetic
than physiological. The investigator found no writer who
stated that good posture had no physiological value what­
soever.

2. Principles Basic to Teaching Body Alignment in Standing

The principles, basic to teaching body alignment In
standing, were organized into three categories namely; psy­
chological, mechanical and physiological principles. The
principles sought were based upon the accepted fundamental
laws and elementary propositions concerning posture involved
in the three categories.
The literature, appropriate to each category, in
the fields of psychology, physics and physiology, were sur­
veyed for evidence of existing fundamentals to serve as the
criteria from which the principles were extracted.
Authorities in each of the separate field categories
were consulted for substantiation or rejection of the extracted
principles. Two authorities in the field of educational psy­
chology; two authorities in the fields of physics and biology;
and five authorities in the field of physiology were consulted
for judgment, evaluation and suggestions of the sets of prin­
ciples extracted from the literature by the investigator.
The psychological principles, which are primarily the
learning processes involved in the acquisition of a motor skill,
included; (a) perceptual-motor learning, (b) conditioned responses,
(c) attention and motivation, (d) kinesthetic cues, (e) effect of
 214 -

active participation and (f) comparison and differentiation

of stimuli.
The mechanical principles, which are the accepted
laws of mechanics Interpreted in the light of human standing,
included the following; (a) Newton*s first law of motion, in­
ertia, (b) Newton*s second law of motion, acceleration, (c)
Newton*s third law of motion, action and reaction and the
forces of equilibrium, (d) the law of gravitation, (e) the
law of the lever and (f) the law of stress and strain.
The physiological principles are those extracted from
hypotheses, found in the current literature of physiology,
concerned with the physiology of standing posture. They in­
clude the following divisions of concern; (a) the cardio­
vascular adjustments in standing, (b) the energy cost of
standing, (c) the fatigue of standing, (d) vital capacity
and respiration in standing, (e) the neurological consider­
ations of standing and (f) the visceral considerations of
standing.
The final set of psychological and mechanical prin­
ciples were those that had received substantiation by the
authorities consulted. The final set of physiological prin­
ciples were those that had been substantiated in part by all
of the authorities. Complete agreement on the set of prin­
ciples was not secured by all of the consultants but no one
principle was retained that was rejected by all of them.
 - 215

3. Determination of the Validity, Reliability and Objectivity

of the Developed Technique by Experimental Meaaurements
The subjects of the experimental groups involved in
this study were college, high school and elementary school
students. The subjects of the control groups were elementary
school students comparable in grade and age to the experimen­
tal school groups.
The determination of the validity and reliability of
the developed technique, by means of radiographs and photo­
graphs, was accomplished by two sets of tests of one experi­
mental subject.
The hypotheses of the measure were validated when a
geometric rectangular parallelogram occurred by linear mea­
surement in each of the two sets of tests.

4. Determination of the Objectivity and Reliability of the

Measuring Instrument ana ihe Reliability of the Inves­
tigator, as Examiner
The objectivity and reliability of the measuring
instrument were determined by testing experimentally the
relationships between the alignment scores as measured by
the instrument on twenty-four subjects tested by the in­
vestigator and a second examiner in three sets of tests.
The Product-Moment method of correlation was used to de­
termine the interrelationships of the test scores.
The results of the measurement produced the co­
efficients of correlation and their standard errors of
.901 - *039, .845 - .059, .911 - .035 in the three tests,
respectively.
 216

These data indicate that the constructed instrument

may be considered an objective and reliable tool for mea­
suring body alignment in standing according to the developed
technique.
The reliability of the investigator as an examiner
of the developed technique as measured with the constructed
instrument was determined by calculating the coefficient of
correlation between the investigator1s scores of the first
and second tests. The results of the measurement produced
/
an r of .923 - .03 which shows that the investigator may be
considered a reliable examiner of the developed alignment
technique.

5. Determination of the Validity and Reliability of the

developed TechnTque by '"Measurement of hinear Relation­
ships on ’Phiofo)graphs
Three separate sets of photographs were taken of
thirty selected subjects to determine the interrelation­
ships between the measured lines from the sterno-pubic line
of the developed technique and the traditional criterion of
body alignment represented by the five traditional body
landmarks. The lines were drawn on the photographs under
a magnifying glass and measured with a micrometer at l/lOOO
of an inch.
The linear interrelationships of the five measured
lines between the sterno-pubic line and the five traditional
body landmarks of the criterion were determined by means of
the Product-Moment method of correlation.
 - 217 -

The coefficients of correlation and their standard

errors between each line were computed and found to range
from r *444 - .147 to r .969 - .011. The range of the
average correlation between lines in the three sets of
tests range from r .513 to r .889.
The set of inter-correlations between the shoulder
and the pelvis were found to be the highest with an average
correlation of .889 which indicates that the alignment be­
tween the center of the sternum and symphysis pubis is in
fairly high agreement with the traditional criterion of
body alignment of the trunk.
The lowest linear inter-correlations occurred be­
tween the head and the remaining body parts.

6. Determlnation of the Significance of the Application of

the developed TecEnTque
The application of the developed technique to test
its significance as a measure for teaching body alignment
in standing was accomplished in two ways ; (a) by means of
experimental body mechanics classes in which the developed
technique was taught to three hundred and sixty-two subjects
and (b) by the use of control groups, totalling one hundred
fifteen subjects, in which instruction in body alignment by
means of the developed technique did not occur.
Tests of body alignment, by means of the measuring
instrument, were given at the beginning and again at the
close of each test period#
The significance of the effectiveness of the appli­
cation of the developed technique was determined by computing
 - 218 -

the reliability of the difference between the means of Test

I and Teat II (pre-inatruction and post-instruction). The
reliability of the difference of the means was found by test­
ing for its significance by means of the "t" test.
The results of these test data indicated that the
developed technique was significant as a measure for teach­
ing body alignment in standing and its application in body
mechanics classes, since the levels of significance of .01
and .02 were reached in all of the experimental groups tested.
The. scores between Test I and Test II of the control
groups, to whom no instruction in the developed technique of
body alignment was given, showed no improvement in the align­
ment scores between tests#

7. Application of the Developed Technique for Teaching Body

TSffignment^nH^tan&ihg in W 3 y M echanics C la sse s
The simplified technique for teaching body alignment
in standing as developed by the investigator was applied to
teaching other fundamental every-day motor skills such as
walking, sitting, lifting and carrying weights, etc. in body
mechanics classes.
Six principles of teaching, context, focalization,
socialization, individualization, sequence and evaluation,
were utilized in the development of subject-material content
and its phases for the learning-situations through which the
teaching of body alignment in body mechanics classes was
applied.
 - 219

Evaluation of the application of body alignment in

the body mechanics classes was made through subjective appraisal
of the outcomes by the participating learners and through ob­
jective measurement by means of the measuring instrument.

Conclusions
The following conclusions may be considered as evi­
dences of the accomplishments of this study:
1. The study has shown that essential social and
physiological objectives and principles (psychological mech­
anical and physiological) exist as bases in teaching body
alignment in standing.
2. The study has established significant experi­
mental evidence that shows the developed technique of body
alignment to be a valid, reliable and objective measure for
teaching body alignment in standing and its relationship to
other fundamental motor skills taught in body mechanics
class es•
3. This study has shown, through experimental
measurement, that the developed technique is as good a
measure of body alignment as the traditional criterion for
aligning body parts. In other words, the perpendicular
alignment of the two body landmarks, the center of the
sternum and the superior border of the symphysis pubis,
is equivalent to the alignment of the five landmarks; the
ear lobe, the acromion process of thescapula, the great
trochanter of the femur, the center of the knee joint and
just in front of the ankle joint.
 - 220

4. The study has demonstrated simplicity as a

characteristic of the developed technique. This was accom­
plished when the developed technique was found to be closely
correlated with the traditional criterion and, since, it is
far simpler to align two body landmarks on the front of the
body than five landmarks located laterally on the body, it
is reasonable to assume that the anteriorly located landmarks
would lend themselves more easily to the alignment of body
parts•
 CHAPTER VIII

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

A general interpretation of the accomplishments of

this study would tend to offer logical answers to the ques­
tions of why body alignment in standing should be taught,
upon what the teaching may be based and, how it may be pre­
sented effectively.
The answer to the question of why alignment of body
parts in standing should be taught has been sought through
the sets of objectives advanced in this study* On the basis
of these objectives, as representative statements made by
writers on the subject in the fields of health and physical
education and medical science, it may be stated that body
alignment in standing should be taught for its social,
esthetic, and physiological values to the individual.
To stand with the body well-balanced and aligned
offers a personal appearance that aids in establishing phy­
sical poise and dignity. There is esthetic value to man's
presence when the body is skillfully controlled in the every­
day motor skills. It aids in effecting social approval and
belongingness in the group. There is beauty in orderliness
of the body as well as in the orderliness of the mind. One
without the other lacks fulfillment in the enrichment of
personality.
 222 -

Also, there Is physiological value to aligned stand­

ing. And, although extended physiological research is needed
to give adequate significant experimental evidence to this
claim, there is a wealth of documentary evidence, based large­
ly upon experience, observation and empirical reasoning, that
state positively that good posture has physiological importance.
The answer to the question of upon what should the
teaching of body alignment be based has been approached, in
this study, through a set of psychological, mechanical and
physiological principles. The principles have been expressed
as basic fundamentals involved in the attainment of the up­
right position and the achievement of the motor skill of body
alignment in standing and its relationship to other fundamen­
tal motor skills.
Body alignment is based upon the laws of mechanics
as they relate to human motion. It is through the knowledge
of the principles of mechanics that body alignment may be
attained.
The appreciation and understanding of the psychologi­
cal principles that are basic to the learning of a motor skill
influence.-, achievement of that skill. Thus, knowledge and
appreciation of the learning processes involved in learning
to align the body in standing leadr to effective accomplishment.
The physiological principles basic to body alignment in
standing are those that deal largely with the assumption of the
upright position. As the knowledge of the relationships between
health and the erectly aligned body become more refined through
 223 -

scientific evidence■, the physiological bases underlying

erect standing shall be resolved into more usable and de­
pendable directives.

The answer to the question of how body alignment

in standing may be accomplished effectively has been demon­
strated in this study through experimental measurement of
the developed technique for teaching body alignment in
standing. The measure has attempted to show how the body
parts may be aligned in a simple manner with easy compre­
hension and ready attainment.

All products are evaluated in terms of their use.

The implications for the uses to which the simplified tech­
nique for measuring and teaching body alignment in standing
may be put, are manys
1. It may be of use to teachers of health and
physical education and classroom teachers
in school programs.
2. It may be of use to physicians, physical
therapists and clinicians in the correction
of faulty posture.
3. It may be of use to parents who are concerned
with the postures of their children and search
for a simple and pleasing way of promoting
posture improvement.
4. It may be of use to teachers of speech, voice
and dramatics who are in search of an effective
 - 224

device in establishing poise and body control

important to professional training.
5. It may serve as an objective measurement of
postural alignment in medical research for
the resolution of the physiological problems
involved in standing posture.
6. It may serve as an objective measure through
which the relationship of the individual soma-
totype to posture may be studied.
7. And, lastly, its use to the personal improve­
ment of the individual where it may add to
personal worth and dignity.
 225 -

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APPENDIX
 Latter to Physiologists

Dear _____________ :
I am conducting a research study in posture
education for my doctoral thesis at New York University.
In search for the physiological principles that
may be basic to teaching posture, I have carefully sur­
veyed the current medical literature and the standard
textbooks of physiology and physiology of activity. I
have endeavored to gather the principles appropriate to
the problem from these documented sources. The evidence
found appears to be based largely upon empirical and a
priori reasoning rather than upon scientific experi­
mental proof. The physiological principles so extracted
are, therefore, also empirical. (A principle as used in
the study refers to an accepted fundamental law or an
elementary proposition).
Will you kindly give me your reaction, as an
authority In physiology, to (1) the justification of
extracting principles from documentary evidence and,
(2) the approval or disapproval of the principles, al­
though empirical, that I have extracted from the
literature? In case you find that you can do this
for me, I shall be most grateful.
Thank you very kindly for any help you may wish
to give me.
Very sincerely yours,

Ivalclare Howland
 - 242 -

FUNDAMENTALS AND DERIVED PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGY

INVOLVED IN STANDING

The following is a summary of the fundamentals of physiology

involved in standing, as extracted from the literature review­
ed, and the physiological principles derived from these funda­
mentals:

I. Cardio-vascular Adjustments in Standing:

1. Summary of Fundamentals
a* The cardio-vascular adjustments that occur
in standing are due to many compensatory mechanisms that
meet the hydrostatic effect of gravity on the blood column
in the vertical position.
b.- The response of the cardio-vascular system
various with individuals as standing takes place. Therefore,
no defined statement can be made of an established standard
for cardio-vascular adjustments in standing.
c. The efficiency of the cardio-vascular ad­
justments in standing Is closely related to the status of
peripheral resistance In the arterioles. When peripheral
resistance in the arterioles offers a normal tonic effect
to the blood flow, adaptation takes place effectively.
d. Highly cooperative In cardio-vascular
functioning is the pulmonary ventilation in the lungs.
An adequate rate of gaseous exchange and aeration of the
alveoli must take place and there appears to be some evi­
dence to show that an erect standing position aids in this
func tion.
2. Derived Principles
a. That, to date, no scientific experimental
proof has been brought forth to show that standing erectly
 243

is conducive to efficient adjustments of the cardio-vascular

system In the upright position. Furthermore, no evidence has
been offered to indicate that good posture does not correlate
with cardio-vascular efficiency. For the most part, studies
in the physiology of posture adaptation to the upright position
appear to use subjective judgment in rating the kind of posture
assumed. A reliable, valid objective measure of body alignment
is needed to reveal a truer picture of an inter-relationship
between the measures to be correlated.
b. That empirical evidence has been brought
forth to show that erect standing offers greater muscular
action in the legs and abdomen which aids the venous return
of the blood to the right heart. Poor postural alignment
permits the muscles of the abdomen and legs to maintain
sluggish action thus slowing, the blood return to the heart.
c. That some evidence appears to indicate
that erect standing aids in pulmonary ventilation by allow­
ing greater aeration of the alveoli of the lungs when the
rib-cage and chest-wall are permitted to assume a position
conducive to freedom of movement. Good body alignment in
standing aims to insure such a position of the chest-wall
and rib-cage.

II. Energy Cost in Standing:

1. Summary of Fundamentals
a. The energy cost in standing is greate
than in sitting or lying due to the added amount of muscular
 - 244

work necessary to meet the mechanical forces Involved In

assuming the upright position.
b. The oxygen consumption in the body may be
expected to be adequate to the need in standing in case the
other body functions essential to oxygen Intake maintain a
steady rate. The adequacy of oxygen Intake depends upon
several Important factors such as the capacity of the in­
dividual for oxygen Intake and the amount of work and the
number of muscle groups involved in standing.
c. The energy cost of standing has been found
to be low when the vertical posture is assumed as a ’’natural
and comfortable” stance. A rigid posture and restrictions of
body sway offer the greatest expenditure of energy.
d. Re-conditioning of the neuro-muscular
system is found to lessen muscular effort and reduce energy
cost in standing.
2. Derived Principles
a. That energy cost In standing is comparatively
small when a ’’normal, comfortable" stance takes place, but
the expenditure of energy increases as rigidity in stance
occurs or when body 3way Is restricted. Thus, balanced
alignment in standing Is conducive to little energy cost
since It includes a normal, comfortable stance where
rigidity Is discouraged and body sway i3 unrestricted.
b. That the alignment of body parts in seg­
mental balance is conducive to reduction of energy in
standing because excessive muscular tensions are reduced
through the reciprocal action of the muscle groups Involved.
No one muscle group Is overworked. Each group does its
respective work to maintain balance between the body parts,
thus lessened muscular effort results.

III. Fatigue In Standing:

1* Summary of Fundamentals
a. Fatigue in standing may be due to poor
circulatory adjustments Indicated by sensations of fatigue
and dizziness. Syncope may result from Insufficient ortho­
static circulatory adjustments while standing.
b. Acute hypoxemia of the higher brain centers
Induce sensations of fatigue. The brain which is sensitive
to oxygen lack and disturbances of innervation in the stand­
ing posture can no longer send out responses to the working
anti-gravity muscles. In this case, stance fatigue is con­
sidered a phenomenon of "release."
c. Fatigue In standing is due more to exhausted
nerve impulses than to muscular effort involved in standing.
The tonic contractions of the anti-gravity muscles produce
sensations of discomfort when excessive action takes place.
But when the muscle groups intermittently and alternately
contract little fatigue occurs.
d. Fatigue In standing has often been consi­
dered a psychological state of boredom.
e. Fatigue in standing Is described as a hyper­
tension of the neuro-muscular system which may give rise to
 - 246

feelings of depletion and exhaustion. This type of fatigue

is most apt to accompany the rigid and stiff body posture
In standing.
2. Derived Principles
a. That fatigue in standing may be prevented
for a longer period of time when balance of body parts takes
place. In this case, the muscle groups alternately assume
their respective functions in the neuro-muscular coordination
necessary to maintain the balanced upright position. Certain
muscle groups in poor posture are called upon to work exces­
sively which, in turn, produce sensations of fatigue.
b. That fatigue in standing often considered
a psychological state of boredom reflects the lack of personal
pride and knowledge of body posture in relation to its social
value. The premise that mental health is related to postural
attitudes Implied that the assumption of good body alignment
in standing would result in a more pleasing appearance and a
feeling of self-respect.

IV. Vital Capacity and Respiration in Standing:

1. Summary of Fundamentals
a. There-Is some indication to show that a
high vital capacity is related to erect standing. Thi3
Indicates respiratory efficiency In which the diaphragm
and rib-cage movement gives rise to a more effective Inter­
change of the intra-thoracic and intra-pulmonic pressures.
 247 -

b. A lifted chest offers a greater rang

movement for the respiratory muscles and the diaphragm
which, in turn, permits an efficient lung ventilation.
2. Derived Principles
a* That erect standing is conducive to a
high vital capacity.
b• That good body alignment in standing
augments efficient lung ventilation.

V. Neurological Considerations in Standing;

1. Summary of Fundamentals
a. Standing occurs reflexly through an inter­
relationship of postural, attltudinal and tonic reflexes.
Nervous influences from the sense organs cooperate in pro­
ducing the standing position. They orient the body in its
relation to space, direction and movement.
b. There exists an additional system involving
the higher brain centers (cortico-splnal tracts) that assists
in refining the skill of standing and serves as the responsible
agent in influencing conscious action by thinking and willing
body alignment.
c. Balance in the upright position Is maintained
by the action of the myotatic reflexes induced by the proprio­
ceptors in the anti-gravity muscles. Reciprocal Innervation
of the agonistic and antagonistic muscle groups is responsible
for this coordination.
2. Derived Principles

a. That standing may be refined as a skill

 - 248 -

through the conscious control of the higher brain centers

which additionally serve in the functioning of reflex stand­
ing. It is, therefore, possible to train the body to control
klnesthetically the alignment of Its parts.
b. That coordination and balance between b
parts for alignment proceed through the cooperative neuro­
muscular action of the anti-gravity muscles that control
the upright position.

VI. Visceral Considerations in Standing:

1. Summary of Fundamentals
a. Little or no scientific experimental proof
has been brought forth to show that visceral form and function
are affected by improved standing.
b. It has not been significantly proved that
dysmenorrhea Is related to faulty posture. Some evidence,
though largely empirical, has Indicated that dysmenorrhea
In some subjects was relieved as the posture was corrected.
c. The condition of visceroptosis as It relates
to posture has no valid scientific proof of an inter-relation-
ship. Ihe stomach, for instance, may not be "dropped" but may
be occupying an adaptive position In meeting a faulty standing
posture.
2. Derived Principles

a. That visceral form and function are not

affected detrimentally by the standing position. There­
fore, improved standing has no effect upon visceral condition.