ACTUATORS

Pumps perform
P f th function
the f ti off adding
ddi energy to t the
th fluid
fl id off a hydraulic
h d li
system for transmission to some output location. Hydraulic cylinders and
hydraulic motors do just the opposite. They extract energy from the fluid and
convert it to mechanical energy to perform useful work.
work
Hydraulic cylinders (also called linear actuators) extend and retract a piston
rod to provide a push or pull force to drive the external load along a straight-
li path.
line th

1
On the other hand, hydraulic motors (also called rotary actuators) rotate a
shaft to provide a torque to drive the load along a rotary path.

HYDRAULIC CYLINDER OPERATING FEATURES

The simplest type of hydraulic cylinder is the single-acting design, which is

shown schematically in Figure 6-2(a).

It consists of a piston inside a cylindrical housing called a barrel. Attached to

one end of the piston is a rod, which extends outside one end of the cylinder
(rod end). At the other end (blank end) is a port for the entrance and exit of
oil.
il

2
A single-acting cylinder can exert a force in only the extending direction as
fluid from the pump enters the blank end of the cylinder.

Single-acting cylinders do not retract hydraulically. Retraction is

accomplished by using gravity or by the inclusion of a compression spring in
the rod end.
Figure 6-2(b) shows the graphic symbol of a single-acting cylinder.

A double-acting hydraulic cylinder can be extended and retracted

hydraulically. Thus, an output force can be applied in two directions
(extension and retraction).

Figure 6-3 shows a double acting cylinder with its components. 3

In this design shown above, the barrel is made of seamless steel tubing,
honed to a fine finish on the inside. The piston, which is made of ductile iron,
contains U-cup packings to seal against leakage between the piston and
barrel.
The ports are located in the end caps, which are secured to the barrel by tie
rods. The tapered cushion plungers provide smooth deceleration at both ends
of the stroke. Therefore, the piston does not bang into the end caps with
excessive impact, which could damage the hydraulic cylinder after a given
number of cycles. 4
CYLINDER MOUNTINGS
Variouss types
Vario t pes of cylinder
c linder mountings
mo ntings are in existence,
e istence as illustrated
ill strated in Figure
Fig re
6-4. This permits versatility in the anchoring of cylinders. The rod ends are
usually threaded so that they can be attached directly to the load, a clevis, a
yoke or some other mating device.
yoke, device

5
MECHANICAL LINKAGES
As illustrated in Figure 6-5,
6-5 these linkages can transform a linear motion into
either an oscillating or rotary-motion. In addition linkages can also be
employed to increase or decrease the effective leverage and stroke of a
cylinder.
y

6
UNIVERSAL ALIGNMENT MOUNTING

Misalignment is a problem in mounting and operating a hydraulic cylinders.

It is almost impossible to achieve perfect alignment even though the
alignment
g e o of a hydraulic
yd u c cycylinder
de hass a d
direct
ec be
bearingg o
on itss life.
e.
Sometimes a universal alignment mounting accessory is used to reduce
misalignment problems and eliminate the side loading of cylinders as
illustrated in Figure 6-6.
6-6

7
CYLINDER FORCE, VELOCITY AND POWER

The output force (F) and piston velocity (v) of double-acting cylinders are
not the same for extension and retraction strokes.

During the extension stroke, fluid enters the blank end of the cylinder
through the entire circular area of the piston (Ap). However, during the
retraction stroke,
stroke fluid enters the rod end through the smaller annular area
between the rod and cylinder bore (Ap - Ar), where Ap is the piston area and
Ar is the rod area.

This difference in flow-path cross-sectional area accounts for the difference

in piston velocities. Since Ap is greater than (Ap - Ar), the retraction velocity
is greater than the extension velocity for the same input flow-rate.

This difference in area accounts for the difference in output forces. Since Ap
is greater than (Ap - Ar), the extension force is greater than the retraction
f
force f the
for h same operating
i pressure.
8
EXAMPLE 6.1
A pump supplies oil at 20 gpm to a 2 inch diameter double acting hydraulic
cylinder. If the load is 1000 lb (extending and retracting) and the rod
diameter is 1 inch, find the hydraulic pressure, the piston velocity and the
cylinder
li d horsepower
h d i
during b th the
both th extending
t di stroke
t k and d the
th retracting
t ti
stroke.

Solution:

or

9
That is more pressure is required to retract than to extend the same load due
to the effect of the rod.

For the same pump flow, the piston retraction velocity is greater than that for
e tension
extension.

Or

Thoughg the load remains same during g both stroke,, the ppiston velocity
y and
horsepower are greater during retraction stroke. Thus more horsepower needs
10
to be supplied by the cylinder during the retraction stroke.
 CYLINDER LOAD DUE TO MOVING WEIGHT

EXAMPLE 6.4
The 6000 lb weight is to be lifted upward in a vertical direction. Find the
cylinder force required to
a. Move the weight at a constant velocity.
b. Accelerate the weight from 0 velocity to 8 ft/s in 0.50 sec.

Solution:
a. For constant velocity, the force will simply be equal to the weight 6000
pound.
b. Acceleration, a = (v-u)/t = (8 – 0)/0.50 = 16 ft/s2.

The force required to accelerate the weight is

Faccel = (6000 lb/32.2 ft/ 2) x 16 ft/s
lb/32 2 ft/s ft/ 2 = 2980 lb

The cylinder force required will be equal to the sum of the weight and the
accelerating force.
force
Fcyl = 6000 lb + 2980 lb = 8980 lb
11
 SPECIAL CYLINDER DESIGNS

The figure below shows a double rod cylinder in which the rod extends out
of the cylinder at both ends.

Since the speed and the force are same at either end, this type of cylinder is
typically used when the same task is to be performed at either end. Since
each end contains the same size rod,, the velocity
y of the p
piston is the same for
both strokes.

12
 SPECIAL CYLINDER DESIGNS

The telescopicp cylinders

y contain
multiple cylinders that slide inside
each other. They are used when long
work strokes are required but the full
retraction length must be minimised.

13
CYLINDER LOADING THROUGH LINKAGES

First class lever system: The fixed hinge pin of the lever system is located
between the cylinder and the load rod pins.

14
Second class lever system: The load rod pin is located between the fixed
hinge pin and cylinder rod pin of the lever system.
system

Third class lever system: The cylinder rod pin is located between the load
rod pin and fixed hinge pin of the lever system.

15
CYLINDER CUSHION Double-acting cylinders sometimes
contain cylinder cushions at the ends of
the cylinder to slow down the piston
near the ends of the stroke. This
prevents excessive impact on the end
caps by the piston.

When the tapered

p plunger
p g enters the
opening in the cap, the flow from the
barrel to the port is restricted and
deceleration starts. During the last small
portion of the stroke, the oil is exhausted
through an adjustable opening. The rate
of deceleration may be controlled by
adjusting
dj ti theth opening
i size.
i

A check valve is placed to allow free

flow of oil into the barrel during the
direction reversal.
16
ROTARY ACTUATORS

Hydraulic motors extract energy from a fluid to produce rotational motion.

These motors can be of limited rotation or continuous rotation type.
A limited rotation motor can rotate clockwise
l k i and
d counter clockwise
l k i
through less than one revolution and usually called torque motors,
oscillating motors or rotary actuators.
A continuous rotation hydraulic motor can rotate continuously at an rpm
determined by the input flow rate and is known as hydraulic motor.
y, these are veryy much similar to p
In reality, pumps
p redesigned
g to withstand
different forces that are involved in motor applications.

Limited Rotation Hydraulic Motors

A limited rotation hydraulic motor or rotary actuator provides rotary output
motion over a finite angle.
This device produces high instantaneous torque in either direction and
requires only a small space and simple mountings. 17
Rotary actuators consist of a chamber or chambers containing the working
fluid and a movable surface against which the fluid acts.
acts The movable surface
is connected to an output shaft to produce the output motion.

A direct-acting vane-type actuator is shown schematically along with its

graphic
hi symbol
b l in
i Figure
Fi 7 3 Fluid
7-3. Fl id under
d pressure isi directed
di t d to t one side
id off
the moving vane, causing it to rotate. This type provides about 280º of
rotation. Vane unit capacity ranges from 3 to 1 million in-lb. Rotary actuators
are available with working pressures up to 5000 psi. psi They are typically
mounted by foot, flange, and end mounts. Cushioning devices are available in
most designs.
If the
th rotary
t actuator
t t contains
t i more than
th one vane, the th maximum
i angle
l off
rotation is reduced and the torque-carrying capacity is increased. 18
Torque Capacity

The following nomenclature and analysis are applicable to a limited rotation

hydraulic motor containing a single rotating vane:

19
Observe from Eq. (7-3) that torque capacity can be increased by increasing the
pressure or volumetric displacement or both.

As shown in Figure 7-5, applications for rotary actuators include conveyor

sorting, valve turning, all bending operations, flip-over between work stations,
positioning
iti i for
f welding,
ldi lifting,
lifti rotating,
t ti and d dumping.
d i
20
21
HYDRAULIC MOTORS
Hydraulic motors can rotate continuously and have the same basic
configuration as pumps. However, instead of pushing on the fluid as pumps
do, motors are pushed on by the fluid. In this way, hydraulic motors develop
torque and
d produce
d continuous
i rotary motion.
i
There are three basic types of hydraulic motors: gear, vane, and piston.

Gear Motors
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting on the surfaces
of the g
gear teeth. The direction of the rotation of the motor can be reversed by
y
reversing the direction of flow. The volumetric displacement of a gear motor is
fixed.
Gear motors are normally limited to 2000
2000-psi
psi operating pressures and 2400
2400-
rpm operating speeds. They are available with a maximum flow capacity of
150 gpm.
The main advantages of a gear motor are its simple design and subsequent low
cost. 22
The external gear motor shown in the figure encounters high pressure at the
inlet and low pressure at the outlet. It produces a large side loads on the shaft
and bearings.
Hydraulic motors can also be of the internal gear design. This type can operate
at higher pressures and speeds and also has greater displacements than the
external gear motor.

23
Vane motors

Vane motors develop torque by the hydraulic pressure acting on the exposed
surfaces of the vanes, which slide in and out of the rotor connected to the drive
shaft As the rotor revolves,
shaft. revolves the vanes follow the surface of the cam ring
because springs are used to force the vanes radially outward.
The vanes are held against the cam ring by springs or other mechanisms. The
sliding
lidi actioni off the
h vanes forms
f sealed
l d chambers,
h b which
hi h carry the
h fluid
fl id from
f
the inlet to the outlet.
Vane motors are universally of the balanced design. Pressure buildup at either
port is directed to two interconnected cavities located opposite to each other.
The side loads that are created are therefore canceled out. 24
Piston motors
Theyy ggenerate torque
q byy p
pressure acting
g on the ends of p
pistons reciprocating
p g
inside a cylinder block.

25
Example 7.1
Consider a single vane rotary actuator with outer radius of the rotor = 1.5
1 5 in,
in
inner radius of the rotor = 0.5 in and width of vane = 1 in. What pressure must
be developed to overcome a torque load of 1000 in-lb?
Solution:
S l ti
The volumetric displacement,

Required pressure,
pressure
Example 7.2
A 1000 psi 10 gpm hydraulic motor has a 5 in3 vol. displacement. Find the
motor
t (a)
( ) speed,
d (b) theoretical
th ti l torque,
t ( ) theoretical
(c) th ti l horsepower.
h
Solution:
(a) Motor speed,

(b) Theoretical torque,

(c) Theoretical horsepower,

26
Example 7.3
A hydraulic
y motor has a 10 in3 vol. displacement
p and operates
p with a p
pressure
of 1000 psi and a speed of 2000 rpm. The actual flow rate consumed by the
motor is 95 gpm and the actual torque delivered is 1500 in-lb. Find the motor
(a) vol. eff., (b) mech. eff., (c) overall eff., (d) actual hp delivered by the
motor.

Solution:
( ) Theoretical
(a) Th i l flow
fl rate,

Volumetric efficiency,

(b) Theoretical torque,

Mechanical efficiency,
efficiency

(c) Overall efficiency,

(d) Actual hp delivered by the motor,

27
Motor performance curves

28
 Hydrostatic Transmissions
A system consisting of a hydraulic pump, a hydraulic motor, and appropriate
valves and pipes can be used to provide adjustable speed drives for many
practical applications. Such a system is called a hydrostatic transmission.

There must, of course, be a prime mover such as an electric motor or gasoline

engine.
Applications include tractors, rollers, front-end loaders, hoes and lift trucks.

Some of the advantages of hydrostatic transmissions are:

1. Infinitely variable speed and torque in either direction and over the full
speed and torque ranges
22. Extremely high power-to-weight
power to weight ratio
3. Ability to be stalled without damage
4. Low inertia of rotating members, permitting fast starting and stopping
with smoothness and precision
5. Flexibility and simplicity of design
29
The above figures shows heavy-duty a hydrostatic transmission system which
uses a variable displacement piston pump and a fixed displacement piston
motor. Both pump and motor are of the swash plate in-line piston design. 30
Hydrostatic transmissions are different from hydrodynamic transmissions of
a tomatic transmissions in
automatic i automobiles.
t bil H d d
Hydrodynamici transmissions
t i i
receive energy from a moving mechanical part (not a separate pump as in
hydrostatic transmissions) only to give it up to another moving mechanical
part.
part

Example 7.4
A hydrostatic
h d t ti transmission,
t i i operating
ti att 1000 psii pressure, has
h the
th following
f ll i
characteristics:

Find (a) displacement of the motor and (b) motor output torque
Solution:
(a) Pump theoretical flow rate
31
Pump actual flow rate = Pump th. flow rate x pump volumetric eff.
= 10.8 (gp
(gpm)) x 0.82 = 8.86 gp
gpm

Motor actual flow rate = pump actual flow rate

Motor theoretical flow rate

= Motor actual flow rate x motor volumetric eff.
= pump actual flow rate x motor volumetric eff.
= 8.86
8 86 (gpm)
( ) x 0.92
0 92 = 8.15
8 15 gpm

Motor displacement = Motor theoretical flow rate x 231/motor speed

= 8.15 4 71 in3.
8 15 x 231/400 = 4.71

(b) Hydraulic hp delivered to the motor

= p(psi) x Q (gpm)/1714 = 1000x8.86/1714
1000x8 86/1714 = 5.17
5 17 hp

Brake horsepower delivered by the motor = 5.17 x 0.92 x 0.90 = 4.28 hp

Torque delivered by the motor, T = HP x 63000/N

= 4.28 x 63000/400 = 674 in-lb. 32