Fundamentals of Wind Energy

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Power in the Wind

P AV
1 3
2
Where  is air density (kg/m3),
A is area (m2), and
V is velocity (m/s).

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Air Density

p

R*T
Where p is air pressure (mb),
R is the gas constant, and
T is temperature (K)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Vegetative
Indicators--Wind
Throw

Aude, France

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 Increase in Wind Speed Over
Ridges

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Seasonal Wind Distribution
Avg. Monthly Wind Speed (mph)
18

16  

 
14  
  
    
 
  
12  
 

10   
 
 

8
 

6
Amarillo, Texas
4 Erie, Penn.
 San Francisco, Calif.
2

0
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Month
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
Rayleigh Wind Speed Distribution
Frequency of Occurrence %
0.16
0.14 5 m/s
6 m/s
0.12
7 m/s
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Wind Speed Bin

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Weibull Wind Speed Distribution
For Same Average Speed

Frequency (%) Power Density (W/m2)

0.25
 Tera Kora % 70

 Tera Kora W/m2
0.2 60
Helgoland %
 Helgoland W/m2 50
0.15  
  40
 
 
0.1  
 30
 

   20
0.05   
 

     10
   
 
 
0 


 

 
 
  
 
 
 

 
 0


0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Wind Speed (m/s)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Speed, Power, & Height
V/Vo = (H/Ho) α

P/Po = (H/Ho) 3α
Where α is the surface friction coefficient.
• 1/7 (0.14), Low Grass Prairies
• 1/4 (0.25), Suburbs
• 0.40, Urban

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Increase in Wind Speed with Height
"
V=Vo (H/Ho)
1.6
Wind Shear Exponent
1.5 0.1 0.14 (1/7) 0.2 0.25 

1.4 
 

 
1.3

  

1.2  
 
  
   
1.1   
 
 

1 



1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
H/Ho
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
 Increase in Power with Height
3"
P=Po (H/Ho)
3.5

Wind Shear Exponent
0.1 0.14 (1/7) 0.2 0.25 
3

 
2.5 
 

2   

 
 
  
1.5    
  
 
 

1 



1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
H/Ho
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
Change in Wind Speed & Power
with Height
2 X Height 5 X Height
25 to 50 m 10 to 50 m

Wind Speed 1.1 1.25

Wind Power 1.35 1.99

1/7 (0.14), Low Grass Prairies

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Wind Resources of Ontario

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Wind Resources of the Dakotas

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 Energy in the Wind
Annual Energy Output (AEO)
Annual Energy Production (AEP)

3
AEO = 1/2 ρ A V ή (8,760 hrs/year)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 AEO Estimating Methods
• Back-of-the-Envelope (Swept Area)
Simple Approximation
• Power Curve & Speed Distribution
Method Used by the Pros
Accuracy Dependent Upon Data
• Manufacturers’ Tables
Dependent Upon Honesty of Manufacturer
• Software
Must Know Assumptions Used (RETScreen)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Rotor Dimensions

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Medium-Size & Large Wind Turbines
Swept Area (m²)
5000

4000
Rotor Diameter (m)
80 3000
2000
70 2000
1500
60 1000

0
50 1000 15 25 40 60 70 80
Diameter (meters)
40
30 500

20 250
10 50
0
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
 Measured Efficiency of Small
Wind Turbines @ Wulf Field
Efficiency (%)
0.3
     
0.25  
 
  

 
 
0.2 
  
   
 
 
 
   
     
  
  
           
     Marlec
  
   
0.15      LVM
 
 
    
 Air 303

0.1 
    
   Air 

403
 

  BWC 850
0.05 
 
 

 

Ampair

 
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Wind Speed (mph)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 AEO Small Wind Turbines

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Conversion Efficiency
Medium Size Wind Turbines
Measured Efficiency
0.5

0.4

0.3
Efficiency

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
bk1/medturbeffic.wb3
Wind Speed (m/s)

L 18/80 S31 E40 V47

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 California Annual Specific Yield
Annual Specific Yield (kWh/m2/yr)
1,400
  
  
 
1,200   
 


1,000 

 
  

800  
   
  
 

600 

 Cal. Avg.
400  San Gorgonio Farms

200

0
86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 '00 '01 '02 '03
Year
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
 Tararua New Zealand Yields

Tararua Wind Plant New Zealand Specific Yields

Vestas V47
Diameter Swept Area Specific Yield
kWh/yr m m2 kWh/m 2/yr Approximate
Low 1,457,901 47 1,735 840 800
Median 2,500,000 47 1,735 1,440 1,500
High 3,050,622 47 1,735 1,760 1,800
WindStats, Spring 2005, Vol. 18, No. 2, pg 13.

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

AEO Medium & Large Turbines

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Estimating AEO
Swept Area Method for 7 m/s*
Swept Area Yield AEO
Turbine
(m2) (kWh/m2/yr) (kWh/yr)

36 m; .5 MW 1,000 1,000 1,000,000

50 m; .75 MW 2,000 1,000 2,000,000

62 m; 1 MW 3,000 1,000 3,000,000

80 m; 2 MW 5,000 1,000 5,000,000

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org *At Hub Height

Sample Power Curve Calculation
Power Curve
Kilowatts
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Wind Speed (mph)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Sample Power Curve Calculation
Speed Distribution
Hours per Year
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Wind Speed (mph)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Sample Power Curve Calculation
Annual Energy Production
kWh/year
100

80

60

40

20

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Wind Speed (mph)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Net Generation from Wind Plants
Net

Availability 98%

Electrical 97%

Array Interference 90%-95%

Total 86%-90%

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Measures of Productivity
• Capacity (Plant) Factor
Misleading Indicator
Used for Fossil-Fired Plants
Not Suited for Wind Energy Use
• kWh/kW/yr (for Planning Purposes)
When Sufficient Data is Unavailable
• Annual Specific Yield (kWh/m2/yr)
The Only Measure Specific to Wind Energy

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Measures of Cost
• $/kW of Installed Capacity
Often a Misleading Indicator

• $/m2 of Installed Swept Area

Most Useful When Resource is Unknown

• $/kWh/yr of Annual Generation

Most Important Criteria in the End

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Wind Energy Software
• Spreadsheets
Integrated (Tom Wind)
Fully Integrated (RETScreen)
• Wind Farm Design Tools
WAsP (Risø)
WindFarm (ReSoft)
WindFarmer (Garrad Hassan)
WindPro (EMD)
WindMap (Brower)

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Wind Turbine Standards
Small Turbines
Caveat Emptor (Buyer Beware)
You Get What You Pay For

Big Turbines
Minimum Design Stds. (GL)
Power Curve Field Tests
Warranteed Power Curves
Performance Guarantees
Field Experience Best Guide

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Trade Magazines
• Windpower Monthly
• WindStats
• WinDirections
• RE World
• New Energy
• Neue Energie
• North American Windpower
• Systèmes Solaires

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 Measured Performance Data
• Power Curves
• Noise
• Power Factor
• Flicker

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 Pricing
• Model
• Tower
• Transformer
• €/kWh/annum
• €/m2

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

 New Wind Books

2002 2002 2001

2005
Paul Gipe, wind-works.org
 WWW Sites
• www.windpower.dk
Danish Manufacturers
• www.eole.org/
en français
• www.wind-energie.de
BWE, German Wind Turbine Owners
• wind-works.org
Archive of Articles by Paul Gipe

Paul Gipe, wind-works.org

Don’t Be Afraid of Foreign
Language Web Sites