CHAPTER 6 INSPECTION by Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A, Trimber An analysis of the reaéons for premature coating failure — deterioration of a coating system resulting in rusting, pitting, chemical attack or other deterioration — ln most cases leads to a finding of either improper surtace preparation or deficient coating application. While there may be potentially many other reasons for premature failure such as poorly written specifications, choice of the wrong coating or paint for a given environment, coating misinformation, or a service environment more severe than originally anticipated, it is estimated that approximately 75% to 80% of all premature coating fallures are caused in whole or in part by deficient surface preparation andlor coating application. IWis said that "a painter covers his mistakes." This is unquestionably true. Unfortunately, after the surtace has been coated, it is exceedingly difficult to verity the ade- quacy of surface preparation ~ especially blast cleaning, Furthermore, without the use of appropriate instruments: tion, itis impossibie to determine coating thickness or, in many instances, even the number of coats applied. However, during the course of application, these items — as well as many others that: might affect the ultimate ‘coating quality —- can be readily witnessed and easily verified. Accordingly, formal coating Inspection, following established guidelines or procedures, is mandatory on ‘many large projects (such as nuclear power plants) and is, often a requioment on small, critical applications such as tank lining coating work, Where the consequence of falluro Is oxpensive, the coated ste! Is inaccessible after erection or the magnitude of painting great, formal inspec: tion can often be justified It must be recognized that any inspection, even the ‘most casual kind, is an expense. Even during the portorm ance of the work, fundamental inspection requires time. In- spection, in its simplest form, occurs when a painter stops after a certain portion of his work is completed and ox amines it for adequacy. Has he missed any areas? Are there any runs or sags? Is the blast cleaning pattern Uniform and the cleanliness adequate — or in the case of hand or power tool cleaning, are there any loose mill scale oF rust deposits remaining? Formal inspection is more costly. Inspection procedures must be written, and the quality of work witnessed and documented on a periodic (often daily) basis. The inspector must have access to the work area, and be allowed sufficient time to complete his, inspection work. Often this must be done at the expense of continuing coating operations — and although other tasks ‘can be done duting the inspection period, the net result is. 183 that the more stringent the Inspection requirements, the longer it takes to complete the coating work. The direct costs of inspection must be considered because the in. spectors are specially hired, trained, and equipped with ex: ensivo instruments in ordar to verify the quality of the work. Accordingly, inspection Is often considered as an in surance against the possibility of a highly expensive premature coating failure. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the inspec: tions required to assure quality coating work. In adition, paint inspection equipment is described and summarized, including advantages and disadvantages, calibration and uso, This chaptor is presented in the chronological order of the inspection sequence beginning with pre-surface reparation inspections and continuing through final dry film thickness and hotiday testing. inspection of the paint itsoll is covered in the two separate chapters on quality control 1. THE FUNCTION OF THE COATING INSPECTOR. ‘Throughout this discussion the term “inspector” shall be used to indicate an individual or a group of individuals whose job itis to witness and dacument the coating work in a formal fashion. Whilo informal inspection may be done by the painter, the painter's foremen, or other persons directly involved with the coating work, this type of inspec. tion shall not be considered In the course of this discus- sion. The inspector's purpose is to ensure that the re quirements of the coating specitication are met, His func: tion fs analogous to that of a policeman: he enforces the rules (specification) without exception even if he deems them to be inadequate. The authorization to deviate from the specification is the responsibility of the “ usually the specification writer, contract administrator, or ‘engineer in charge of the job. The Inspector certainly may. venture his opinion and give recommendations to the engineer, but cannot unilaterally deviate from the ‘specifications at the working level Besides specification enforcement, a thorough coatings inspector provides a job documentation in- ‘cluding a commentaty on the type and adequacy of equip: ment at the jobsita, the rate of work progression, informa- tion regarding ambient conditions and controls, and verification that the surface preparation, coating applica tion ‘coating thickness and curing are as required. This issupplemented with any othor information he deoms of con- sequence to the quality and progress of the work. ‘The amount and type of inspection will vary according to the slze of the project and the type of application con- tract. There are @ number of types of contracts, but for ‘simplicity two general categories, “fixed price” and “cost- plus" will be addressed. Inspection under a “tixed price” application contract may be oriented to ensure that the contractor does not ‘out comers” in order to hurry the job. While an evaluation of the equipment, work procedures, and sequence, etc. is Important, the equipment and methods by which the con- tractor accomplishes the job are essentially at his discre- tion, provided the requirements of the specifications are mat. When performing inspection services for a “cost- plus” application contract, a knowledgeable Inspector ‘must be able to evaluate the contractor's equipment for adequacy and must be able to assess whether the rate of progress is reasonable, ll, SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS. Safety is paramount on any jb. Coating inspectors should be aware of basic safety requirements. Although the inspector 1s not expected to be proficlent in all safety codes and regulations, common sense should certainly prevail. fighting, scaffolding, or equipment malfunctions present safety hazards, the appropriate safety personne! should be notified. Paint application inherently presents some dangers because the solvents used are flammable, and becauise many objects to be pairited are relatively high of inaccessible. To paint these areas requires elaborate staging oF the use of spiders or swing scaffolding for ac cossibility. The knowledgeable inspector will assure hims@ié of the safety of these appurtenances before he ‘beotrnes involved. Other safety concerns are addressed ‘more specifically in SSPC-PA.3, "A Guide to Satety in Paint Application” and the chapter on Safety in this volume, Il, INSPECTION SEQUENCE aspection often begins with a prejob conference at Which the ground rules are set. The inspector is responsi bie for witnessing, verifying, inspecting, and documenting FIGURE 1 ‘SLING PSYCHROMETER — used for measuring wot and dry bull Aemperatures in order to establish relative humidity and dow paint, The ‘stablization, trumont fe spun tn the alr to reach temporatu 184 Figune 2 ELECTRIC PSYCHROMETER — utilizes ‘thermometer bulbs, providing the wet and dry bulb temps readings. faa to draw air across tue the work at various Inspection points. The following points will be reviewed along with the appropriate instruments used for each. 1. PreSurface Preparation Inspection 2, Measurement of Ambiont Conditions 3, Evaluation of Compressor (Air Cleanliness) and Surface Preparation Equipment 4, Determination of Surface Proparation Cleanliness. and Profile Inspection of Application Equipment Witnessing Coating Mixing Inspecting Coating Application |. Determination of Wet Film Thickness Determination of Dry Film Thickness 410, Evaluating Cleanliness Between Coats 11. Pinhole and Holiday Testing 42, Adhesion Testing 19. Evaluating Cure IV. PRE-SURFACE PREPARATION INSPECTION Prior to the commencement of surtace preparation or other coating activities, It may be necessary to Inspect to determine if the work is ready to be prepared and painted. Heavy deposits of grease, soll, dust, dirt, coment splatter land other contaminants must be removed. Removal of such large oll and grease deposits prior to blast cleaning assures that they are not redeposited onto freshly cleaned ‘surfaces. This removal is accomplished by following the steps outlined In SSPC-SP 1, “Solvent Cleaning”. This is particularly important when abrasive recycling, blast ‘cleaning methods are used so that the abrasive itself does not become contaminated, Such contamination would be deposited onto any steel subsequently cleaned with the same abrasive The specification may require that weld splatter be ‘ground or otherwise removed and that sharp edges be rounded. Laminations in plate steel, if detected prior to blast cleaning, should be opened. It deep enough, they may requira-weld filing, and, If sufficiont deterioration has occurred to the structure, replacement of someFIGURE 3 DIGITAL PSYCHROMETER — gives Instant readout of dry bulb and wot bulb temperatures. Courtesy: Atkins Technical inc. ‘structural members, “fish plating" or other repair may be necessary. Responsibility for such repair should be ‘specified in procurement documents but is not ordinarily, considered to be part of the coating contract. ‘As @ prelude to most painting operations, taping, masking and protection of adjoining surfaces not to be painted must be accomplished. Inspection of all of the above is done visually, or by touch. Except perhaps for a radius gage or inspection mirtor, no readily accepted instruments and standards are used (although NACE, ASTM, and SSPC are currently working on standards in these areas) If the work Involves maintenance painting, a deter- mination of the percentage of rusting in an area will bo helpful. t should be made in accordance with SSPC-Vis 2 "Standard Methods of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Surlaces". In addition, the coating type should be ascertained In ordor to assure compatibility with subsequently applied coats. Although there is no quick “foo! proof” field method for determining the type of coating present on a structure, a chemical test series. developed by the U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory |s available for general fold studies. Alternately, and perhaps best, Is a test patch application of the new Coating over the old, two weeks or mora in advance of pro- duction painting. The test patch is then examined for adhe, sion, signs of.wrinkling, lifting, or other evidence of incom: patibility. A more conclusive approach is to send coating ‘samples to laboratories for quick, inexpensive determina tion of generic type (by Infrared spectroscopic analysis). V. MEASUREMENT OF AMBIENT CONDITIONS While this is not specifically an inspection hold-point, 185 1s implicit that surface preparation and coating work be done only under sultable ambient conditions of ‘temperature, humidity, and dew point. For most catalyzed coatings, specific minimum temperatures must be met. Many zinc-rich coatings require certain minimum humidities as woll. The Inspector should be cognizant of weather forecasts, particularly it coating work Is to be done outdoors. Other ambient conditions that might affect painting ‘operations should be noted such as potential industcial or chemical airborne contamination, water spray downwind from a cooling tower, leaking steam or chemical lines, and contamination from normal plant or adjacent operations, Olten, a heater or dehumidifier is used to control am: bient conditions for painting operations. Ideally, a heater should be indirect fired so it does not contaminate the sur- face with producte of combustion. Ventilation, if required, should provide for sufficient air Hlow and adequate ventila- tion ofall areas where work is being performed, Most solvents are heavier than alr; thus, the dangers of explo- sion and flammability are groatost in low.lying areas. Con- {tol of airborne contaminants such as dust and abrasive ‘must also be effective in order to prevent contamination. While much of the above is inspected visually with the acceptance criteria governed by safety requirements and ‘common sense, the ambient conditions of alr temperature, relative humidity, and dew point are determined using in- strumentation. This includes psychrometers (Figures 1, 2, ‘and 3} oF Instruments that give direct read-out recording of humiaify Figure 4) or dew point. Measurements with these instruments are taken before the work begins each day ‘and periodically throughout the day. A suggested ‘minimum frequency is every four hours, or sooner if weather conditions appear to be worsening The psychrometer consists of two identical tube’ thor: _mometors, one of which is covered with a wick or sock that FIGURE 4 RECORDING HYGROMETER — ‘lati humidity and {temperature are recorded on stip charts to provide permanent dally or weekly records.i i i { j 7 | 2 FIGURE 5 US. WEATHER BUREAU TABLES — a book of abies for convert- ing dry bulb and wet bulb temparatures to relative humidity and dew point. ‘saturated with water. The covered thermometer is called the “wet bulb" and the other is the “dry bulb”. The dry bulbs glves tho ambient air temperature while the wet bulb temperature results from the latent heat loss of water evaporation from the wetted sock. The faster the rate of water evaporation, the lower the humidity and dew point, ‘There are generally two types of psychrometers: the sling psychrometer, shown in Figure 1, and tho fan of motor-driven psychrometer, shown in Figura 2. When using the sting peychromoter, the wet bulb sock is saturated with water, the instrument whirled rapidly tor approximately 20 seconds, and a reading of the wet bulb Quickly taken, The cycle Is repeated (spinaingireading ‘without additional wetting) until the wet bulb temperature FIGURE 6 SURFACE TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER — for establishing temperatures of substrates during blast cleaning and painting, 186 stabilizes. Stabilization occurs when three consecutive readings of the wet bulb remain the same. At this time both the dry and wet bulb temperatures are recorded. When using the far-operated psychrometer, the wet bulb sock is saturated with water and the fan is started, Approximately two minutes are requiced for stabilization, ‘and one need onty observe the wet bulb thermometer and record both temperatures when the wet bulb temperature remains unchanged. a. oe FIGURE 7 DIGITAL THERMOMETER — for direct readout of surtaco temperature, ‘Courtesy: Atkins Technica, ine. When the instruments are used in air temperatures less than 32 degrees Fahrenholt, the accuracy of the readings is quostionabie. The wet bulb thermometer will drop below the 32 degrees Fahrenhelt temperatura to a certain point (e.g. 27 degrees Fahrenheit) then “heat up” rapidly to the 32 degrees Fahrenheit freezing point. Quite often when using a sling psychrometer, this will take place during the whiring of the instrument; therotore, a wet bulb temperature of 32 degrees Fahronhelt may always be ob- tained, When using the motor-driven peychrometer, ono can observe the wet bulb temperature drop below freezing, then rise rapidly to 32°F, However, the low value may sti be incorrect. Thus if the temperature Is bolow 32°F, the ambient conditions. will have to be establiched by other ‘means. This could be accomplished by obtaining the humidity on a direct. read-out. instrument. using Sophisticated equipment or even inexpensive humidity in- dicators available for home use. The ambient temperature will stil be obtained using a standard thermometer. These two values can then be used to determine the wet bulb and dow point temperatures by plotting out this information “in reverse" on the charts or tables described below. After the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are determined, a psychometric chart or table is used to determine the relative humidity and dew point temperatures of the alr. Charts require plotting the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures on different lines and in- {etpolating the relative humidity and dew point trom their intersection, The U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau| i i i Psychometric Tables (Figure 5) consist of individual tables for relative humidity and dew point. To use the table, the wet bulb temperature is subtracted from the dry bulb temperature and the difference found along the top row of the table, The dry bulb temperature is found down the loft column and the intersection of the two is either the humidity or the dew point, depending upon which table is used. Other tables, such as the U.S. Department of Com- ‘marce, NOAA-WSTA B.0-E (6-72), “Relative Humidity and Dew Point Tables”, include the relative humidity and dew point on the same table, FIGURE 8 {oft to right) Nozzle Orifice Gage measures nozzle orifice ant Dow Point Is defined as the temperature at which moisture will condense. Dew point is important in coating ‘work because moisture condensation on the surface will ‘cause freshly blast cleaned steel to rust, ora thin, often in- visibla flim of moisture trapped between coats may cause premature coating failure. Accordingly, the industry has established an arbitrary dow point/surtace temperature safety factor. Final biast cleaning and coating application should not take place untess the surface temperature is at least five degrees Fahrenholt higher than the dew point. Although, theoretically, a surface temperature just in- itesimally above the dew point wil! not permit moisture condensation, the safety factor of five degrees Fahrenheit has been established to allow for possible instrument in- accuracies or different locations whore readings are taken, Different field instruments are used for determining ‘surface temperature. One of the most common is a surface temperature thermometer (Figure 6), which consists of a bimetallic senging element that is shielded from dratte. The Instrument includes two magnets on the sensing side {for attachment o forrous substrates. Two or throe minutes are required {0+ temperature stabilization of this instru- ‘ment. Other field instruments for determining surface temperature are direct reading thermocouplelthermisters, (Figure 7). Those instruments havo a sensing probe touched to the surface, resulting in a direct temperature readout. Only a few seconds are required for a temperature FIGURE 9 SWEDISH STANDARDS — approved by SSPC (VS 1) and ASTM {2g200, are ener ahoogrphe of structural eee four rust ‘fade conditions prior to. surf jon and again after fend, power tool, and four egress of blast cleaning. reading to stabilize. With any of the Instruments used for determining am- bient conditions and surtace temperatures, the readings should be taken at the actual locations of the work. For general readings, however, one should consider the cold- est polnt on the structure because a surface temperaturoldew point relationship problem will occur there first, Air and surface temperature considerations aro also important to ensure that coatings are not applied out- side of their tomperature limitations — In areas too cool or too warm, Accordinaly, readings for this purpose should ‘be made at the coolest or warmest areas. Typical requirements for ambient painting conditions: are givon in SSPC-PA 1 187 FIGURE 10 KEANE-TATOR SURFACE PROFILE COMPARATOR ~ consists of alighted magnifier and reterence disc for visually comparing the anchor patter of blast cleaned steel, Reference alscs are avallable for sand, git, oF shot abrasives. Courtesy: KTATatorFIGURE 11 Koane-Tator Comparator in use 10 moasure surtace proflo Courtesy: KTATator VI. EVALUATION OF SURFACE PREPARATION EQUIPMENT The air compressor and other equipment used for blastcleaning and any hand or power tools should be in- spected. The inspector need not have an extensive technical background on the equipment, but should be familiar enough with it to dotermine its suitability. A brit summary is provided below, but moro detailed information 's available in the chapters on Surface Preparation in this volume and in the Commentary on Surface Preparation in Volume 2, FIGURE 12 ‘TESTEX PRESS.O-FILM TAPE — ueod to make a procise reverse replica of the suriace profile, whichis. measured with a spring micrometer. A. AIR COMPRESSOR AND AIR CLEANLINESS When gin air compressor is used — for blast cleaning, power tool cleaning, or the operation of spraying equip. ‘ment ~ the compressor should be appropriately sized and have a suitable volume to maintain the required’ air Pressures. Equipment suppliers have charts and data available which are oxcolont aids for determining required. sizes of compressors, air and abrasive lines, nozzles, and so forth. FIQURE 13, DIAL SURFACE PROFILE GAGE — a depth micrometer that ‘measures the depth of valleys on the steel eurtace aftor bla: leaning, Courtesy: Elcomoter, Ine The compressed air used for blast cleaning, biow- down, and spray application should be checked for con- taminants. Adequate moisture and oll traps should be ‘used on all lines to assure that the air is sufficiently dry and ollfree so it does not Interfere with the quality of the work. A simple test for dotormining alr cleanliness re- uites holding a clean white piece of blotter paper approx. imately 18 inches from the air supply downstream of moisture and oil separators. The alr is permitted to blow on the blotter paper for a fow minutes followed by an inspec tion for signs of detrimental amounts of moisture or oil contamination on the blotter. Obviously, if there is no discoloration on ihe blotter, the quailty of the alr is ex- Coltent, white streams of moisture and oll running down the sheet indicate unsatisfactory air. Unfortunately, the point where good air becomes bad is difficult to determine. However, by use of tho blotter Paper (or a clean cloth, handkerchief, or paper), one can make his own judgments as to the air quality. A thorough inspection of the surface after blast cleaning for signs of ‘molsture of oil contamination should be made and these rooults correlated with the results of the blotter test. In ad- ition, the proper functioning of inline moisture and oi! ‘raps can be evaluated on a comparative basis trom the results of the blotter test. For work requiring that absolute 'y no moisture or oll be permitted in the compressed air,FIGURE 14. ZAHN CUP — for moasuring tho viscosity of coatings prior to ap. plication. oll4ess compressors and sophisticated alr drying equip ~ ment are available. B. BLAST CLEANING MACHINE The blast cleaning machine mixes the abrasive with the alr stream. The abrasive motering valve regulating the flow of abrasive Into the air stream Is perhaps ane of the most overlooked but Important considerations affecting ‘the work rate. Generally, too much abrasive is injected into, the air stream, resulting in both decreased production and Increased abrasive costs. The machine should be ‘equipped for “dead man” capability so that it can be shut _ down from the nozzle in the event the nozzlo is dropped. It ‘should also be equipped with moisture and oil separators, ‘or extornal separators should be provided. Since the tank of the blast cleaning machine is a pressure vessel, it ‘should be constructed according to prossuto vossol codes, FIGURE 18 WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE — m sures coating thickness during application by progressively deeper steps marked in mils. 199 C. ABRASIVE Thera is a great varlety of abrasives available for blast cleaning, The size, type, and hardness of the abrasive have a significant impact on the surface profile and speed of Cleaning, Steal shot and grit, because they can be recy: ‘led, are most commonly used for rotary wheel blast clean- ing. Where permitted by law, sand is @ very common abrasive for most field operations. Various slag abrasives, ‘due to lesser hazards from silica, are also widely used, par- ticularly in tanks, ship holds and other relatively confined areas. Sand and slag are disposable abrasives and should not be reeyeled, wheroas most metallic abrasives, such as Iron and stee! shot and grit, aluminum oxide, and expen: sive abrasives such as glass boads can be recycled if fines, paint, rust and mill scale can be adequately ‘separated {fom the abrasive stream. Metallic and non- metalilc abrasives are reviewed in detail in other chapters of this volume, Ht Is most important that all abrasives be clean and free of moisture. Abrasives should be stored off the ground, protected from moisture and the elements. Only sand of slag that has been wasted at the manufacturing and packaging plant should be used. The washing should bbe done using frosh water only; if brackish water is used, chloride contamination of the cleaned surface can result, with subsequent rust bloom in humid environments, Although there is no Inspection apparatus for deter- mining the cleanliness of the abrasive used, a visual Inspection must be made to assure that It is not damp or contaminated. When abrasive recycling systems are used, a simple tost for the presence of oll or grease contamina tion should be made. Drop some of the abrasive (e.g. a toa- ‘8p00n full) Into a small vial of water (pill bottle size) and shake vigorously. Inspect the top of the water for a film of ‘grease or oll which will bo prosont if the abrasive is con- taminated, Dirt and dust in the abrasive can be assessed in the came manner. Small abrasive "fines" will be held by surface tension at the meniscus, and a dirty abrasive will color the water or cause turbidity. Howevar, water-soluble contaminants such as salt will not be detected using this test. If water-soluble contaminants are present, a litmus paper test of the water in the vial wil tell if they are acid or alkaline:'If noutral, add a drop of 5% silver nitrate solution to tho water, The formation of a white precipitate will in- dicate the presence of chlorides. Alternatively, allow the water to evaporate and look for salt crystals. D. FORCED AIR AND ABRASIVE HOSES ‘Sharp constrictions or bends in these lines should be eliminated, and thoy should be kept as short as possible to avoid friction and loss of pressure. For the same reason, Internat couplings should be avoided. For safety purposes, the couplings should be wired together to assure secure closure, and the blast hoses should be equipped with static wire grounding,i i INTERCHEMICAL WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE Courtesy: GilbertiCommonweaith, Inc. MIKROTEST MAGNETIC PUL E. BLAST CLEANING NOZZLES AND NOZZLE PRESSURE A great variaty of nozzle sizes, types, and lengths are available for cleaning purposes. The specific nozzle ‘chosen will depend upon the specific cleaning Job. Venturi type noazies provide a higher abrasive velocity than straight barrel types of the same orifice size. In general, the fonger the barrel, the larger the orifice and the faster the cleaning rate. Cracked nozzles and worn nozzles, even If not cracked, will reduce the rate of blast cleaning, As a ‘ule of thumb, a nozzie that has been worn beyond 25% of its original inner diameter (L.) should not be used. A noz: 2le orifice gage (Figure 8) is available from equipment sup- pliers for determining the orifice size after use. The ‘umber etched on the nozzle housing indicates tho size when new. Nozzles are designated in sixteonths of an inch. Therefore a Number 8 nozzle is equivalent to % inch. The amount of air pressure at the blast nozzle is a determining factor in cleaning rate production. The op: timum nozzle pressure Is 90 to 100 psig. The blasting air pressure should be determined at the nozzle rather than at the gage on the compressor because thore will be prossure drops in the system due to hose length, bends, restric- tions, blast pot, and moisture traps. Air pressure at the blast nozzle can be determined using a hypodermic needle air pressure gage (Figure 8). The needle of the gage is in- Sorted through the blast hose as close to the nozzle as is Practical. The direction of noodle placement should be toward the nozzle. Pressure readings are taken with the ‘nozzle in operation (abrasive flowing). At the same time, all ‘other pneumatic equipment using the samo compressor system must be in operation, F, ROTARY WHEEL BLAST CLEANING OFF DRY FILM THICKNESS GAGE sures the thickness of costings applied — EQUIPMENT. = non-destructivaly to ferrous subetrat ELCOMETER INSPECTOR THI ame principle as the Mi thickness measurements, ICKNESS GAGE — oporetes on tho ikrotest for nondestructive coating Courtesy: Elcometer Many fabricating shops and painting sites are equipped with rotary wheel blastcleaning equipment in order to tfectively propare a surface for painting. The ‘umber of wheels diractly affects the arca that can bo ‘cleaned, and the type of structural shapes that can ba ‘cleaned. Adjustments can be made to direct the blast pat- tezn from each wheel to the desired location in order to. Provide @ uniform cleaning pattern, The rate of speed through the machine determines the degree of cleaning; the slower the material goos through the machine, the: Greater tho degree of cledning. Detalls are given in the ‘chapter on centrifugal blast cleaning in this volume. Complex. structural shapes are particularly hard to ‘clean using automated equipment. The interior of box FIGURE 19 ELCOMETER PENCIL PULLOFF GAGE = Courtesy: Zormea Corp. 190FIGURE 20 BSA TINSLEY GAGE Courtosy: James G. Biddle Instruments Co. gliders, enclosed shapes, and shielded members can not bo cleaned, unloss cleaning is done prior to fabrication. In many instances, fabricators will employ handheld blast cleaning equipment in tandem with the automated equip- ment to reach the inaccessible areas. G, OTHER METHODS OF SURFACE PREPARATION Methods such as vacuum blast cleaning, water blasting with or without sand injection, wet blast cleaning, hand and power tool cleaning will not be discussed hore. Vil. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE PREPARATION CLEANLINESS AND PROFILE A. CLEANLINESS ‘All eurfaces should be inspected after surtace preparation to assure compliance with the specification. The SSPC Surface Preparation Specifications describe tho appearance of various types of surface preparation methods, percentage of the surface area to be cleaned, type of residues permitted to remain on the surface, and so forth, Its important thet this inspection be timely, in ordor to avoid any rusting of cleaned surfaces prior to priming, ‘The written definitions are supplemented by SSPC-Vis 1, the Swedish Standards, which photographically depict the surface appearance of hand and power tool cleaning and varlous grades of blast cleaning over four Initial mill scale and rust conditions of steel (Figure 9). The standards are visually compared with the prepared surface to deter mine the degree of cleanliness. Other visual standards for surface cleanliness ovaluation include the NACE coupons, and the SNAME Standards. Agreement on the desired ap: pearance of a cleaned surface using commercially ries FIGURE 21 TINSLEY THICKNESS GAGE ‘Courtesy: Dean Bergor 11 available standards is often difticult to achieve because of shadows and hues caused by the abrasive used, the pat torn and dogres of prior rusting and numerous other fac {ofS unique to each project. As a result, jobsite standards are often developed to reach agreement. Sections of the structure (or test panels of a similar nature) are prepared ‘and all parties involved ultimately sotect one of the panels (f areas that Is representative of the desired end result. A ‘complete listing of available standards is provided in the ‘Commentary on Surface Preparation included in Volume 2. ‘COUNTERREIT. REFERENCE WARK es SOME. Figune 22 INSPECTOR THICKNESS GAGE (Courtesy: GilbertiCommonweath, Ine. When a cortain surface preparation method is spocifiod, the intent is that it be employed over 100% of the area, not just the readily accessible areas. Cleanliness after surface proparation is also very im- portant, Residual traces of abrasive must be blown, swept, ‘9r vacuumed from the surface prior to prime coating. It is also Important to ensure that dust Is removed from the sur face prior to painting, particularly the “fine film” of dust like spent abrasive often held to the blast-cleaned surface by static olectricity.-Any scaffolding, staging or support steel above the area to be coated must be blown down and cleaned to prevent abrasive dropping onto the freshly cleaned surface, or later contaminating the freshly primed surface. Concurrent blast cleaning and painting should ‘not be permitted unless the blast cleaning is adequately Isolated to prevent contamination of the freshly painted surface, The surface profile should also be measured or estimated, Note that the profile or roughnoss of a biast- cleanad substrate Is different than, but closely related to, eurface cleanliness.FIGURE 23, Inside of Mikcotest Gage with componente corresponding with ‘those in Figure 22, Courtesy: Giibort/Commonwealth B. PROFILE ‘The profile anchor pattem or roughness Is defined as the maximum average peak to valley depth (or height) ‘caused by the impact of tho abrasive onto the substrate. A White Metal Blast can have a 1, 2, 3,.0r 4 mil profilo, likewise, a Commercial Blast can have a 1, 2, 3, or 4 mil profile. Specifying a certain blast cleanliness says nothing of the profile requirement. it must be addressed separate. yy, Surface profile is important because It Increases the Surface area to which the coatings can adhore, and pro- vides a mechanical anchor, resulting in good adhesion. As @ general rule, thick coatings require a deeper surface pro- file than thin coatings. Profile determinations are generally made in the field ‘F shop using one of three instruments: a surface profile comparator, @ depth micrometer, or a replica tape. Magnetic measurements of surface profile have been a tempted with iitle success. More sophisticated laboratory. methods include a profilometer and a depth moasuring microscope. SSPC has developed a standard method of ‘moasuring profile using a microscope. This is included in the SSPC Study “Surface Profile for’ Anti-Corrosion Paints.” While all methods are worthy of consideration, on- |y the tleld/shop instruments will be discussed. The most common comparator is the Keane-Tator Sur face Profile Comparator (Figures 10 and 11), which con. sists of a reference disc and a S:power illuminated magni- fier. The disc is held magnetically against the magnifier, through which test surface and disc segments can be viewod. simultaneously. The reference disc has five Separate leaves or segmonts, each of which is assigned a number representative of the profile depth of the particular leat. Each disc is a high purity nickel electroformed copy of amaster, The master disc was measured microscopical- ly by the SSPC to establish the profile depth. The reference disc Is compared with the surface through the 5-power magnifier. The leaf or leaves which ‘most closely approximate the roughness of the surface are considered to be the profile of that surface. For example, the profile might be 2 mils, or perhaps from 2 to 3 mils If 192 the surface roughness appears to tle botwoen the 2 mil and 3 mill leaves. There are three surface profile discs available, The fone to use for measurement depends upon the abrasive, used. Different types of abrasives may result ina different profile appearance, although the depths might be iden. tical, For example, shot is round when compared with the more angular grit. in order to achieve similar profile depths, the shot by virtue of its shape will generally result, in greater lateral distances between peaks than will grit, rosulting inva lower peak count per given area. The optical effect provides an illusion that the shot-blast-cleaned sur- face Is deeper than the grit-blast-cleaned surface even when they are Identical. Therefore, itis essontial that the correct comparator disc be selected for the abrasive used. ‘The designations for three discs avallable with the in- strument are for sand, 8; for metalile grt or steel, GIS; and for steel shot, SH. The numbering aystem on each leaf con- sists of a number followed by a letter designation, then another number. The first number represents the protile depth of that teat, the letter reprosents the abrasive used, and the final number represents the year that the master disc was formed, For example, 1S70 indicates that that feat was prepared to a 1 mil profile using sand as the abrasive and that the master dise was formed in 1970. The year that the master disc was formed Is only significant If It were to be replaced at a later date. The Ciemtex Coupons are another type of profile reference standard similar to the compatator discs. They are stainless stee! coupons individually blast cleaned and. ‘measured for profile depth. SO is also working on a visual profile comparator. Another field instrument useful for determining average profile depths Is a depth micrometer (Figure 13). The depth micrometer consists of @ conical pin which pro- jects out from a large flat base approximately the sizo of a ‘nickel. The instrument Is calibrated on a mirror or plate lass by turning the entire scale ring so that the “zero” FIGURE 25 PLASTIC SHINS — for calloating dty film thicknoss gages.FIGURE 25, NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS CERTIFIED COATING THICKNESS CALIBRATION STANDARDS for magnetic pull-oft ‘gage calibration, lines up with the pointer. Theoretically, when the instru: ‘ment is firmly placed on the blast cleaned substrate, the base will rast on the tops of the “peaks” and the pin will project into a valley. By taking a number of readings, an average profile can be obtained. It 1s Important to pick the instrument up and place it down for each reading, rather than drag it across the profile; otherwise, the point will become blunted, yielding erroneous readings. Surface profile can also bo determined by using replica tape (Figure 12). The Testex Press-0-Film Replica ‘Tape consiets of an emulsion film of microscopic bubbles attached to a uniform, 2 mil film of mylar, The tape is pressed onto the blast-cleaned surface, emulsion side down, and the mylar rubbed vigorously with a blunt instru: ment, such as a awizele stick or burnishing tool. The peaks of the profile will break the bubbles and ultimately touch, but not alter, the thickness of the mylar, as the mylar is in ‘compressible. The tape is removed and measured using a light-weight, springtoaded micrometer, which provides a reading from the upper or outermost surface of the mylar to the high spots on the emulsion which were not totally crushed (corresponding with the valleys of the profile). Tho total micrometer reading is adjusted for the thickness of the mylar by subtracting 2 mils from the results to provide a direct reading of the maximum average profile. The tape {ig available in “coarse” for profile measurements up 102% mits and “X-coarse” for measurements from 2% to 4% mits. The replica tape will allegedly retain the impression Indefinitely, provided It is stored in a cool area with no pressure applied. Concelvably, replicas of profiles could bbe Kept on file permanently for future reference. It 1s important that the inspector realize that each of the above methods has Its drawbacks. For example, the ‘comparator is subjective, and persons using it could be biased by the results of others. The peaks of the profile may bo too closo together to pormit tho projecting pin of the Surface Profile Gage (depth micrometer) to reach the valleys, or the surface might be irregular or wavy, holding the base of the instrument slightly above the plane of the profile, giving erroneously high readings. The replica tape cannot be used for profiles exceeding 4¥4 mits, orf there is any dirt or dust contamination on the surface, Such con: tamination wiil be picked up and incorrectly read as add tional profile depth by the micrometer. Finally, itis impor. tant to realize that there may not be exact correlation ‘among each of the above methods because each takes in a different peak count or surface aroa for its measurement. Therefore, itis advisable that all parties concerned agree ‘on the instrument that will be used to determine the sur face profile and not deviate from it. Because of the con: troversy in agreement in surface profile measuring methods, equipment or technique, manufacturers will oc: ‘casionally supply a profile reference coupon represen- tative of the roughness necessary for thelr product or alter natively specify the uso of a spocific instrumont. The SSPC. ‘has prepared a report on profile, tts origin, measurement, control and effect on coating performance. It is entitled "Surtace Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints". The technology of surface preparation is covered in a serles of separate chapters in this volume. Vill. INSPECTION OF APPLICATION EQUIPMENT ‘The Inspector must also be familiar with the methods. ‘and equipment used for coatings application, A brief sum- mary is presented here, but more detailed information is provided in the chapter on paint application of this volume and in Volume 2, ‘ADJUSTMENT EXTENSION REFERENCE SCALE waguer eee Oooo CZ tems ssi ZA FIGURE 25 Operating principle of Pencit Plt! or Tinsley Gage. Courtesy: GilbertiCommensoatth, ine.j 1 i i A. SPRAY APPLICATION EQUIPMENT Spray equipment is classified as either conventional (air atomized) or airless. With air atomization equipment, ‘the paint ig fed through the fluid tine at relatively low pressures, and compressed alt is dirocted at the fluid ‘troam through an air cap to atomize it. Adjustment of the fluid stream and air pressure enables the painter to adjust the spray pattern. Only the minimum pressures necessary to adequately atomize the paint should be used. The prop: oF fluid cap and needle must be chosen, as wall as a cor. Tesponding air cap size. Bocause the compressed air ‘mixes with the coating, filters should be used to ensure & clean air supply. In airless spraying, very high hydraulic pressure {(1000:3000 psi) is used to atomize the paint through a precision-ground spray tip, much in the same manner as Water is dispersed into droplets when passing through a ‘garden hose spray nozzle. in an airless spray gun, genéral- 'y, variations in the spray pattern can be attained only by changing the spray tip (fluid orifice), although some ad- justable tips are now available. Consequently, choice of the appropriate tip, as wll as variation of fluid pressure. can result in a wide range of spray patterns sultable for almost any application, The coating manufacturer's application instructions usually recommend the appropriate spray tips and caps for conventional and airless application of thoir material, This, however, is only a recommendation and under certain conditions, other tip or cap combinations may be more ap- Propriate. Care should be taken when cleaning the tip or ‘caps as the orifice can be easily damaged. Figune 27 ELCOMETER MINITECTOR — a magnetic ux gage utilizing « battery-operated bridge cireuit to measur coating thicknoss-on {forrous substrates. Similar modo! algo utlizoe eddy curronts for ‘Measurement of non-conductive coating over nonerraus metal substrates, 7 Courtesy: Elcometor 104 ES FIGURE 28 DIGITAL MINITECTOR — same features as the IMINITECTOR ox cept that thicknesses are shown on digital readout. The predominant malfunction In spray guns is at- tributable to lack of cleanliness, both of the spray gun itself and of fluid lines. Paint chips or agglomerations and. ‘most blasting abrasive particles are of sufficient size to clog the small diameter orifices, resulting in gun stoppage oF clogging. Additionally, cleantiness of mixing pots, spray pots, spray lines, spray guns or other application equipment is Important and necessary for good paint application. Dirty ‘equipment can cause new paint to become contaminated with old. Dislodged particles can clog the spray gun or ‘ven result in the doposition of Incompatible traces of Previously applied material in the new paint film. Cleanliness of all spray application equipment should be verified prior to, oF no later than, the time of mixing of the aint, Otherwise, resulting clogged paint equipment may cause the loss of the coating material due to expired pot life or the presence of contamination. B. SPRAY POT The spray pot should be clean and in working order rior t0 use. Many types of paints, particularly zinc-ich primers, require the use of an agitated pot (one equipped with a stiering paddle) in order to keep the paint com- ponents in suspension. Air and fluid pressure gages should be available and functional on conventional spray ots. The pressure release valve should also be operative. ‘The conventional pot should be equipped with diaphragm pressure regulators, making it possible to contro! both air ‘and fluid pressure to the spray gun from the pot. C. OTHER MEANS OF COATING APPLICATIONS Brushes, rollers, mitts, hopper guns, electrostatic Spray, squeogees and other tools are used to apply coating: | matorials. The proper size, shape, configuration, nap size, etc. should be chosen for a specific job. The inspector should be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each method. 1X. MIXING OF THE PAINT MATERIAL ‘This is probably one of the most important opera tlons, as improper mixing or thinning will affect the Ccoating’s ability to resist the environment. However, mix: Ing is not always specified as an inspection hold point in painting operations. Regardless, there should be some means to assure that all components of a mult component paint system have beon added, that mixing 1s thorough and proper and that any required induction times have been met, Leaking or damaged containers should not bbe used, particularly with catalyzed paints as some of the components necessary for complete cure may have leaked ut and proper proportioning may not be obtainable. Con: tainers with illegible tabels should not be used. Mixing should be done until the paint becomes smooth, homogeneous, and free of surface “swirls” of pigment lumps or agglomerations. Many paints séttle out upon pro- longed storage, 50 “boxing” of these paints is beneficial to censure that all pigment settled on the bottom of the con: talner is incorporated in the mixed paint. When adding zinc dust to the vehicle of zinc-rich primers, Its a usual practice to sift the zine dust through a Screen into the liquid portion while mixing. This helps to Teduco a major problem when spraying two-component zinc+ich primers; that is, gun clogging caused by pigment agglomerations that are not properly dispersed upon mix. Ing. For such heavily pigmented coatings, itis also impor. tant that the spray pot agitator is Kooping the pigment in suspension. Preferably, only complete kits of multi-component paints should’ be mixed. if this cannot be done, the ‘manufacturor must bo consulted to assure that partial mix: ing of thetr material is permitted. If so, It is imperative that the components be carefully measured, Thinners are often required and should be well mixed Into the paint material. The type and amount of thinner should be In accordance with the coating manufacturer's VERIMETER — an destructive thickne: substrates. 195 FIGURE 30 tronic magnetic flux thickness gage {or accurately measuring the dry film thickness of non-magnetic coatings applied to # ferrous base. ‘CERTOTEST — another recommendations. The amount of thinner used should be recorded by the inspector, as any thinner reduces the volume of solid contents of the mixed paint. Measurement of viscosity assures that proper thin- ning ratios are used and that the thinning has not been ‘changed significantly from pot to pot. A common viscosity ‘cup Zahn), as shown in Figure 14, is simply a small cup of known volume with a precisely sized orifice in the center. Generally fiv orifice sizes are available and are numbered 1 through 5. The manufacturer can be consulted as to the orifice size to use for his material, and the time in seconds for the volume of properly thinned material held by the cup to pass through the orifice. For example, the manufacturer might stipulate that the material should be thinned such that it will pass through a No. 3 Zahn Cup in 20-30 seconds ata given liquid paint temperature. The clean cup is fully immersed In tho coating ‘material and withdrawn quickly. A timer is started at the ppraciso moment that the top of the cup leaves the level of the liquid. The material wil! flow steadily through the orifice. When the solid stream breaks at the base of the cup, the timer is stopped instantly. It is important to hold the cup one or two Inches above the surface of the liquid 0 that the cup will remain in the solvent atmosphere and away from all drafts. The amount of thinner is adjusted accordingly so that volume of paint held by the cup will flow through the orifice within the stipulated time range. Viscosity measurements of this type are of value for quick fleld determinations of thinning and will reveal it significant changes in the viscosity ocourred from pot to ot of material. However, the paint applicator himself ts generally the best judge of proper thinning ratios to assure that he can apply a smooth wat coat without runs or sags, Additionally, the viscosity of some high build thixotropic coatings cannot be measured with the Zahn Cup, but other viscosimeters can be used. In this case, the manufacturer should-be contacted for a recommendation.| | FIGURE $1 ELCOMETER 101 — a magnetic flux instrument that operates ‘rom the power of a horseshoe magnet only without the need for an olectrenie power supply Courtesy: Zormeo Corp. X. COATING APPLICATION Besides surface preparation, the actuat coating ap: plication is the most visible aspect of the coating work After surtace proparation, it is the most important aspect as wall, It has been said that “the best coating specifica- ton is no better than the man behind the spray gun". Ac: ‘cordingly, the coating inspector should be knowledgeable ‘of the various application techniques, These are briefly reviewed below, but detailed information is avaliable in the chapter on Paint Application of this volume and in Volume 2 When spraying with conventional (air atomized) equip ‘ment, the epray gun should be held trom sb« to eight inches {rom the surface and maintained perpendicular to the sur- face throughout the stroke. For airless application, the distance should be from 10 to 14 Inches. Atthe end of each ‘pass, the gun trigger should be roleased. Each spray pass ‘should overlap the previous one by 80%, and where post ble, a oross hatch technique should be used, This requires 4 duplicate series of passes at 90° to the first to ensure complete and uniform coverage. {n brush application, the brush should be dipped ap- proximately two-thirds of its bristle length into-the coating. ‘The bristle tips should be brushed lightly against the side Of the container to prevent dripping, maintaininig as fully loaded a brush as possible, Brushing ie more effective than. spraying’ for working paint into depressed ir regularities, pits or crevices. However, care should bo taken to ensure that the coating Is not brushed out too thin, ‘Other application methods include rolling, using mitts ‘oF pads, dipping, electrostatic spraying, powder coating, (using fluidized bed or electro-static spray), and, Increas- ingly, roller coating using automated facilities for flat sheets. Each has its own specific technique as described elsewhere in this volume. ; 108 Besides ensuring proper application technique, addi tional care is necessary when inspecting coating work at fossil tual power stations, chemical plants, coke plants, land other areas where atmospheric contamination is pres- cent. Often water washing between coats or application of the topcoat within a minimum time interval is necessary. Otherwise, contaminants often invisible to the unaided eye may be coated over, leading to premature coating failure, Deficient and excessive coating thicknesses in multi coat systems should be observed. In cases where a top- coat is applied over a generically similar (non-ust in: hibitive) primer, deficient primer thickness can be “built up" by additional thickness of the topcoat. However, Where the primer contains rust Inhibitors or Is a different generic type, an additional coat of the primor or previously applied coating must be used before the topcoat can be applied. Another common practice Is to use coatings of a different color, orto tint each coat. This is an excallent aid, to the applicator and inspector to assure that complete ‘coverage is achieved. Upper thickness limits are also specitied if some cases. When paint thickness exceeds the specified thickness, the excess should be removed by grinding, sanding oF blast cleaning as appropriate, Removal is usually followed by reapplication of a thin coat to seal irregularities. Excessive or unsightly runs, sags, drips, streamers, and other film deficlencles should be brushed out during application or removed after drying. This again is dono by grinding, sanding, or in extreme cases, blast cleaning XL. WET FILM THICKNESS DETERMINATIONS, Wot film thickness readings are: used to aid the FIGURE 92 GE THICKNESS GAGE Courtesy: General Electic| | FIGURE 33 Positector for accurate cigltal measurements of coating Athiokness. painter and ingpector in determining how much material to apply in order to achieve the specified dry flim thickness. Wet film thicknesses on steel and most other metallic substrates are considered “guideline” thicknesses, with the dry film thickness being the thickness of record. However, when coating concrete or nonmetaltic substrates, the wet film thickness Is often the accepted value because dry film thickness can be determined only by destructive means. The wet film thickness gage is generally a standard "notch" configuration (Figure 16), although circular dial ‘gages are also used (Figure 16) ‘The notch typo gage consists of two end points on the same plane with progressively deeper notched steps in between, Each step is designated by a numbor roprosont. Ing the distance In mils or microns between the step and the plane created by tho two end points. The instrument is pressed firmly into the wet film perpendicular to the substrate and withdrawn. In every case, the two end points will be wetted by the coating material, and in addition ‘some of the steps in between. The wat film thickness is, considered as being between the last wetted step and the next adjacent higher dry one. For example, if the "a" step is watted and the "4" step is dry, the wet film thickness Is. between 3 and 4 mils. fnone of the steps or alof the steps. in botwoon tho end points are wetted, it is necessary to turn the gage to a different face, as the wet film thickness. is outside of that particular rango. When using this instrument, It is necessary to stay away from any surface irregularities that could distort the readings. I determinations are being macle on curved sur- faces, it Is Important that the gage be used along tho length of the curve rather than across its width, as the curve Itself could cause irregular wetting of the stops. The gauge must also be cleaned thoroughly after each use to 1097 ensure the accuracy of the readings. ‘The Interchemical thickness gage is @ narrow whee! with two outer rings of the same size and an off-set inner fing. The instrument ts rolled across the surface and withdrawn, The wat film thicknoss is that point where the coating no fonger wets the inner ring. Wot film thickness gages aro of value only if one knows how heavy a wet film to apply. The wet film thicknessidry fllm thickness ratio is based on the percent solids by volume of the specific material being applied, The old thoory of doubling the desired dry film thickness to doterntine the wet film to be applied is only correct if the solids by volume of the coating material is 50%. ‘The solids by volume of the coating material is infor: ‘mation readily available from the manufacturer and is commonly included in their product data sheets. The basic formula is DRY FILM THICKNESS = WET FILM THICK: NESS X % SOLIDS BY VOLUME. A more workable variation of the formula showing the required wet film thickness for the desired dry film thickness Is as follows: WET FILM THICKNESS DESIRED ORY FILM THICKNESS % SOLIDS BY VOLUME FiguRe 34 ld microprocassor for coating thickness measuroments. ‘Courtesy: Elcometor Hanai j i } i FIGURE 35, TOOKE SCRATCH GAGE — for determining dy film thickness by cutting cross section tough tefl and viewing Wunder may hltication, The above formula is accurate provided the solids by volume of the material is accurate. The percentage will change, however, if any thinner Is added to the coating, When thinner is added, the total volume of the material is increased without any corresponding increase in the amount of solids. Therefore, the thinned material will result in a lower percentage of solids by volume, Thus, when comparing thinned versus unthinned material in ‘order to achieve a comparable dry film thickness, a heavier Wet fllm application of the thinned material will be re. Guired. The following formula, which incorporates. the “new'" solids by volume, should be used to determine tho required wet film thickness when the material Is thinned. DESIRED DRY FILM THICKNESS % SOLIDS BY VOLUME (100% + % THINNER ADDED) WT = For example, assume a material contains 78% solids by volume and is to be applied in one coat to a dry film thickness of 8 mils, Without thinner added, the required wat film thickness Is determined as follows: WET = 10.25 mits If the coating in the same axample is thinned 20%, the new required wot films calculated as follows: See ae 076 ~ (0.68) 12. WrT = 42.3 mits This, without thinning, 10.25 wet mils are required to ob- tain 8 mils dry. After thinning, however, the solids by volume drops from 78% to 65% and the required wet film 198 thickness Increases nearly 2 mils, Bocause the use of the wet film thickness gage is dependent on the solids by volumo, and the solids by volume is considered as the “in can" parcentage, it is, essential that wet film thickness readings be taken as S00n as a film is applied to the surface, Actually, during ‘spray application, between the time the material leaves the gun and reaches the surface, some of the solvents will already have evaporated, changing the percent of solids by volume slightly. But for practical applications, this change snot too signiticant. Howover, the longer one waits before ‘aking a reading, the less accurate that reading becomes, For highly pigmented coatings (such as zinc-rich, or very fast dry coatings, wet film thickness readings may be unretiab. Xi. DRY FILM THICKNESS Ory film thickness readings on steel substrates are ‘commonly taken using magnetic gages. For nonferrous metallic substrates, eddy current equipment is used, Calibration of magnetic thicknoss gages should be done in accordance with SSPC-PA 2, “SSPC Method for Measure- ment of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages". Although the standard is written for magnetic gages, many Of tho principles of operation and calibration techniques apply to the eddy current instruments es veel Determination of the thickness of each coat in a multi- ‘coat system should be an inspection hold-point. When us- Ing magnetic gages to measure mult-coat systems, tho average of the first coat must be determined prior to ap- plication of the second coat. Readings taken after the sec- ‘ond coat is applied will obviously be the total thickness of the two coats combined, and the specific thickness of the ‘second coat can only be determined by subtracting the average thickness obtained from the first coat reading, ‘Tho second coat thickness cannot be determined precise: 'y, however, because it is highly unlikely that specitic readings taken on the second coat will be over an area of the first coat that is exactly the first coat average. Thorotore, with magnetic gages It is nearly impossible to specifically datermine the thicknesses of coats applied after the first, and one must rely on averages only. It Is often a good idea, where practical, to provide a ‘moans to Indicate coating thickness In areas whore it is celther thin or thick, 60 appropriate repair can be'done by the coating applicator. Possible methods are brush ap. plication of a light tinted coat of the same paint, compati- ble felt tip marking pens, chalk or other material that can be readily removed or graphic plotting and notation on charts and records, Thiokness readings are taken to provide reasonable assurance that the specified or desired dry film thickness, hhas been achioved. However, it is not possible to measure every square inch of the surface. SSPC-PA 2 states that When using magnetic gages, five separate spot ‘measurements should be made over every 100 square feet in area, Each spot measuremant consists of an average ofFIGURE 36 three gage readings noxt to one another. The averag of the five spot measurements must be within the specified thickness, while single spot measurements aro permitted to be 80% of the specified thickness. The single gage readings, however, making up the spot measurement, can underrun by a greater amount. For example, a specifica tion calls for 10 to 12 mils, The five spot measurements (each a cluster of three gage readings) are as follows: Spot 4 (10, 14, 12; average 11); Spot 2 (7, 8, 9 average 8); Spot 3 (12, 12, 12; average 12); Spot 4(7, 12, 11; averago 10}; Spot 5 (12, 13, 115 average 12). This measured area would be a ceptable because the average of the five spots is 10.6 mils and within specification. According to SSPC-PA 2, unless otherwise specified, the & mil spot measurement would be acceptable because “no single spot measurement ... shall be loss than 80% of the specified thickness" (@ mils Is exactly 80%), and the 7 mil reading Is acceptable because “single gage readings ... may underrun by a ‘greater amount”. Dry film thickness instruments fall into four basic catagories: magnetic pulloff, fixed probe, eddy current, {and destructive, Each of the four categories are addressed separately. A, MAGNETIC PULL.OFF The magnetic pulloff type gages include the Mikrotest (Figure 17}, the Inspector Thickness Gage (Figure 18), and the Pencil Pull-Off Figure 19), or Tinsley type gage (Figures 20 and 21). Basically, a Mikrotest or Inspector Gage consists of a lever running through the center of a scale dial which, houses a helical spring. The scate dial is located at the fulcrum point of the lover. One ond of tho spring is at- tached to the lever and the other end to the scale dial. One 199 side of the lever contains a permanent magnet while the ‘opposite end contains a counterbalance (Figures 22 and 23), To operate, the scale dial is turned clockwise and the ‘magnet brought into direct contact with the metal Substrate (through the coating or non-magnetic barrier). ‘Then the scale ring is turned counterclockwise, increasing the spring tension, which applies a pulling force onto the magnet. Ultimately, the spring tension overcomes the at- traction of the magnet to the substrate, lifting the magnet from the surface. The spring tension is callbrated so that tho point whore the magnet breaks contact with the sur- face can be equated to the distance of the magnet from the surface. This distance Is road directly from tho scale dial In mis (or microns). The calibrated spring tension is an inverse logarithmic relationship of tho distance botween ‘the magnet and the substrate (e.g. the greater the spring tension required to remove the magnet, the thinner the coating). ‘Note that the thickness reading shown on the scale fing when thé magnet breaks ‘contact with the surface represents the gap between the magnet and the substrate. This gap is considered to be the coating thickness. However, t could also be comprised of voids, rust, embed: ded contaminates, ote. Therefore, one must include a thorough visual inspection during the work to ensure that the coating is applied over a clean surface and does not become contaminated during drying. The Mikrotest and Inspector Gage should be calibrated, or at least calibration verified, prior to, during, and after each use to assure that they are measuring ac- curately. Calibration methods are described in SSPC-PA 2, “Moasurement of Dry Film Thickness with Magnotic Gages,” which defines the pulloft Instruments as Type 1 gages. It describes two methods of calibration for the in: struments; non-magnetic shims (generally plastic or mylar) ‘or ealibration test blocks similar to those supplied by the FIGURE 37 ‘A hand:held spring loaded micromater useful for i thickness of coating chips.FIGURE 38 Pockosized 30x microscope with integral ight source useful for examining coatings. National Bureau of Standards, which are chrome and cop- per plated steel (Figures 24 and 25 respectively). n either ‘case, it is essential that the instrument is calibrated in the desired thickness range of use. If a coating is being ‘moasured in the thickness range of two to four mils, one would not use a gage calibrated at 15 to 20 mils, ‘When calibrating using the plastic or non-magnetic shim method, vorify the shim thickness with a micrometer. Hold the shim firmly on the bare clean(ed) substrate and measure it with the thickness instrument. Care must be taken to assure that the shim does not flex, pushing the ‘magnet from the surface prematurely. If the instrument does not read the shim thicknoss, Insert the calibration tool into the slot in the side of the instrument (located at ‘the center of the scale dial), and adjust the scale until the ‘number corresponding with the shim thickness lines up with the hairline. Check the eatibration by using shims of lesser and greater thickness to determine the range of ac- ‘curacy. The instrument is now ready for use for measuring thicknesses within that range over the same substrate and surface preparation. If a section of the bare substrate is Unavailable, blast clean small steel test panels (0.0. 4" x 4" x 6") to obtain the same or similar anchor pattern, pro- tect them from corrosion using a dessicant, VPI Paper, or other suitable means, and use the panels for calibration, Calibration using the National Bureau of Standards plates is somowhat different. First, adjust the instrument {0 read the thickness stated on the calibration blocks in 7 200 the desired range of use. Next, take a gage reading of the bare, uncoated substrate after blast cleaning (or other sur- {ace preparation). The Instrument wit! generally read be- tween one and two tenths of a mil up to 1 mil or more over, the bare steel, Therefore, any costing thickness readings, taken must be corrected by this bare steel base reading in ‘order to determine the coating thickness above the peaks of the profile. Adjust subsequent thickness readings by subtracting the magnetic base reading. For examplo, if the Instrument is calibrated to a 4 mil NBS Standard, and a ¥ ‘mil magnetio base reading on bare blast cleaned stee! is, found, a paint thickness reading of 3¥% mils indicates that, the true thickness above the peaks is actually only 3 mils, Wf one chooses not to physically adjust the in. struments 28 described above, it will be necessary to develop a calibration correction curve using the Instru- ment scale as an arbitrary scale. For example, a five on the ‘scale may be equivaient to three mils, a ton equivatont to seven mils, and s0 on. . ‘Another type of magnetic pull-off gage based on a similar principle is the pencil pull-off gage (Figure 18) or Tinsley gage (Figures 20 and 21). Basically, the instrument housing is similar to @ large pencil with a magnet at one ‘end. An extension spring is attached to the magnet and to the top of the instrument housing. The Instrument Is held perpendicular to tho surface and the magnet brought into Contact with the substrate. As the housing Is lifted, the magnet remains attached to the substrate until the spring tension overcomes the attraction of the magnet, popping | from the surface, The tension on the spring required to lift, the magnet is read from the scale in mils or microns, igure 26), This instrument can not be adjusted, although calibration should be verified. In this case, however, a Calibration correction curve is necessary ifthe instrument does not read correctly on the shims. The proferrod ‘method for verifying calibration is the use of calibration test blocks. Non-magnetic shims (particularly plastic or mylar) could be used, but great care is necessary to ensure that flexing doos not cause the magnet to break from tho substrate prematurely. The pencitstyle gages provide a ‘quick check of coating thicknoss, but considerable judg- ment is involved in determining the point at whieh the ‘magnet broaks from the surface, There ate some precautions necessary when using ‘any instrument that has a magnet. First, the magnet Is ox posed and therefore susceptible to attracting iron filings, steel shot or grt particles. The magnet must be cleaned of any contaminants during uso, or the contaminant will in correctly be read as coating thickness. This Is extremely important in shop work where grinding is employed. Tho resulting Iron filings often necessitate that the magnet and coating surface be cleaned before each thickness reading. If the instrument Is used on a soft film, allowing ‘the magnet to sink into the surface, a thinner coating thickness will be recorded. This Is because the coating itself may be tacky, holding the magnet beyond the point, where the spring should have lifted it from the surface, orFIGURE 20 ‘measurement principle of the Tooke Gage. the coating under the depression caused by the magnet, actually will be thinnor. in this case, place a plastic shim ‘on top of the surface to prevent the magnet from deform- 9 the coating and subtract the shim thickness from any subsequent readings. In addition, If there are any vibra- tions in the area of instrument use, they could cause the magnet to be popped from the surface prematurely, giving ‘an erroneously high thickness reading. The instrument should not be used any closer than 1 inch to an edge of the surface, In addition, residual magnetism in the structure ‘on which the coating Is measured can have an adverse of- fect on the readings. Tho scalo dial type instrumonts have’ an additional “human error” problem during use. It is easy to continue to turn the dial beyond the point that tho magnot has lifted from the surface, giving an incorrect thickness reading. It is imperative that the dial be stopped as soon as the magnet lifts from the surface, Advanced versions of the Mikrotest have addressed this problem by incorporating a mechanism whieh focks the scale dial in place when the ‘magnet breaks contact with the surface. B. FIXED PROBE MAGNETIC FLUX GAGES ‘The fixed probe or magnetic flux type gages are described in SSPC-PA 2 as Type 2.gages. They include the Minitector (Figures 27 and 28), Verimeter (Figure 29), Certotest (Figure 30), Elcometer 101 (Figure 31), GE Gage (Figure 32), Positector (Figure 39), Accuderm, Minitest, Por: mascope, and others. The Type 2 gages also must bo calibrated prior to use, but calibration is accomplished us ing the non-magnetic shim method only. The NBS calibra. tion plate is not suitable for use with these instruments. because the calibration plates do not exceed the critical mass of stee! needed to satisfy the magnetic field of these instruments. The only exception is the Positector, which can satisfactorily be calibrated on the NBS calibration blanks, Calibration of the electrically operated instruments {all of the above oxcopt the Positector, which is also elec- ‘wically operated and the Elcometer 101, which is not) is ac- ‘complished by placing the instrument probe directly on the bare steel substrate (after surface preparation) and ad- justing the designated knob (ic. "zero") 60 that the meter reads "0", Next, place the calibration shim of desired thickness on the steel and adjust the appropriate knob (0. adjust", “eal", etc.) so that the meter indicates the cor- rect shim thickness, Repeat this procedure (zero set, thickness set) until both readings are adjusted correctly, Once again, check the range of calibration by using other shims, both of a thinner and heavier thickness, than that Used in the initial calibration. The instrument is now ready for use and will correctly record the thickness of the coating material. Any effect of surface roughness is calibrated into the instrument because It was adjusted over the bare steel (or on the NBS plates for the Posite¢tor, thus eliminating the need for a magnetic base steading correction factor. Calibration of the Positestor and Elcometer 101, on the other hand, requires only that the instrument be ad- justed to read tho thicknoss of tho shim over bare prepared steel, rather than an adjustment of the zero reading and shim reading, Further, (for the Elcometer 101 only), calibra. tion must be verified for each position of use (2.9. horizon- tal, vertical, and overhead), ‘The magnetic flux gages experience some of the ‘same problems as the pul-off gages: 1) lower than actual thickness readings on soft or tacky fllms; 2) necassity of staying away from the edges during use; and 3) difficulty in keeping the magnet clean. in addition, because the In- struments are based on flux principles, they are vulnerable to the effect of flux leakage from the instrument to nearby ferrous masses, causing the instrument to be ineffective. Therefore, it is necessary to stay at least three inches away from any nearby iron or steel object, oF the instru FIGURE 40 View through Tooke Gage Meroscope. The intertaco of the Ccoatingisubstrete is ono division to the itt of .05 on the scale. Coating thickness Is measured trom this point fo tho ttt ending Black bench mark at 05.FIGURE «1 TINKER-RASOR LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC. TOR ~ used for finding pinholes and holidays in non-conductive aint films up to 20 mils thick when applied to conductive Subate ‘ment calibration must be readjusted in these specitic areas. If used inside @ tank or vessel, théy-should bo calibrated Inside the vessel to compensate for tlux leakage. The probe of these instruments must also be kept Perpendicular to the coated substrate diyring use; other Wise, incorrect readings will result C.. MICROPROCESSOR The computer has now been incorporated into @ dry film thickness gage. A hand-held microprocessor with digital thickness display is “available with its physical operation similar to the magnotio flux gages above (Figure: 34), D. EDDY CURRENT GAGES Eddy current instruments measure the thickness of Ron-conductive coatings on nonferrous motai substrates. Included with this typo of instrument are the Minitector (Figures 18 and 18), Minitest, Permascope, and others. The probe of these instruments is energized by alternating cur: Font, inducing eddy currents in the motal. The eddy cur- rents create opposing altemating magnetic fields within the metal, modifying the electrical characterist robe coil. The extent of these changes are d the shown on @ meter as coating thickness. The eddy current Instruments are calibrated similarly to the magnetig flux instruments using the plastic shim method £, DESTRUCTIVE TEST INSTRUMENTS Destructive thickness testing includes the use of the Took Gage (two models are shown in Figures 35 and 36), Micrometars (Figure 37), or microscopes (Figure 88). The Tooke Gage consists of a 60X microscope that is used to ook at slits in the coating made by precision cutting tips ‘Supplied with the instrument, The principle of the Tooke Gago is basic trigonometry. By making a cut through the coating at a known angle and viewing perpendicularly to that cut, the actual coating thickness can be determined, by measuring the width of the cut from a scale in the eyepiece of the microscope. The instrument can be used {for determining the thickness of underlying coats in multi ‘coat systems and oliminates many of the drawbacks of the ‘magnetic instruments caused by magnotle fields, proximi ty to edgos, irregular surfaces, magnetic effect of the substrate, profile, and so forth. The instrument can be ‘used on coating thicknesses up to 50 mils provided the coating Is not too brittie or elastic for a smooth cut to be made. Cutting tips of different angles are available. They are dosignated as either 1X, 2X, oF 10X, The tip used dator mines the thickness oquivalent for each tine in the Microscope eyepiece. The number of lines corresponding with the coating is divided by the number of the tip used. Therefore, 1 line when using the 1X tip is equivalent to 1/1 (OF 4 mit; line with the 2x tip is ¥% oF 6 mil, and 1 ine with, ‘the 10X tip is 4, or -1 mil. Thus, ifthe coating cross-section Covers 7 lines and the 2X tip Is used, the thickness is J, or 35 mits (Figures 39 and 40) Another means of destructively measuring the coating thickness is the use of either a depth micrometer 0F @ standard micrometer. The dapth micrometer can be Uused by removing a small soction of the coating down to tho substrate, permitting the base of the instrumant to rest ‘on the coating while the projecting pin is adjusted to the Substrate. Altematively, a sample of the coating can be removed from the substrate and the thickness measured Using a standard micrometer. The coating chips could also be returned to a laboratory for micrascaple thickness determinations. The Tooke gage could also be used for this purpose. When viewing the edge (cross section) of a Gisbonded chip, each division of the microscope is equivalent to 1.0 mil, Xill, CLEANLINESS BETWEEN COATS Where more than one coat is to be applied, a proper Inspection hold point is the determination of tho leantinass of the surface immodiately prior to application of tho next coat, In addition to dirt and dust, quite often dry spray, oF overspray, will cause a problem. All should bo. removed because the presence of these “contaminants” ‘can result in reduced adhesion between coats and porosi-FIGURE 42 USING A LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE DETECTOR — to locate scontinuites in non-conductive coatings applied to conductive metal substrates, Official U.S. Navy Photograph ty, tendering the coating less resistant to the effects of the environments. The Surface should also be Inspected for any adverse contamination {rom the environment (. residue from chemical facilities, salt, etc) XIV. PINHOLE AND HOLIDAY DETECTION After all the coats of paint have been applied, the in- spector should verify that the appropriate clean-up is done, and that any abrasions, nicks, or scrapes are repaired as roquired. Often holiday, pinhole, or spark testing Is used to find tho nicks, scrapes, and pinholes in the coating flim, par- ticularly if the coating Is intended for immersion service. Holiday testing may be required after application of either the next to iast, or last coat of paint. Usually when such testing is specified, it 1s done before final cure of tho coating has occurred so that any repair material applied will successfully bond to the underlying coat. Pinhole and hollday detectors are three general types: low voltage wet sponge (Figures 41, 42 and 43), DC high voltage (Figures 44, 45 and 48), and AC electrostatic types. The low! voltage wet sponge holiday detectors are used for finding discontinuities In non-conductive coatings applied to conductive metal bases. The low voltage detector is sultable for use on coatings up to 20 mils in thickness. The basic unit consists of the detector itself, a ground cablo, and a sponge electrode. The ground 208 cable Is firmly attached to the bare substrate and the sponge electrode is saturated with tap water. The elec: {rode is moved across the entire surface, the water permit ting @ small current to flow through the pinholes down to the substrate, Once the current reaches the substrate, the Circuit is completed to the detector unit and an audibie signal can be hoard indicating that a pinhole or discon- tinuity is present. When coatings are in the range of 10 to 20 mils, a non-sudsing wetting agent (such as Eastman Kodak Photo-Fio) may be added to the water to increase the wetting properties. Ifthe coating system is found to be. outside of the 20 mil thickness limits, high voltage holiday detection equipment should be used. High voltage detectors basically function on the same operating principle as the low voltage described above, ex ‘cept that @ sponge Is not used, The instrument consists of 4 testing unit capable of producing various voltage out: puts, a ground cable, and an electrode made of conductive materials such as neoprene, brass, or steel. High voltage units are available up to 20,000 volts and more. High” voltage detectors are used for non-conductive coatings ap- plied to conductive substrates. Tha ground wire Is femly attached to a section of the bare substrate and the elec- trode is passed over the entire surface. A spark will Jump. from the electrode through the air gap down to the substiate at pinholes, holidays, or missed areas, simultaneousty triggering audible andfor visual signaling vice in the unit. For exterior pipeline work: many times the ground wire of the holiday detector is permitted to drag across the ~ earth provided the pipe itself Is grounded to the earth, However, tho praferred method of testing is to altach the ‘ground wire directly to the substrate whenever possible When using high voltage holiday detectors, itis im FIQURE 43 KD BIRD DOG LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC: TOR — ullizes a wetted sponge and ground wire to find pinholes ‘and holidays in dry paint time applied to conductive substrates.FIGURE 48 SPY HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR — for uncovering flaws in “thick fim systems, volts DOTA spark jumps trom th deficient areas. 08 are avaliable up to 22,000 ctrode through the coating at portant to use only the voltage level recommended by the coating manufacturer for the coating thickness, Other wise, damage to “good” coating could eceur. A rule of thumb is to apply 100 volts per mil of coating for thicknesses in excess of 20 mils When testing conductive linings applied over steet substrates (Le. conductive rubber linings}, the AC Tesla Coit typé olsctrostatic testers are generally used. The AC tester has a varlabie voltage output (preferably, the voltage {is indicated) but does not require the use of a ground wire. ‘Tho unit constantly emits @ corona which Ie blue in color, >but when a break in the lining is passed over, a white spark wilt Jump to the substrate at the holiday of imperfection, Note that surface contaminants or dampness may also cause @ color change or spark; therefore, itis advisable to ‘lean and retest questionable areas to confirm that a break in the lining is present. XV. FIELD ADHESION TESTING Occasionally, there Is a need to test the adhesion of the coatings after application. Thore aro different types of adhesion testing methods used from the simple penknife to more elaborate testing units. The use of a penknife Generally requires a subjective evaluation of the coating adhesion based on some previous experience. Generally, fone cuts through the coating and probes at it with the knife blade, trying to lift it from the surface to ascertain whether or not the adhesion is adequate. ‘A modified version of this type of testing is the cross- ‘out test. The cross-cut test consists of cutting an “X", or a umber of small “squares or diamonds” through the Coating down to the substrate. Tape is rubbed vigorously onto the scribes and-removed: firmly and quickly, The ‘cross-hatch pattem is evaluated according to the percent- ‘age of squares delaminated or remaining intact. The "x" 204 and “cross-cut” tape adhesion tests are described in ASTM D.2369, "Measuring Adhosion by Tape Test”. There are also instruments available for testing the tensile adhesion strength of coatings. They apply a value, to the adhesion strength in pounds per square inch, thus eliminating some of the subjectivity of the above tests. An Instrument for tensile testing is the Elcometor Adhesion Tester (Figue 47). The Elcometer Adhesion Tester con- sists of the test unit itself and aluminum test dollies or lugs, each with @ surface contact area of Ye square Inch, The dolties are cemented to the coating surface using an adhesive. After the adhesive has cured, the coating around the periphery of the dolly is out through down to the Substrate. The claw of the test instrument is placed under the lip of the dolly and the unit tightened by hand, using as uniform a turning speed and motion as possible. The test Unit applies a pulling force on the head of the dolly, ultimately breaking it from the surface. The point of the. break is read from the scale on the instrument in pounds. per square inch. Not only is the numerical value of impor. tance when using this Instrument, but also the type of break. For example, there is a significant difference in the test results if one finds a clean break to the substrate of between costs, compared to finding a cohesive break within a coat. Many times one may experience a fallure of the adhesive. If this occurs, it establishes that the coating, tensile adhesion strength is at least as good as that Pressure that broke the adhesive {tis generally recommended that the two-component type epoxy adhesives be used in preference to the single ‘component fast crying cyano-acrylate types, When testing Zine-tich coatings, for example, it has been found that the thin cyano-acrylates hava a tendency to penetrate and bond the zinc particles together, resulting in a much higher tensilo pull than should bo expected. In other cases, the adhesive appears to soften and cause premature fallure of the coating systems, XVI, EVALUATING CURE When a coatings to be used in immersion service, the FIGURE 45 TINKER-RASOR HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR — us for non-conductive coatings applied fo conductive substrateae | { FIGURE 46 BUCKLEY UVRAL HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR — ‘nother high vollage holiday dotoctor with infinitely variable ‘Voltages tp to 26,000 volts, Used to detect flaws in heavy coating tyatome and wrapped piping applled coating film must be allowed to dry cute for a given Tenath of time prior to being placed into service. This dry ‘cure time Is generally shown on the manufacturer's prod- uct information, Alternately, forced-heat curing may be used to reduce the time between curing and service. Determining the cure of coatings is gonorally difficult, ASTM D1640 outlines one method, but there are no univer- sally reliable field tests for such purposes. Solvent rub tosts can be used, as well as sandpaper tests. When most coatings are suitably cured, rubbing them with sandpaper ‘will produce a fine dust. I the sandpaper gums up, depend: ing upon the coating, it may not be cured properly. Cer: tain phenolcontaining coatings may discolor upon heating — and the cure of phenolic tank lining coatings is often dotermined by comparison of their color with color reference coupons supplied by the coating manufacturer. Because a coating is “dry” or hard does not necessarlly maan It Is cured. In fact, for most coatings, hardness Is not synonymous with cure. The only coating! types for which this is true ate the solvent deposited coatings such as the chlorinated rubbers and vinyls. Even then, residual retained solvents (and moisture in water ‘emulsion coatings), under certain atmospheric conditions =“ Figure 47 ELCOMETER ADHESION TESTERS. Four tost units shown, Wrench ls required for 2,000 and 4,000 pound models. Small test dally is shown In bottom of photograph. ‘of tomparature andor humidity may take a tong time to ‘escape from the paint film, Final attainment of flim proper- tias will be acquired only upon satisfactory loss of these entrapped solvents, In some casos this evaporation prok ‘e88 may take as long as two or three weeks or more. XVI. CONCLUSIONS: There js a wide variety of inspection instruments, favaliable for use (0 assure the adequacy of the ambiont conditions, surface preparation, wet and dry flim thicknesses, and final coating continuity. The instruments all have advantages and disadvantages, but the overriding factor in their successful use Is the knowledge and ability of the individual using them. It is important that the i struments be cared tor, calibrated, and used property. However, instrument inspection is only part of the total in spection process. It must be combined with a good, com- ‘mon sense visual inspection for detection of misses, skips, rune, sags, surface contaminants, overspray, dry spray, and any other defects objectionable for the service Intended. Proper Instruments, specific knowledge, com- mon sense and good judgment are required for good coatings inspection. Finally, all results of any inspection should be thoroughly documented in writing to verify that the specified requirments have beon met. Future maintenance or the removal and maintenance of a failed coating system may be dependent on the factual reporting of every phase of the work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT “The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the activo participation of the following In tho roviow procoss for this Chapter, AI Boltelman, Robert Doyle, Amncld Eickhott, Lewis Gleekman, Joseph Guddis, Ronald Hamm, John D. Keane, Jay Leanse, Charle Lowis, Jr, M. Lichtonstadter, Marshall McGee, ‘Stan Moz, Melvin Sandler. M. Sherman, and William Wallace, The chapter was also presented to the following for advance eviow: Dean Berger, Paul Campbell, Wiliam Chandier, D. Ws. hristotforson, Jack Kiewl, Rober MeCielland, Gatewood Nor: ‘man, Bil Pearson, Rober! Richards and Mary Ann Stephens. 205Biocnapaies Kenneth Tator isthe wner of KrAator Asso ston conalting enginoating tm’ specazing' nt protetve coatings. "A epi. fers. prstesiont engine, far baler fo the Ao tear Nation! Standards inst atonal Associaton land Materials, the Socioty for Paint “Technology, and the Steel Structures Painting : Gouncit Mr. Tatar holds.an MBA from Columbia Univers yand a 8S, in Chemical Engineering trom Latayetto Golloge, He ie the author of numerous publications and fas prosented technical Papers at many association meetings and corporate seminars, Kennoth Trimbor fe Qual lly Assurance. Manager’ for + figld inspection services at KTA‘Tator Associates. Mr Trimber isa coritied Inspactor | of clear factities, and has lectured on coatings Inspec: tion, inspection Instuments and related topes. In addition, he has writen a number of | publications and’ age. histo Ties. He is a: membor of the American Sacialy Tor Testing ‘and Materials, tne Institute of Applied Technology, and the i Stee! Structures Painting Counell. Mr. Trimbor holds a B.S. in ~ Marketing from Indiana University of Ponnsyhanta. 10. 1" 2, REFERENCES. Wiliam F. Gross, Applications Manual for Paint and Protec: tive Coatings, McGraw-Hill Bock Company, New York, NY, 1970. aul E. Weaver, Industria Maintonanoe Painting ad Eaition, ‘National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Pk, 1987, ‘last-OMt", Glemco industries, San Francisco, CA, 1970. Kenneth 8. Tator, and Kenneth A. Timber, “Coating Inspec- lion Instruments, Plant Engineering, Sept. 19 and Oct. 3, 1074, KA, Trimber, and C.A. MeCartney, “Importance of Coat Application inspection and inetrumerte Available for Use", presented. at NACE 14th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion Course, Sept, 1976, . Di, Berger, and SE. Moz, “Instrumente for lngpection of Coatings", Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vot. 4, NO. 1, Dp. 26:83, Jan, 1976 Kenneth 6. Talor, and Kenneth A. Trimber: “Goating (Paint) Inepection instruments, Typos, Uses, and Calibration” Pagor Number 254, NACE Corrosion 80. NACE Standard RBO1-78 “Recommended Practice — Design, Fabrication, and Surface Finieh of Metal Tanks and Vessols 0 Be Lined for Chemical Immersion Service", December, 1977, NAGE Standard RP-0274 “Recommended Practice — High Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatinge Prior to fn tallation”, August, 1974, SSPO-PA 2 — "Method for Measurament of Ory Paint Thickness With Magnotic Gages". NACE — "TPC Publication No.2 — Coatings and Linings for linmarsion Service”, Chapters 2 and 4, Houston, TX John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, J, and Raymond EF. Weaver, Stoo! Structures Paiating Council, “Surface Profile for Anti. Corrosion Paints”, Piteburgh, PA, 1976.