Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 4: Marine Sediments
Chapter 4: Marine Sediments
Marine
Sediments
Sediments
Particles of marine sediment Clues to determine
come from worn pieces of sediment origin can be
rocks, the remains of once‐ found in its mineral
living organisms, minerals composition and texture
dissolved in seawater, and (the size and shape of its
even from outer space! particles).
Historical Marine Sediment Collection
The process is arduous! During
early exploration, a bucket‐like • This was a tedious and limited technique,
device called a dredge was used didn’t always work correctly, and sometimes
to scoop up sediment from the
deep‐ocean floor for analysis.
the dredge came up totally empty.
Later, the gravity corer, a hollow
steel tube with a heavy weight on
top, was thrust into the sea floor • Depth penetration was very limited.
to collect the first cores (cylinders
of sediment and rock).
Modern Marine Sediment Drilling
• Rotary Drilling
• Conducted by specially designed ships.
• Collect cores from the deep ocean.
• In 1963, the US National Science Foundation began funding a program that borrowed
drilling technology from the offshore oil industry to obtain long sections of core from
deep below the surface of the ocean floor.
• Four institutions created the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Samplings
(JOIDES)
• In 1975, the program went international and became the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) with
20 participating countries.
• In 2003, it became the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and then in 2013 the International
Ocean Discovery Program (IODP): Exploring the Earth Under the Sea. Now uses multiple
vessels, and collects cores far deep than before (up to 23,000 feet or 7000 meters into the sea
floor).
Paleogeography
• The study of how the ocean,
atmosphere and land interactions of
the past have produced changes in
ocean chemistry, circulation, biology
and climate.
• This branch of oceanography
relies on sea floor sediments to
gain insight into the past
changes.
• Marine sediments provide clues
to past environmental
conditions.
• Cores of sediment are collected
from the sea floor.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oiz8YXXOCI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=COz4XiqmQ1Y
• Lithogenous Sediment: Begins as rocks on continents or
islands. Over time, weathering agents such as water,
temperature extremes, and chemical effects break rocks
into smaller pieces.
Lithogenous • When rocks are in smaller pieces, they can be more
easily picked up and transported through the
process of erosion.
Sediment • Eroded material from continents is carried to the
oceans by streams, wind, glaciers and gravity. Each
year, stream flow alone carries about 20 billion
metric tons (44 trillion pounds) of sediment to
Earth’s continental margins – almost 40% of which is
provided by runoff from Asia.
Lithogenous Sediment, contd.
• The composition of the sediment reflects that material from which it
was derived.
• All rocks are composed of discrete crystals of natural occurring compounds
called minerals. One of the most abundant, chemically stable, and durable
minerals is quartz (SiO2).
• The majority of lithogenous sediments – such as beach sands – are composed
primarily of quartz.
• A large percentage of lithogenous particles find their way into deep‐ocean
sediments far from continents are transported by prevailing winds, which
remove small
Texture and Transport
Texture:
• Grain Size: One of the most
important sediment
properties
• Proportional to energy of
transportation and
deposition
• Classified by Wentworth
scale of grain size
• Texture indicates
environmental energy
• High energy (strong wave
action)—larger particles
• Low energy—smaller
particles
• Larger particles closer to
shore
The texture of sediment also depends
on its sorting.
Sorting: Measure of grain size
uniformity.
Indicates selectivity of transportation
process
‐ Well‐sorted—all same size particle
‐ Poorly sorted—different size particles
mixed together
Distribution of
Lithogenous Sediment
• Marine sediment deposits can be classified as Neritic
or Pelagic.
• Neritic Deposits are those that are:
• Shallow‐water deposits
• Close to land
• Dominantly lithogenous
• Typically deposited quickly
• Pelagic Deposits are those that are:
• Deeper‐water deposits
• Finer‐grained sediments
• Deposited slowly
Neritic Lithogenous Sediments
• Beach deposits
• Mainly wave‐deposited quartz‐rich sands
• Continental shelf deposits
• Relict sediments
• Turbidite deposits (turbidity currents = underwater avalanches)
• Graded bedding
• Glacial deposits
• High‐latitude continental shelf
• Currently forming by ice rafting (deposits carried in ice to sea by icebergs
that break away from coastal glaciers)
Pelagic Deposits
• Fine‐grained material
• Accumulates slowly on deep ocean floor
• Pelagic lithogenous sediment from
• Volcanic ash (volcanic eruptions)
• Wind‐blown dust
• Fine‐grained material transported by deep ocean currents
• Abyssal Clay
• At least 70% clay sized particles from continents
• Red clays from oxidized iron (Fe)
• Abundant if other sediments absent
Biogenous Sediment
• Biogenous Sediment is derived from the remains of hard parts of once‐
living organisms.
• Begin as the hard parts (shells, bones and teeth) of living organisms ranging from
minute algae and protozoans to fish and whales.
• When organisms that produce hard parts die, their remains settle onto the ocean
floor and can accumulate as biogenous sediment.
• Two categories of biogenous sediment: Macroscopic and Microscopic
• Macroscopic sediment is visible to the naked eye and includes shells, bones and
teeth.
• Microscopic sediment consists of tiny shells or tests (a shell type) and form deposits
called ooze (consistency of toothpaste mixture about half and half with water).
• The organisms that primarily contribute to biogenous sediment are algae and
protozoans.
Biogenous Sediment, contd.
• Two most common chemical compounds in biogenous sediment:
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• Silica (SiO2 or SiO2∙nH2O)
• SILICA:
• Diatoms
• Photosynthetic algae (free‐floating, near surface)
• Diatomaceous earth (when diatomaceous ooze is lithified)
• Radiolarians
• Protozoans (single‐celled, microscopic)
• Use external food (bacteria, other plankton)
• The accumulation of siliceous tests of diatoms, radiolarians, and
other silica‐secreting organisms produces siliceous ooze.
Biogenous Sediment, contd.
• CALCIUM CARBONATE:
• Coccolithophores
• Also called nannoplankton
• Photosynthetic algae
• Coccoliths—individual plates from dead organism
• Rock chalk
• Lithified coccolith‐rich ooze
• White Cliffs of southern England (Dover)
• Foraminifera
• Protozoans
• Use external food
• Calcareous ooze
Biogenous Distribution
• Depends on three processes
• Productivity
• Number of organisms in surface water above ocean floor
• Destruction
• Skeletal remains (tests) dissolve in seawater at depth
• Dilution
• Deposition of other sediments decreases percentage of biogenous sediments
• Neritic Deposits: Dominated by lithogenous sediment, may contain
biogenous sediment
Carbonate Deposits
(Biogenous)
• Carbonate Deposits
• Carbonate minerals containing CO3
• Marine carbonates primarily limestone
• CaCO3
• Most limestones contain fossil shells:
• Suggests biogenous origin
• Ancient marine carbonates constitute 25% of all sedimentary rocks
on Earth.
• Stromatolites
• Fine layers of carbonate
• Warm, shallow‐ocean, and high salinity
• Cyanobacteria
• Lived billions of years ago
Pelagic Deposits (Biogenous)
• Siliceous ooze contains at least
30% hard remains of silica‐
secreting organisms.
• Accumulates in areas of high
productivity
• Silica tests no longer dissolved
by seawater when buried by
other tests
Calcareous Ooze
• Calcareous ooze contains at least 30% hard remains of calcareous‐
secreting organisms.
• C C D—Calcite compensation depth
• Depth where CaCO3 readily dissolves
• Rate of supply = rate at which the shells dissolve
• Warm, shallow ocean saturated with calcium carbonate
• Cool, deep ocean undersaturated with calcium carbonate
• Lysocline—depth at which a significant amount of C a C O3 begins to
dissolve rapidly
• Scarce calcareous ooze below 5000 meters (16,400 feet) in modern ocean
• Ancient calcareous oozes at greater depths if moved by sea floor spreading
Blank Siliceous ooze Calcareous ooze
• Carbonates
• Aragonite and calcite
• Oolites
• Evaporites
• Minerals that form when seawater evaporates
• Restricted open ocean circulation
• High evaporation rates
• Halite (common table salt) and gypsum
Cosmogenous Marine
Sediments
• Macroscopic meteor debris
• Microscopic iron–nickel and
silicate spherules (small globular
masses)
• Tektites
• Space dust
• Overall, insignificant proportion
of marine sediments
Pelagic and Neritic Deposition
• Neritic sediments cover
about ¼ of the sea floor.
• Pelagic sediments cover
about ¾ of the sea floor.
• Distribution controlled by:
• Proximity to sources of
lithogenous sediments
• Productivity of microscopic
marine organisms
• Depth of water
• Sea floor features
Pelagic Sediment Types by Ocean
Sea Floor Sediments Represent Surface Ocean Conditions
• Microscopic tests sink slowly
from surface ocean to sea floor
(10–50 years).
• Tests could be moved
horizontally.
• Most biogenous tests clump
together in fecal pellets:
• Fecal pellets large enough
to sink quickly (10–15 days)
• Pellets are consumed and
hard parts are excreted
(presence and
“percentages” give us clues
about the surface)
Worldwide Sediment Thickness
Marine Resources
• Both mineral and organic resources
• Not easily accessible
• Technological challenges
• High costs
• Petroleum
• Ancient remains of microscopic organisms
• More than 95% of economic value of oceanic nonliving
resources
• More than 30% of world’s oil from offshore resources
• Future offshore exploration will be intense:
• Potential for oil spills
• Gas Hydrates
• Also called clathrates
• High pressures squeeze chilled water and gas
into ice‐like solid
• Methane hydrates most common
• Gas hydrates resemble ice but burn when lit.
• May form on sea floor
• Sea floor methane supports rich community
of organisms.
• Most deposits on continental shelf
Energy Contd.
• Release of sea floor methane may alter global climate.
• Warmer waters may release more methane.
• Methane release may cause underwater slope failure:
• Tsunami hazard
• Gas hydrates may be the largest store of usable energy in
organic carbon form.
• Rapidly decompose at surface pressures and temperatures
• Sand and gravel
• Aggregate in concrete
• Some is mineral‐rich.
Other Resources
• Evaporative salts
• Form salt deposits
• Gypsum—used in drywall
• Halite—common table salt
• Phosphorite—phosphate minerals
• Fertilizer for plants
• Found on continental shelf and slope
• Manganese nodules and crusts
• Lumps of metal
• Contain manganese, iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt
• Economically useful
• Rare Earth elements
• Assortment of 17 chemically similar metals
• Used in technology, for example, cell phones, television screens,
and so on
• Sea floor may hold more rare Earth element deposits than found on land