hole problems

section 10

hole problems
section 10a - shale instability

section 10b - stuck pipe

section 10c - lost circulation

 section 10a

shale instability
section 10a Scomi Oiltools

fundamentals 2
causes of shale instability 4
consequences of shale instability 4
classification of troublesome shales 4
hydratable and dispersing shales 4
brittle shales 5
abnormally pressured shales 5
tectonically stressed shales 5
shale stabilisation with drilling fluids 6
oil base muds 6
water base muds 6
ionic inhibition 7
encapsulation 7
physical plugging 7
pore-pressure transmission 8
process for selecting suitable drilling fluid 10
drilling depleted reservoirs or weak shales 11
 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

hole problems - shale instability

fundamentals
Wellbore instability as a consequence of shale formations is a problem encountered all over the world.
Despite much experience and considerable research, drilling and completion operations continue
to be troubled by hole problems attributable directly to shale formations. Solutions to shale
problems are not a simple matter owing to the variety and complexity of the clay chemistry involved.

Shales are sedimentary rocks, which were generally deposited in marine basins. They are composed
of compacted beds of muds, silts and clays. In the soft or unconsolidated shale, mud or clay
predominates, and in the more consolidated formation it is shale or argillite. At increased depth
the shales become denser due to the compaction caused by overburden weight. Shales may also be
subjected to tectonic stresses, producing further alteration.

Much attention is paid to the degree of hydration of shales, and with the cementing materials
holding the shales together. As compaction occurs water is squeezed out of the shale. The degree
of compaction is proportional to the depth of the burial, provided that the water is free to escape from
the shale. If the water does not escape from the shale, then the water supports a portion of the
overburden and the shale becomes pressured. If the water does escape the shale, the rock becomes
dehydrated.

Shale problems are a direct result of the way in which the shale reacts with the water from the
drilling fluid. Hydration from water tends to reduce their strength. Strength loss increases borehole
instability. Younger sediments soften, swell and disperse when mixed with water. Older shales, usually
having undergone diagenesis, may remain hard and will not easily disperse into water.

However, of equal importance with hydration are the inclination of the bedding planes and the
stresses acting within or upon the shale formation.

Shales contain various clay minerals which differ structurally. The more common minerals are:

ƒ Montmorillonite.
ƒ Illite.
ƒ Chlorite.
ƒ Kaolinite.

Some of these clay minerals will hydrate while others will not. Shales containing montmorillonite
will hydrate the most readily.

There are two basic building units from which all the different clay minerals are constructed :

The Octahedral Layer

This consists of two sheets of closely packed hydroxoyl ions in which aluminium, iron or magnesium
ions are embedded.


The Tetrahedral unit
In each tetrahedral unit, a silicon atom is located in the centre of the tetrahedron, equidistant from
the four oxygen atoms. The OH groups may replace the oxygen atoms, if needed to electrically
balance the structure.

Silica
(tetrahedral)

Octahedral

Aluminium Silicon Hydroxyis Oxygens

The montmorillonite clay group has a high base exchange capacity, where one cation will replace
another which can increase or decrease the tendency of the shale to hydrate. The degree of hydration
is influenced by the type of cation involved and the pH of the fluid. Mass action by a high concentration
of salts will suppress the hydration of clays.

The basic structure of illite is similar to montmorillonite but it does not hydrate readily in fresh
water. Both are composed of two silica tetrahedral sheets and a central octahedral alumina sheet.
Illite, however, develops a charge deficiency, negative charge, from the replacement of silicon by
aluminium on the surface of the silica sheet. This charge deficiency is largely satisfied by potassium
ions which fit into the surface oxygen layers. The diameter of the potassium ion allows it to fit the
locations in the surface permitting very close association of the clay layers and aiding in resistance to
swelling.

Chlorite clay minerals, which are also composed of three layers, are similar to illite and do not
noticeably hydrate.

Kaolinite is somewhat different from montmorillonite, illite, or chlorite. The clay structure is composed
of two layers instead of three: a single silica tetrahedral sheet and an alumina octahedral sheet. There
is no charge deficiency and the particles are electrically neutral. Kaolinite does not swell but will
readily disperse.

The hydrating-type shales containing montmorillonite are found at shallow depths and are often
referred to as gumbo shales. At greater depths their ability to hydrate decreases due to modification
of the internal lattice structure. They tend to become a more illitic or chloritic type of clay.


 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

causes of shale instability

Shale instability can result from any or a combination of the following factors.

1. Mechanical Forces
ƒ Erosion (variety in size and shape of cuttings)
ƒ Pressure differential (pressurised shales resulting in narrow pointed sharp shale splinters)
ƒ Pipe whip (small mixed shapes from different formations)
ƒ Surge and swab (results in lost circulation or large quantities of fill and debris)
2. Overburden Pressure
3. Pore Pressure
4. Tectonic Forces
5. Water Adsorption (hydration)

The time the hole is exposed to the drilling fluid is very important. Since most instability problems are time
related, the less time spent drilling with potentially unstable formations open, the lower the possibility of
developing a stability problem.

consequences of shale instability

The following are the potential consequences of shale instability:

ƒ Hole enlargement
ƒ Hole cleaning problems
ƒ Stuck pipe
ƒ Bridges and fill on trips
ƒ Large fluid volume and treating costs
ƒ Poor cement jobs and increased cement requirements
ƒ Well logging problems running tools
ƒ Poor data quality retrieval
ƒ Tight hole
ƒ Increased torque and drag
ƒ Decreased rate of penetration (bit balling)

classification of troublesome shales

Various classification schemes for problem shales have been proposed, but problem shales can be
broadly classified by their mechanism of failure: hydratable and dispersing shales, brittle shales,
pressured shales and stressed shales.

hydratable and dispersing shales

The process of hydration (swelling) and dispersion are related, although each is affected by the amount
and type of clays in the shale. Some shales will swell significantly with little dispersion while for other
shales, the reverse is true.

Hydration results from two distinct mechanisms, surface hydration and osmotic hydration. Surface
hydration is a slight expansion between compacted clay particles by the addition of several molecular
layers of water on the clay particle surfaces. Osmotic hydration is primarily the expansion of the structure
of the clay particle caused by the adsorption of water between the clay platelets.

Dispersion is a continual and often rapid disintegration of the shale surface, and results when the
strength of the bonds between particles is reduced by the entrance of water.

Various clays react differently when exposed to water. As previously stated, the clays that are most
commonly found in shales are kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, and chlorite. Montmorillonites are
highly dispersible, readily disintegrate, and hydratable. Illites are non-swelling in the pure form.


Due to leaching and weathering, however, the exchangeable cation, potassium, can be replaced
with other cations which may permit some swelling. The chlorite group contains orderly stacks of
alternate layers of different types of clays. Disintegration tendencies are high since the layering
reduces the number of strong bonds between particles. Non-uniform swelling causes high hydrational
stresses and weakens the structure.

brittle shales
Brittle shales appear quite firm and competent, but fall to pieces when placed in water. The pieces
do not soften or swell in the water. Instability of brittle shales can be caused by either of two
mechanisms. The shale can be weakened by hydration of micro fracture surfaces, and bedding
planes, parting within the shale structure. The second mechanism results when a small amount of
clay is surrounded by a completely non-swelling quartz and feldspar matrix. Even slight hydration of
the clays will cause high differential swelling pressure, and will make the formation unstable. Many
brittle shales have a high percentage of kaolinite. Kaolinite may become unstable in the presence
of a high pH environment.

abnormally pressured shales

Shales are abnormally pressured when a layer of low-permeability compacted clay develops adjacent
to a sand, restricting the flow from the remainder of the clay body. Thus, in a thick clay formation,
the rate of fluid expulsion is not able to keep pace with the rate of compaction, and the pore
pressure increases above that normal for the depth of burial.

Any sand body, either interbedded or contiguous with the shale, will also be geopressured if it is
isolated from the surface either by pinchout or faulting. Abnormally high pressures may also be
found in initially normally pressured formations that have been elevated above deposition level
by tectonic forces, and surface layers then eroded. Isolated sand bodies within such formations will
then have high pore pressures relative to their depth below the surface.

tectonically stressed shales

Stressed shales occur in areas where diastrophic movement has occurred. This is the process by
which the earth’s crust is reshaped, producing continents, oceans, mountains, etc. The shales may
incline considerably from the horizontal, having steeply dipping bedding planes. Forces may be
acting upon the formation which, when relieved, cause the shale to fall into the hole. The problem
may be further aggravated if the bedding planes become wet with water or oil.

It is agreed that formation stresses induced by diastrophic movement make these shales vulnerable
to sloughing. It is also recognized that the natural material cementing these shales is relatively
weak. It may be amorphous silica, an aluminium or calcium silicate, or an organic material that is
sensitive to oil. There is evidence that chemical inhibition is helpful in minimising the problem,
but it is not the entire answer. There is also evidence that slightly higher mud densities can be helpful,
but it does not seem to be the entire answer.

To more effectively control these shales a way has to be found to seal the formation against fluid
invasion. This is typically accomplished by carefully controlling the high pressure, high temperature
filtration properties of muds. The improvement can be significant but still does not completely solve
the problem.

Blended organic compounds, containing an emulsifier and a sulphonated blown asphalt or modified
gilsonites are materials used in plugging the micro-fractures in shale. This minimises fluid contact
along the fractures, and when combined with other remedies will generally reduce the severity of the
problem.


 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

shale stabilisation with drilling fluids

oil base muds
The hydratable, dispersible, and brittle shales are all sensitive to water. Instability can be partially
eliminated by preventing the water in the drilling fluid from contacting the shale. One solution is to use
an oil-based fluid where water is emulsified in the continuous oil phase.

The interfacial film surrounding the emulsified water droplets in an oil mud can act as a semi-permeable
membrane and provide a mechanism for osmosis. Osmosis is the flow of water from a less concentrated
salt solution into a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane. Water will migrate
from the oil mud into the shale when the salinity of the water phase of the oil mud is lower than the
salinity of the water phase of the shale. There is evidence that dehydration of the shale occurs when the
reverse is true. No migration occurs when the salinities are equal. This is the ideal scenario as it means no
alteration of the state of the shale.

Although maximum shale inhibition is realized with oil muds, their use in some wells may not be
considered practical because of other factors. These factors must be carefully evaluated in relation to the
severity of the shale instability problem.
Some of the disadvantages of oil base muds can:

ƒ Limit quality data acquisition

ƒ Affect cuttings analysis
ƒ Increase logistic burden
ƒ Require special preparation and maintenance programs
ƒ Be environmentally unacceptable
ƒ Ineffective in fractured shales

water base muds

Stability is generally obtained in water-based muds from:

ƒ Ionic inhibition
ƒ Encapsulation
ƒ Physical plugging

The degree of stability will not be as great as with the oil base muds, but properly treated and run water
muds can be successfully used for even the most troublesome shales.

From a drilling efficiency standpoint, the most practical, semi-inhibitive water-based muds are classified
as low-solids, non-dispersed fluids. Their stabilising characteristics are obtained partially from soluble
salts and partially from low concentrations of polymer additives. These fluids exhibit good rheological
characteristics and generally promote high penetration rates. Proper solids control is a key to using these
fluids in the field. High drilled solids content will create rheological problems, reduce the penetration
rate, and increase the costs of the mud system and the well.

Each mechanism may work independently or in a synergistic manner with one or more of the other
mechanisms dependent upon the mineralogy presented by a specific rock sample


ionic inhibition
Ionic inhibition is effective in reducing the dispersion and hydration of clays, therefore reducing
the instability of shales containing swelling clays. The degree of hydration is dependent on the type
and concentration of the inhibiting ion, for example, montmorillonite will swell only to about three
times its original volume when placed in a saturated NaCl solution. The hydration is greatly reduced,
but not eliminated.

The common clays described earlier are all bonded by cations. These cations bond the platelets that
make up the clay structure and can greatly affect the degree of hydration of the shale. The cation
associated with montmorillonite is usually either Na + ,as in bentonite, or Ca ++ , as in sub-bentonite.
Illites contain K + in the pure form, but Na + or Ca ++ may have replaced the K + through time.

Clays, when placed in water, develop a strong negative charge imbalance on the surface of the
platelets. Any cations in the solution will be oriented to satisfy the negative charges. If the concentration
of the cation in solution is sufficiently high, a base exchange with the bonding cation of the clay
will take place. The various cations behave differently because of ionic size and hydrational energy.

Potassium and ammonium are proposed as the most inhibitive ions for use in a drilling fluid.
Their diameters are both very close to the available distance of 2.8 Å between the three-layer
packets of montmorillonites and illites. Potassium and ammonium have the lowest hydrational
energies, smallest hydrated diameters. The low energies produce inter-layer dehydration and layer
collapse, and help in forming a compact, tightly held structure.

Potassium cations are expected to perform best as an inhibitive cation on shales having a large
percentage of illite. The potassium returns the illite to the pure form which is a non-swelling structure.

encapsulation
Encapsulation is a chemical and physical interaction with the clay surfaces. Long chain polymers,
such as partially hydrolysedpolyacrylamide, PHPA, are believed to wrap around the particles.
This aids in the control ofsurface hydration and reduces the tendency to disperse anddisintegrate.

physical plugging
In some of the brittle shales, ionic inhibition and encapsulation may not sufficiently reduce shale
instability. Even slight hydration of micro-fractures will make the formations unstable. Asphaltenes
have been effectively used in the field to seal micro-fractures. Their use must be coupled with
proper fluid loss control to minimise filtrate invasion into the fractures. The materials that are purely
oil soluble appear to be the most desirable for treatment of brittle shales. The asphaltenes that are
water soluble tend to further disperse into the formation water and reduce the sealing effect.

Gilsonite is another mineral product used effectively to maximise shale stabilisation. It is thought
that these materials minimise shale sloughing by sealing off micro-fractures and pores in the
shales and limiting exposure of the shale surfaces due to a plating action on the wellbore. In the
most severe cases of brittle shales, not even the use of asphaltenes will prevent instability. The
only alternative is to try a balanced activity oil mud.

When shales with abnormal pressure are encountered they must be balanced by hydrostatic
pressure or they will become unstable and cause borehole problems. An indication of an overpressured
shale is long sharp concave/convex splinters coming from the shale shaker. The amount of cuttings
coming over the shaker is also increased. A directional hole will usually require a higher mud density
than a straight hole in the same area or field.


 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

Tectonically stressed shales may also require a higher mud density to stabilise the borehole.
The amount and appearance of drill cuttings may or may not change. The drag and torque of the
drill string may be increased dramatically when geo-pressured shales are encountered without
sufficient mud density. Frequently, long sections of hole must be reamed when running the drill
string in hole after trips. The borehole can become elliptical due to stress and appear to be under
gauge. A good drilling practice is to raise the mud density prior to drilling sections of hole which
are tectonically stressed. This will usually allow a lower final mud density to be run compared to a higher
final density if the hole is allowed to deteriorate and remedial action is required.

pore-pressure transmission
One of the major mechanisms which can cause shale failure is a formation pressure increase in
combination with swab/surge pressures. In permeable formations such as sandstones, the pressure
differential between drilling fluid and pore fluid (overbalance) generates a filter-cake on the bore-
hole wall that acts as an impermeable membrane. The mud pressure differential will be exerted on
the filter cake and provide effective mud pressure support to the borehole wall.

Shales are normally considered non permeable, but in fact have limited permeability in the order of
10-6 to 10-12 Darcy. In shales no filter cake can be formed, because the permeability of shales is lower
that the permeability of the “normal” filter cake. Thus the drilling fluid pressure is directly in contact
with the formation and will equalise with the pore-pressure around the well-bore. With time the
drilling fluid pressure will gradually reach further into the formation. This slow mud pressure invasion is
referred to as pore pressure penetration.

A slow pore pressure increase will reduce effective mud support and increase the rock stress level
around the well-bore. Stress levels may then become so high that compressive rock failure will
occur. Swab pressures temporarily lower the effective mud support even further, bringing the shale
or claystone close to failure or causing actual failure resulting in cavings or borehole collapse. An
initially stable wellbore can become unstable with time due to pore pressure penetration in
combination with swab/surge pressures.

Mud overbalance

Pore pressure penetration

Naturally Mud Filtrate

pressured pressure invasion
rock zone zone zone

The invasion of filtrate elevates the “in-situ” pore pressure in an extended zone around the well
bore, i.e. as the wellbore pore pressure increases the net effective mud weight overbalance
decreases resulting in reduced bore hole pressure support. This can lead “in time” to the necessity
to increase the mud weight in order to stabilise the well bore.

The degree of pore pressure penetration depends on:-

ƒ the type of drilling mud.

ƒ type of shale (permeability).
ƒ amount of overbalance.


Capillary Effect
Neither water based muds nor oil based muds forms a solid filter cake in shale. Under normal
mud pressures shales are permeable to water based fluids but completely impermeable to oil.
The stable behaviour of shales whilst drilling with oil based mud or synthetic fluids is a result of
capillary action. When oil enters a shale it has to overcome a threshold pressure caused by the
capillary effect between oil and the pore fluid. The capillary pressure is in the order of thousands
of psi and thus is generally too large to be overcome by the mud pressure differential. The threshold
pressure therefore acts as an alternative “mud filter cake” providing effective mud support to the
wellbore.

Oil/Synthetic Based mud Water Based mud

Wellbore Wellbore
pressure pressure

Water Pore Pressure Water Water Pore Pressure

Capillary Action in oil/synthetic muds versus water based muds

A consequence of the above is that shale instability with oil and synthetic drilling fluids is normally
caused by lack of mud support i.e. too low a mud density.

Cloud Point
In recent years TAME glycols (polyols) have been used successfully to control pore pressure
transmission in water base muds. The mechanism used by polyols to do this is “clouding out”.
The cloud point of a polyol is the temperature at which it starts to change between being water
soluble and water insoluble. On increasing the temperature of the fluid, the polyol starts to come out
of solution and an otherwise clear liquid starts to become opaque and cloudy. The temperature at
which this occurs is usually very precise and is particular to each polyol type. Control of the cloud point
is crucial to the drilling fluid and wellbore performance. Cloud point is also a function of the following
variables:

ƒ salinity of the solution.

ƒ type of electrolyte.
ƒ molecular weight and type.
ƒ concentration of polyol.

There have been many theories put forward to explain the shale inhibition mechanism; of these the
following mechanisms are believed to be the most conclusive:


 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

ƒ It has been suggested that the main function of the polyol is to compete with water molecules
for adsorption sites on the clay minerals present in shales. They also conclude that when KCl is present,
there is a good correlation between inhibition and adsorption of polyol. Strong adsorption still occurs
from distilled water and, although polyol intercalates are formed, they have a slightly higher basal
spacing and the resulting complexes are much less stable in water.
ƒ Other research has studied the effects of clouding polyols in aqueous solutions with varying
salinities. They conclude that the formation of an aggregation of hydrophobic molecular droplets
contribute to the lowering of both static and dynamic filtration, thus achieving a reduction in
pore pressure penetration of invasive fluids. They also demonstrate that a relatively narrow
operating band exists for optimum benefit from clouding polyols in Thermally Active Micro
Emulsion (TAME) type muds.

The ideal environment for TAME type muds to operate is when the mud temperature is below
the cloud point and the formation temperature is close to or above the cloud point. In these
cases, pore plugging will occur just inside the rock matrix as the material clouds out within
the hotter environment, sealing the formation against further ingress. At this point, surfactant
- polymer interactions will also be at their greatest as well as any complexation of surfactant
with monovalent ions in solution such as potassium. Optimum benefit for long term borehole
stability should occur in this scenario.

process for selecting suitable drilling fluid

The following table details the processes that can be used to identify a suitable fluid for drilling a
particular shale. It involves analysing the shale to characterise it and understand it. It then subjects
the shale to fluids to quantify its reaction.

Process Detail Specific Method

Sample Sample collection.
Sourcing,
Preparation and Preparation of samples.
Characterisation
Description of samples -
Colour, hardness, texture
and UV response.

Process Detail Specific Method

Physicochemical Analysis Mineralogy by XRD. XRD

Identification of exchangeable IC
cations.

Water content. Water Content

Reactivity Quantification Activity. Activity

Methylene blue index - cation MBT

exchange capacity

Dielectric constant - surface

area DCM

Capillary suction time CST

10
 Process Detail Specific Method
Swelling, Dispersiveness and Swelling potential. Shale Wafer Test
Hardness Testing
Dispersion tests. Dispersion by Dynamic
Ageing

Hardness - Penetrometer tests Durometer or Elf

Penetrometer

Stability Testing Pore pressure transmission. PPT

Inhibition Testing Fluid compatibility testing – Fluid Compatibility Testing

Quantification of effectiveness
of alternative strategies to
inhibit hydration, swelling,
disintegration and dispersion.

Solids Tolerance Solids contamination tests. Solids Tolerance

Accretion potential - Evaluate

anti-accretion (bit-balling) Accretion Testing
strategies.

drilling depleted reservoirs or weak shales

Many of us were taught as mud engineers that hydrostatic pressure provided by a drilling fluid must
exceed pore pressure in reservoir rock to prevent influx of fluids and to provide wellbore stability. This
incomplete concept has been for many years more often than not accepted without question. However,
as wells are drilled deeper, often in deep water, or through depleted zones, loss of circulation due to
fracture induction has become an ever increasing problem. Fracture induction has been most often been
observed when drilling relatively impermeable shale with non-aqueous fluids. Most mud engineers
have experienced mud losses to a shale followed by return of most or all of that same fluid after the mud
density was reduced a small amount, sometimes less than 0.2 lb/gal.

The same phenomenon exists in more permeable, especially depleted, reservoir rock when drilling
with non-aqueous fluids because NAF fluids do not readily penetrate pores of producing sands due
to capillary effects. Producing sands, whether oil or gas producing, are generally water wet. The entry
of a non-aqueous fluid to the permeable matrix of reservoir rock is opposed by hundreds of pounds
per square inch of capillary pressure. The NAF mud or mud filtrate simply cannot easily “push” aside
the water sealing a reservoir rock and readily enter the porous permeable matrix. Thus, the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the mud column cannot leak to the reservoir when grain separation occurs as the
wellbore dilates with increased ECD.

Drilling fluids, with sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure, can exceed the horizontal stresses of rock
and cause dilation of the wellbore. The rock may be shale or reservoir sand. Dilation of the wellbore
is seen as a slight increase in diameter of the bore and grain separation around the circumference of
the hole. Depending upon rock and drilling fluid properties and components a simple winged vertical
fracture can develop in the direction of highest principal stress, or a few to myriad smaller fractures can
develop radially all about the wellbore. As small fractures develop radially about the wellbore, they will
be seen to turn in the direction of the highest principal stress.

11
 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

These initial fractures are called proto-fractures or juvenile fractures by some operators. The initial
fractures are confined to the “near-wellbore” and do not initially penetrate far into the rock. Juvenile
fractures may penetrate to a depth usually assumed less than one hole diameter before they begin to
propagate due to entry of mud pressurized to the full hydrostatic head of the mud column. To drilling
engineers, the near wellbore can be said to be about one hole diameter (this can be confusing because
a production engineer may see the near wellbore as hundreds of meters depending upon reservoir and
production characteristics).

In a barite weighted fully formulated mud, circulating loss will not be observed until the proto-fracture
exceeds about 150 microns in width. This means that barite itself is a “StressCage” material. When
formation proto-fractures begin to form using a barite weighted mud:

the hoop stress of the rock increases; (term widely used by many engineers BP and Shell and others)
the fracture-closure stress increases; (term perhaps more typically used by Exxon and others)
the tangential stress of the rock increases; (term typically used by Schlumberger and others)
the formation becomes “Stress Caged™” (BP trademark and patented concept)

A leakoff test using a barite weighted mud can yield a 200 - 400 psi increase over a clear fluid. Barite is the
mud engineer’s primary LCM and primary Stress Cage(d)™ material. In reality, barite is the “FINE” LCM we
heard about in mud school.

Barite will allow for an increase in fracture width of up to about 150 microns for each fracture which
develops. More fractures indicate a higher potential increase in fracture closure stress and more
StressCage effect. However, at some point a fracture will exceed 150 - 175 microns and the whole mud
will be lost to the “far-field” more than the depth of well-bore diameter. At this point a larger sized LCM
must be selected to further extend formation strength.

Work by BP, Exxon, Conoco-Phillips, Texas A&M University/Shell Bellaire Research has shown that hard
granular materials are the most effective materials for sealing and closing fractures which are beyond
the sealing capacity of API barite. Prototype materials tested and found to be effective in lab and field
were fine grind hard nut hull, ground petroleum coke, and synthetic graphite. Calcium carbonate can
also be used but the higher specific gravity and bulk density and less textured surface make it less
effective at any given concentration. The most effective size was measured (Malvern and Coulter particle
size analyzers) to be about:

D10 of about 100 microns

D50 of about 300 microns
D90 of about 600 microns

Material must be tough, hard, rough surfaced, with a net spheroidal symmetry for the highest
effectiveness. Use of platey and fibrous materials with high aspect ratio WILL NOT INCREASE THE
STRENGTH OF A FORMATION. Likewise, smoothly spherical materials such as un-ground petroleum
coke or synthetic graphite act more like proppants, cannot seal a fracture and DO NOT IMPROVE
FORMATION STRENGTH OR SEALING.

“Spheroidal symmetry” describes the cubic, tetrahedral, and other regular symmetries seen in synthetic
graphite, petroleum coke, ground nut hulls, and other efficient fracture sealants. “Spherical” describes
ball symmetry. These terms are not equivalent.

Rules for effectively increasing strength of shale:

• NAF muds are often more likely to fracture sands and shales than WBM because of capillary effects.
• Bridging material should be in the mud before the loss zone is encountered.
• Bridging material must be maintained in the mud system while drilling and until casing is set
and cemented.

12
• Bridging material does not enter the fracture unless fracture penetrates to the far-field.
• Maintain HTHP filtration below 2 ml or as low as possible. Some premium fine fibrous materials
may help reduce dynamic filtration; this should be evaluated by pilot test.
• If mud penetrates to the far-field any hoop stress or Stress Cage™ increase is lost.
• Bridging material will wash off the fracture unless continuously replenished in the mud system.
• Material must be continuously replenished at pump suction OR
• Shakers can be bypassed; OR
• Screen size of + 40 mesh can be installed.

Do your best to ELIMINATE FINE, MEDIUM and COARSE from your thinking. These terms are largely
bogus concepts which only apply if you know what sizes you are talking about. There are no “API” or
standard industry sizes associated with FINE, MEDIUM and COARSE.

In most circumstances! - the size we can call FINE as used in the Stress Cage™ business is that of API
barite. To increase the strength of shale beyond that provided by API barite, a material “one” size larger
is selected. That material has:

D10 of about 100 microns

D50 of about 300 microns
D90 of about 600 microns

DO NOT USE ANY MATERIAL LARGER THAN 1 mm. It will not seal properly.

Do not invent or improvise with materials with unknown particle size. It is best to forget FINE, MEDIUM
and COARSE unless you know the screen or measured size of those particles.

Scomi Oiltools markets the following “Stress Cage™” materials which can increase wellbore strength as
measured by increased LOT and FIT measurements.

• calcium carbonate or marble with d50 of 250 - 350 microns when drilling with API barite weighted
mud.
• HYDRO-SEAL G, resilient synthetic graphite standard and fine. The standard grind size should be
used while drilling; the fine material can be added while tripping or running pipe.
• sized ground nut shell (typically walnut and pecan) as described in publications by Fred Dupriest of
ExxonMobil. This size is typically called “FINE”, but make certain the d50 is close to 300 - 400 microns
with no particles above about 1 - 1.2mm.

other wellbore stability issues

As mud weight is increased the near wellbore can be put in tension. Tensile failure in vertical wells has
been the major cause of mud losses since rotary drilling with weighted muds began. Tensile failures can
cause mud losses and sometimes hole collapse in rubble zones when stretched broken shale can no
longer support itself.

The problems can rapidly become worse as hole angle increases. As hole angle deviates from 90° the
horizontal stresses opposing fluid hydraulic pressure become a complex product of angle, overburden
pressure, formation “Poisson’s ratio”, and pore pressure. Hoop stresses about the wellbore become
distorted from an easy to comprehend near circular stress field to one that puts the wellbore in tensile
stress in one direction and in compression at a near right angle around the wellbore. This means the mud
engineer may observe splintery cuttings typical of an underbalanced well, chunky cavings from tensile
failure, and mud losses all at the same time.

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 Section

10a hole problems - shale instability

Geomechanics problems in high angle wells can be a difficult to resolve and may require special well
designs which consider formation dip and hole direction to minimize the effect of unstable rock. As a
mud engineer we should be aware of these issues. When rocks bend due to salt intrusion, strike-slip faults,
thrust faults; if bedding plains dip; or when drilling high angles holes through any of these conditions;
frustrating and seemingly unpredictable rock failure can occur. In many or most cases mud chemistry is
a minor contribution to the problem.

Many companies offer services which (more or less!) accurately predict wellbore stability based upon
poro-elastic measurements and assumptions, rock strength measurements, mud properties, and hole
angle and dimension.

fixed fracture and micro-fractured shale considerations

As depth increases overburden pressure increases at typically more than 1 psi/foot. At most depths the
overburden load exceeds the compressive strength of the supporting rock. Pore pressure contributes to
matrix stress of the rock and the formation can support a higher load than the strength of the rock itself
if the rock remains confined.

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For this reason, natural fractures in most sands and shales are closed and non-conductive. It should not
be assumed that massive losses occur to open natural fractures, especially as depth increases. Natural
fractures may open or new fractures may be induced by the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column if
that hydrostatic pressure exceeds the minimum horizontal stress of the rock. Fracture opening or facture
induction can be resolved with thoughtful application of LCM of optimised size, shape, surface roughness,
and hardness BEFORE THE LOSS ZONE IS DRILLED. If a fracture is sealed as it begins to open, the faces of
the fracture will not feel the full hydrostatic head of the mud column and the fracture will not extend with
massive losses to the far field of the formation, sand or shale. It will be “caged”.

Likewise, fractured limestones and hard tight sands which can support the weight of the overburden
despite loss of confinement may have fractures conductive to gas, oil, and occasionally barite weighted
drilling fluid, but in most cases those fractures also can be sealed with the same materials discussed
above. Always use these recommended sizes and concentrations before responding with those
irrationally shaped and sized LCM that we mud engineers have promoted for 100 years. Mica and other
platey type materials have been shown again and again to be ineffective and usually increase rate of mud
loss. Spherical materials can become proppants and increase mud loss.

Losses to vuggy and karsty limestone and fractured basalts are exceptions. When drilling through vugs,
caverns, or large fractures, especially in metamorphic rock, other techniques should be employed, see
section 10c. lost circulation

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