1

POLITICAL CULTURE

What is political culture?

The most significant development of the post-World War 11 period was the rise of a new
approach to the study of political science which gave birth to a large number of new concepts of
which political culture is one. To know the working of any political system, it is necessary to
know the political culture of that nation. In effect, the term ‘political culture’ has been
popularized by the American political thinkers like Ulam, Beer and Almond and it is now being
used frequently to compare the different political systems. The concept has now enabled the
different political scientists to distinguish one system from the other not only in terms of its
structure but also the political culture in which it grows. It is political culture which explains
satisfactorily the phenomenon why the parliamentary democracy has succeeded so well in Great
Britain but not succeeded in most of the countries of Asia and Africa. According to Almond and
Powell, ‘political culture consists of attitudes, beliefs, values and skills which are current in an
entire population, as well as those special propensities and patterns which may be found within
separate parts of that population’.

Dimensions of political culture

According to Almond and Powell, the concept of political culture involves three components of
individual orientation; cognitive orientations, effective orientations and evaluative orientations.
Cognitive orientations mean knowledge of and belief about the political system, its role, its
objectives and officials, its inputs and outputs. Effective orientations mean feelings of
attachment, involvement, rejection and the like about the political system, its personnel and
performance ad about other political objects. Evaluative orientations mean judgments and
opinions about political objects which usually involve applying value standards to political
objects and events.

Types of political culture

It has been observed that the political culture of one country fundamentally differs from other
countries. There is no country in the world which can boast of single uniform political culture.
Almond and Verba have listed three ideal types of political culture. They are described below.

1. Parochial political culture: Where the people have no understanding of the national
political system, do not possess any tendency to participate in the input processes and
have no consciousness of the output processes, such a type of political culture is called
parochial political culture. African tribes and Eskimos fall in this category. Such a type of
people have no role to play in the political culture.
2. Subject political culture: This type of political culture is found in the subject countries
and monarchies. There the people are aware of the governmental system whether they
like it or not. They also know the role of the government regarding law-making,
enforcement of laws and tax collection etc. In this type of culture, people are not taught to
2

participate in the input functions. Sometimes, they are not allowed to do so, as a result the
people find it difficult to influence the working of the political system.
3. Participant political culture: In this type of political culture, people are quite keen to
participate in the political system and influence its working. They are always busy
making reasonable demands on the political system and are involved in the making of
decisions. They develop a particular attitude towards the political system. Political
parties, pressure groups, interest groups fall in this category and decide for themselves
what role they can play.

Determinants of political culture

Political continuity, colonial domination, geography, ethnic differences, religious differences and
socio-economic structure play an important par in developing political culture. Political
continuity plays an important part in the development of political culture. The political culture of
Britain has been influenced by political continuity in that country. If there had been no political
continuity for a long time, there was no scope for the development of the particular political
culture in that country. Unlike Britain, the political structure in France was shaken by the French
Revolution of 1789 and that the events that followed. A similar thing happened in Russia as a
result of the Revolution of 1917.

Political culture is also affected by colonial domination and imperialist control. The political
culture of India has been influenced by the British rule in India for about two centuries.
Likewise, the political culture in Africa, Indonesia, China and Sri Lanka has been influenced by
foreign domination. A particular type of colonial domination has its own effect. We have the
example of Congo where the Belgian authorities created a particular type of political culture
different from that created by British or French domination in other countries. The geographical
factor also moulds the political culture of a country. The insular position of England created a
political culture different from that of the countries on the continent. Likewise, the US has
developed a political culture different from that of England and other European countries.

Ethnic differences also mould the political culture of a country. If there had been no racial
differences in Africa, the political culture of the countries in that continent would have been
different. However, racial differences can be removed by mutual understanding and tolerance.
Religious homogeneity or differences have their effect on the political culture of a country. The
religious differences in India have affected its political culture. Those differences led to the
partition of the Indian Sub-Continent in 1947. The same religious differences mould the political
culture of India even now. The Sikhs of the Punjab are an outstanding example.

The political culture of a country is also influenced by its socio-economic structure. These
differences explain the differences of political cultures of the countries.

_________________________________
3

What is a political party?

Political party plays an important role in democracy because during the elections, they create
consciousness among the voters. They keep the nation alive politically. Thy create the interest of
the voters in politics and attract them towards important problems. Various definitions of
political parties have been furnished by the political scientists from different angles. The paper
cites the definition as furnished by Leacock. He states, “By a political party we mean more or
less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit. They share or profess to
share the same opinions on public questions and by exercising their voting power towards a
common end, seek to obtain control of the government”. Some of the essentials of political
parties are : First, the people should be organized. Second, there should be similarity of
principles. Third, the aim of a political party should be to attain political power. Fourth, a
political party should use peaceful means for attaining political power.

What are the bases for the formation of political parties ?

There are many bases for the formation of political parties. Many people form a political party
on the basis of religion. Their aim is to protect the interests of their followers. For instance, the
Muslim League, Akali Dal (Punjab), BJP, Jamat-I-Islam etc. are the religion based parties. In
many European countries, Catholic parties have been formed on this basis. The second basis for
the formation of the parties is economic. For example, there are many classes in the society, i.e.,
capitalists, labourers, businessmen and services. Conservative parties protect the interests of the
capitalists while the communist and socialist parties protect the interests of the labourers. The
third basis for the formation of a political party is racial. For example, in India ‘All India
Scheduled Caste’s Federation’ exists in order to protect the interests of the Hindus of lower
caste. Fourthly, certain parties are formed on political basis like the Indian National Congress in
India. In the beginning, its aim was to protect the interests of the people of India, but later it
fought for the freedom of the country. Similarly, the Awami League party of Bangladesh first
sought autonomy for the then East Pakistan. But later on, it fought for the independence of
Bangladesh from the Pakistani rulers. Fifthly, sometimes the basis for the formation of political
parties is psychological or natural difference. Many people consider the old traditions of the
society as ideal and they want to review them. Such persons are called reactionaries.

What are the functions of a political party?

There are two functions of political parties. They are: (1) to propagate their ideals and policy: (2)
to contest elections. James Bryce says that every party follows four things for its success. First,
every party strengthens its organizations. Second, the parties try to increase their membership.
Third, they encourage the electorate and supporters through speeches and other means. Fourth,
the voters are imparted political education by the parties. Besides, every political party puts up
able and intelligent persons for the elections and efforts are made to make them successful
through propaganda in the press, through speeches, meetings and processions. Each party tries to
defeat its rival and condemns its policies, so that no voter should vote in favour of the rival party.
If a party secures a majority, it forms the government, otherwise it acts as opposition and
4

criticizes the policies of the government and checks the government from becoming absolute in
nature.
The advantages of political parties

The following are the advantages of political parties:

1. Political parties reflect the varied human nature of the masses

2. Political parties concentrate on the attention of the voters on big problems
3. Political parties make the working of democracy possible.
4. Political parties create cooperation between the executive and legislature
5. Opposition parties check the absolutism of the government
6. Political parties create awakening among the people
7. Opposition parties point out the short-comings of the government
8. Political parties make the working of the constitution and the government flexible
9. Political parties act as a sort of link between the people and the government
10. Political parties pilot the reforms
11. Political parties impart political education
12. Political parties appoint committees of experts
13. Formation of government is made easier due to the presence of political parties

The disadvantages of political parties

The following are the disadvantages of political parties:

1. National interests are hampered by the selfish propaganda of the political parties
2. Party system creates factionalism
3. Political parties crush individuality
4. Wrong political education of the people
5. Parties spread corruption
6. The ruling party makes attractive laws near the election in order to catch the voters
7. Dictatorship of the ruling party
8. Unstable government in a multi-party system
9. Political parties spread communal hatred
10. The country is deprived of the services of the talented persons owing to the party system

__________________________
5

Political System

Political system is an important concept in political science. A political system determines

political power, political culture, and nature of the state, political mobility and so on. Before we
discuss the meaning of political system, it is desirable to explain the words ‘political’ and
‘system’. The political refers to power, influence, control or authority, use or threat of use of
physical force etc. A system refers to few elements that are in interaction with each other. At the
state level, a system denotes a number of structures, groups, agencies and organizations etc. that
operate at different levels for different purposes. These bodies are generally the objects of power,
influence, control or authority that a state possesses. So a political system means how and when
the various objects constituting the system becomes the subjects of power, influence or force as
exercised by the state. Max Weber defines a political system ‘as a human community that
successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory’.
Two important elements can be deduced from this definition. First, although the state enjoys
unlimited and unrestrained power, its application should be legitimate. Second, the force is to be
applied on the elements living within the space as demarcated for the state.

Characteristics of a political system

The following are the characteristics of a political system:

1. The first characteristic of a political system is that it allows the legal authority to use
force. But the force to be applied should be legitimate.
2. The political system involves interactions between the formal and informal institutions.
Among the formal institutions are the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The
informal institutions include political parties, interest groups, media and communication,
traditional structures like kinship, clan, caste, groupings etc.
3. All the parts of a political system are interdependent. For example, if there is a labour
strike for wages, there may be the intervention of trade unions, police and even
governmental authority to resolve the issue.
4. Political system is comprehensive because it includes all the interactions from the formal
as well as informal institutions in the society. For example, it includes the interaction of
regionalism, religious upheavals, inflation, party politics, tactics of pressure groups and
social changes brought about by modernization.
5. Since a political system consists of different actors, such actors change their boundary. It
means that the same individuals who perform role in social and economic system also
play their notable role in political sphere.

Functions of a political system

A political system performs the following two types of functions:

(1) Input functions (political functions) and
(2) Output functions (Governmental functions)
(1) Input functions : David Easton classifies input functions into two types, demands and
supports.
Demand: Among the demand side are the following:
6

(a) Allocation of goods and services such as demands for more wages, and fixation of
working hours, opening of educational institutions, provision of recreational facilities,
roads and transportation.
(b) Participation in the political system, such as the right to vote, to hold office, to petition
government bodies and officials, and to organize political associations such as pressure
groups and political parties.
(c) Regulation of behaviour such as provision for public safety, control over markets and
rules pertaining to marriage, health and sanitation.
(d) Communication and information, such as demand for communication norms and policy,
power of the political system in time of threats or on ceremonial occasions.

Support
The examples of support which the people get in the political system are:
(a) Material support such as the payment of taxes or other levies and rendering services as
labour or public works or military services.
(b) Attention paid to government communications and the manifestation of respect to public
authority, symbols and ceremonials.
(c) Obedience to laws and regulations
(d) Participatory support such as voting, political discussions and other forms of political
activity.

2. Output functions
These are the functions performed by the government in response to the input (political
function)
(a) Rule making : Rule making is known as legislation. Rule making goes on in every type of
government whether democracy, dictatorship or monarch. Now-a-days in a democratic
set-up, the rule making power is exercised by the legislature or parliament.
(b) Rule application : The rules made by the legislature or the Executive are enforced by the
bureaucracy, therefore its role and importance have considerably increased. Moreover,
rule application also implies that the established goals of the society are fulfilled. It also
sees their interaction of the laws on the society.
(c) Rule adjudication : It is the duty of the judiciary to interpret the laws and punish the
guilty. Judiciary also resolves the conflicts between the government and citizens and the
citizens themselves.

________________________________
7

Theory of Separation of Powers

In many countries, the legislature is under the executive and in certain countries, the legislature
has the right to remove the executive. Similarly, in certain other countries, the judiciary has the
power to declare the laws made by the legislature illegal. It indicates that the three organs of the
government have relations, one with the other. But the writers who are in support of the theory of
separation of powers are of the opinion that all the powers of the government should not be
concentrated in the hands of one organ. Otherwise, there will be no freedom. They are of the
view that the legislature should only make laws, the executive should implement these laws and
run the administration according to these laws, and the judiciary should decide the disputes
according to those laws. Montesquieu laid stress on the limitation of each organ and declared that
there should be no control of one organ over the other. One organ should neither interfere in the
sphere of the other nor should it influence the other. Each organ should be completely free in its
own sphere.

Views of Montesquieu

The best explanation of the theory has been given by French writer Montesquieu in his book
‘Spirit of Laws’ (1748). The writer lived at the time of Louis X1V who declared , ‘I am the
State’. The monarch combined in his person all the three powers. Montesquieu happened to live
in England in 1726 and he was tremendously impressed by the spirit of freedom prevailing there.
He analyzed the freedom of the people and arrived at the conclusion that the freedom of the
people was made possible because in England all the three organs of State were working
separately and they were free of each other’s control. He was very much impressed by the power
of the British Parliament and the freedom of judiciary. Therefore, he said that it was necessary
for the protection of freedom in France that all the three organs should function separately. The
concentration of all the three powers in the hands of one person was not desirable at all because
it would destroy the freedom of he people. He laid special emphasis on the freedom of judiciary
and on the making of the legislature or the parliament of his country powerful.

Montesquieu writes, “When the legislature and executive powers are united in the same person,
or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty because apprehension may arise lest
the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws and execute them in a tyrannical
manner. Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and
executive. Were it joined with the legislature, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed
to arbitrary control, for the judge would the be legislator. Were it joined to the executive power,
the judge might behave with violence and oppression:,

To explain briefly and in simple language, Montesquieu’s thesis therefore is the concentration of
legislature, executive and judicial functions in one single person or in a body of persons results
in the abuse of authority and such an organization is tyrannical. He, accordingly, pleaded that the
three departments of government should perform distinct functions within the spheres of powers
assigned to them.
8

Legislature

Since the time of Aristotle, it has been generally agreed that political power is divided into three
broad categories. There is first, the legislature which formulates and expresses the will of the
state. Being a a representative assembly, the legislature in a democratic government enacts the
general rules of society in the form of laws. The laws of the state prescribe the manner in which
people are expected to live in a politically organized society. In a democracy, the following are
the general functions of legislature.

1. Law making : In modern times, the most important function of legislature is law making
Ordinary bills can be introduced by the members of the parliament and by the ministers.
The members of the legislature can by a majority vote accept or reject any bill. The
members of legislature or the parliament enjoy full freedom of speech and also of
criticism of the policies of the government.
2. Control over the budget : The legislature has control over the budget of the government.
Without the approval of the legislature, not a single penny can be spent by the executive.
3. Control over the executive : In a parliamentary government, the legislature or the
parliament exercises full control over the executive or the Council of Ministers. The
parliament has the right to put questions and supplementary questions to the cabinet. The
parliament can remove the cabinet by a No-Confidence-Motion. It can bring in
adjournment motions and censure motions against the cabinet.
4. Judicial : In certain countries, the legislature has to perform certain judicial functions.
For example, in India and America, the parliament and the cabinet can remove the
President by a process of impeachment.
5. Electoral : In certain countries, the legislature elects the President, the Vice-President
and the judges. In India, the parliament takes part in the election of the President and
Vice President. In Russia, the judges of the Supreme Court are elected by the parliament
of that country. In Switzerland also, the members of he Executive and Federal Tribunal
are elected by the members of parliament.
6. Amendment to the constitution : In every democracy, the power to amend the
constitution rests with the legislature of that country. The only difference is that in some
countries, a similar procedure is adopted as that for the amendment of ordinary laws. In
some other countries, a special procedure is adopted for the amendment of the
constitution. In Bangladesh, the parliament can amend certain clauses of the constitution
with a two-thirds majority and for amending certain clauses, the approval of one half of
the state legislature is needed.
7. A mirror of public opinion : Now-a-days, the legislature acts as the mirror of public
opinion because it criticizes and compels the executive to act according to the wishes of
the people.
8. Right of the legislature to remove the judges : In India, China, Soviet Union, England
and the USA, the parliament has the power to remove the judges of the Federal or
Supreme Court.
9. As Board of Directors : In certain countries, the legislature acts as a Board of Directors
for the Government Corporations because it decides the manner in which the
Administration Branch is to be organized and performs its functions. It also decides the
ways and means for raising money.
9

These are the functions of legislature in democratic countries. The situation in totalitarian
countries is quite different. In these countries, the executive has a great control over the
legislature and the executive is not responsible to the legislature. Its functions like law making
and the passage of the budget are nominal. The legislature acts according to the directions of the
executive. Thus one finds that in democratic countries, the legislature exercises a great control
over the executive, but in totalitarian regimes, the legislature is controlled by the executive.

Organization of the legislature

In almost all the countries, legislatures are available for making laws. In democracy, the
importance of legislature is still more. For law making, most of the countries have two houses,
while a few countries have only one House. The system called bicameralism has two houses.
The first chamber is called the Lower House and the second chamber is called the Upper House.
There are two chambers of legislatures in France, Belgium, Germany, Britain, Holland, Sweden,
Norway, Japan, America, Australia, Canada etc. In certain countries like Bangladesh, China,
Portugal and Turkey there is only one chamber system called unicameralism.

------------------------------------------------------
Executive

The term executive is derived from the word ‘execute’. This is the second important organ of the
government. The legislature enacts the laws and the executive implements them. In ancient
times, the executive (Monarch and Council of Ministers) used to make laws, implement them
and it also awarded punishment to the law breakers. But today the monarchy has been abolished
to a great extent and democracy has taken its place. Thus the executive has no power to make
laws and punish those who break the laws. It simply has the power to implement the laws passed
by the legislature. Dr. Garner, while explaining the meaning of the executive said, “In a broad
and collective sense, the executive organ embraces the aggregate or totality of all the
functionaries which are concerned with the execution of the will of the state as that will has been
formulated and expressed in terms of law”.

The definition of Garner is very comprehensive. According to it, Head of the State, Council of
Ministers and all other officials who implement the laws are included in the executive. If the
world executive is used in a narrow sense, it includes only the President and the Council of
Ministers, and the officials are not included in it. Generally, the term executive is used in a
narrow sense and it includes the head of the state and his Council of Ministers who are required
to implement the laws and make policies for running the administration of the state”.

Functions of the executive: The functions of the executive are not the same everywhere. The
functions of the executive depend on the form of the government. In dictatorship, the functions
of the executive are different from in democracy. Ordinarily, the following are the functions of
the executive.

1. Administration: In every country, the Head of the State and the Council of Ministers
area responsible for the maintenance of law and order and for the running of the
10

administration. The Head of the State, on the recommendation of the Council of

Ministers, makes many important political appointments. The administrators are
generally recruited on the basis of competitive examinations. They are promoted,
demoted and dismissed under the Civil Service Rule. For example, in Bangladesh there is
the Bangladesh Civil Service (BCS).
2. Legislature: Generally, law making is the responsibility of the legislature, but in every
country the executive has an important role to play in the making of the laws. The
executive prepares the bill for the purpose and introduces them in the legislature. There is
a parliamentary government in England, India, Bangladesh, Japan, Sweden, Norway etc.
The leader of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister. He/She has influence on
both the organs of the government, i.e., legislature and executive. The ministers are also
important members of the parliament. In England, India, Bangladesh and other
parliamentary countries, the parliament spends much of its time on the discussion of the
bills.
3. Veto and Ordinances: The laws passed by the legislature can be vetoed by the President.
This is the practice in the US and India. The President has the right to issue ordinances.
Besides, if there is a rebellion on a large scale in the country, the President has the right
to grant amnesty. In some countries, the President has the right to appoint the judges.
4. Military functions: In almost all the countries, constitutionally the President or the Head
of the State has many military powers. He is the supreme commander of the Armed
Forces and has the power to promote, demote, and dismiss high military officers. He
himself or with the consent of the parliament can declare war or peace. The Head of the
country can declare emergency for the defense of the country.
5. Foreign Relations: The foreign relations and diplomatic functions of an executive are
increasing day by day as the world is becoming one unit. There is the requirement to
appoint ambassadors, ministers and personal representatives by the different
governments. It is through them that their governments deal with other countries and
enter into agreements and treaties.
6. Financial functions: Though it is legislature that controls the budget, yet the executive
prepares the budget and tries to get it passed by the legislature.
7. Judicial functions: It is true that the judiciary must be independent and should also be
kept separate from the executive, but that does not mean that the executive does not
perform any judicial function. In most countries, it is the executive that makes
appointment of judges and that system is preferred to other systems.

___________________________________