UNIT – I

Objective:
• To familiarize the classification of microwave tubes.
• To introduce the concept of amplification and signal generation using microwave tubes.

Outcomes:
Students will be able to
➢ Know different types of microwave tubes.
➢ Understand the amplification process in two cavity klystron and helix travelling wave tube.
➢ Understand the microwave signal generation using reflex klystron and Magnetron.
➢ Differentiate the O type and M type tubes

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

IEEE frequency bands designations: The Institute Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
recommended microwave frequency band designations shown in the following table

Letter band designator Freq. Range (GHz)

L 1–2
S 2–4
C 4–8
Millimete Microwave

X 8 – 12
12 – 18
wave Region

Ku
K 18 – 26
Ka 26 – 40
V 40 – 75
W 75 – 110
region

Millimeter Waves 30-300

r

Sub millimeter 300-3000

Advantages of Micro waves (Microwave Properties):

• High bandwidth
• Line-of-sight transmission/reception
• Antenna gain and directivity
• Fading effect and reliability
• Low power requirements
• Transparency property of microwaves

Applications of Microwaves:
• Wireless communications
Personal Communications Systems (PCS), Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Systems,
Wireless Local Area Computer Networks (WLANS), Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
Television, Telephone Microwave/Satellite Links, etc.
• Remote sensing
Radar (active remote sensing - radiate and receive), Military applications (target tracking)
 Weather radar Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
• Agricultural applications
• Radiometry (passive remote sensing - receive inherent emissions)
• Radio astronomy
• Industrial and home applications like Cooking, drying, heating
• Microwave spectroscopy - molecular properties of materials can be determined by passing
microwaves through a sample of the material and measuring the absorption spectrum.

Classification of Microwave tubes:

1.Two Cavity Klystron:
• The simplest klystron tube is the two-cavity klystron. In this tube there are two microwave cavity
resonators, the "catcher" and the "buncher". When used as an amplifier, the weak microwave signal
to be amplified is applied to the buncher cavity through a coaxial cable or waveguide, and the
amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity.
• At one end of the tube is the hot cathode heated by a filament which produces electrons. The
electrons are attracted to and pass through an anode cylinder at a high positive potential; the
cathode and anode act as an electron gun to produce a high velocity stream of electrons. An
external electromagnet winding creates a longitudinal magnetic field along the beam axis which
prevents the beam from spreading.
• The beam first passes through the "buncher" cavity resonator, through grids attached to each side.
The buncher grids have an oscillating AC potential across them, produced by standing wave
oscillations within the cavity, excited by the input signal at the cavity's resonant frequency applied
by a coaxial cable or waveguide.
• The direction of the field between the grids changes twice per cycle of the input signal. Electrons
entering when the entrance grid is negative and the exit grid is positive encounter an electric field
in the same direction as their motion, and are accelerated by the field. Electrons entering a half-
cycle later, when the polarity is opposite, encounter an electric field which opposes their motion,
and are decelerated.
• Beyond the buncher grids is a space called the drift space. This space is long enough so that the
accelerated electrons catch up to the retarded electrons, forming "bunches" longitudinally along the
beam axis. Its length is chosen to allow maximum bunching at the resonant frequency, and may be
several feet long.
• The electrons then pass through a second cavity, called the "catcher", through a similar pair of grids
on each side of the cavity. The function of the catcher grids is to absorb energy from the electron
beam. The bunches of electrons passing through excite standing waves in the cavity, which has the
same resonant frequency as the buncher cavity.
• Each bunch of electrons passes between the grids at a point in the cycle when the exit grid is
negative with respect to the entrance grid, so the electric field in the cavity between the grids
opposes the electrons motion.
• The electrons thus do work on the electric field, and are decelerated, their kinetic energy is
converted to electric potential energy, increasing the amplitude of the oscillating electric field in
the cavity.
• Thus the oscillating field in the catcher cavity is an amplified copy of the signal applied to the
buncher cavity. The amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity through a coaxial cable or
waveguide.
 Fig. Two cavity klystron

Fig. Applegate diagram

Velocity-Modulation equation
When electrons are first accelerated by the high de voltage Vo before entering the buncher grids,
their velocity is uniform

When a microwave signal is applied to the input terminal, the gap voltage between the buncher
grids appears as

In order to find the modulated velocity in the buncher cavity in terms of either the entering time to
or the exiting time t1 and the gap transit angle  g

Fig. signal voltage in buncher gap

The average gap transit angle can be expressed as

The average microwave voltage in the buncher gap can be found in the following way:

Note that  i is known as the beam-coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap. It can be seen that
increasing the gap transit angle  g decreases the coupling between the electron beam and the
buncher cavity; that is, the velocity modulation of the beam for a given microwave signal is
decreased. Immediately after velocity modulation, the exit velocity from the buncher gap is given
by

The above equation is the equation of velocity modulation.

2.Reflex klystron:
• The reflex klystron (also known as a Sutton tube after one of its inventors, Robert Sutton)
was a low power klystron tube with a single cavity, which functioned as an oscillator. It
was used as a local oscillator in some radar receivers and a modulator in microwave
transmitters the 1950s and 60s, but is now obsolete, replaced by semiconductor microwave
devices.
• In the reflex klystron the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons
are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun.
• After passing through the resonant cavity they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector
electrode for another pass through the cavity, where they are then collected.
• The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity. The formation
of electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the reflector and the cavity.
• The voltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the bunching is at a maximum as the
electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred
from the electron beam to the RF oscillations in the cavity.
• The reflector voltage may be varied slightly from the optimum value, which results in some
loss of output power, but also in a variation in frequency.
• This effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency control in receivers, and
in frequency modulation for transmitters.
• The level of modulation applied for transmission is small enough that the power output
essentially remains constant. At regions far from the optimum voltage, no oscillations are
obtained at all.

Fig. Reflex klystron

There several are often regions of reflector voltage where the reflex klystron will oscillate;
these are referred to as modes.
3.Travelling Wave Tube:

Major differences between the TWT and the klystron:

1.The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is continuous over the entire
length of the circuit, but the interaction in the klystron occurs only at the gaps of a few
resonant cavities.
2. The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave; the wave in the klystron is not.
3. In the coupled-cavity TWT there is a coupling effect between the cavities, whereas
each cavity in the klystron operates independently.
• A helix traveling-wave tube consists of an electron beam and a slow-wave structure.
The electron beam is focused by a constant magnetic field along the electron beam and
the slow-wave structure. This is termed an 0-type traveling-wave tube. The slow-wave
structure is either the helical type or folded-back line.
• The applied signal propagates around the turns of the helix and produces an electric
field at the center of the helix, directed along the helix axis.
• The axial electric field progresses with a velocity that is very close to the velocity of
light multiplied by the ratio of he- lix pitch to helix circumference.
• When the electrons enter the helix tube, an interac- tion takes place between the moving
axial electric field and the moving electrons.
• On the average, the electrons transfer energy to the wave on the helix. This interac- tion
causes the signal wave on the helix to become larger.
• The electrons entering the helix at zero field are not affected by the signal wave; those
electrons entering the helix at the accelerating field are accelerated, and those at the
retarding field are de- celerated.
• As the electrons travel further along the helix, they bunch at the collector end. The
bunching shifts the phase by π /2. Each electron in the bunch encounters a stronger
retarding field. Then the microwave energy of the electrons is delivered by the electron
bunch to the wave on the helix. The amplification of the signal wave is accomplished.
Amplification Process:

The electrons entering the retarding field are decelerated and those in the accelerating
field are accelerated. They begin forming a bunch centered about those electrons that
enter the helix during the zero field.

Since the de velocity of the electrons is slightly greater than the axial wave ve- locity,
more electrons are in the retarding field than in the accelerating field, and a great
amount of energy is transferred from the beam to the electromagnetic field. The
microwave signal voltage is, in turn, amplified by the amplified field. The bunch
continues to become more compact, and a larger amplification of the signal voltage
occurs at the end of the helix.

The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to prevent spreading of the electron
beam as it travels down the tube. An attenuator placed near the center of the helix
reduces all the waves traveling along the helix to nearly zero so that the reflected
waves from the mismatched loads can be prevented from reaching the input and
causing oscillation.

The bunched electrons emerging from the attenuator induce a new electric field with
the same frequency. This field, in turn, induces a new amplified microwave signal on
the helix.

The motion of electrons in the helix-type traveling-wave tube can be quantitatively

analyzed in terms of the axial electric field. If the traveling wave is propagating in the
z direction, the z component of the electric field can be expressed as

The equation of motion of the electron is given by

For interactions between the electrons and the electric field, the velocity of the
velocity-modulated electron beam must be approximately equal to the de electron
velocity. This is
 It can be seen that the magnitude of the velocity fluctuation of the electron beam is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the axial electric field.

4.MAGNETRON

Magnetron is a grouping of a simple diode vacuum tube together with built in cavity resonators
and an exceptionally powerful magnet. There are three types of magnetrons:

• Negative resistance type

• Cyclotron frequency type

• Travelling wave or Cavity type

Negative resistance magnetrons make use of negative resistance between two anode segments.

Cyclotron frequency magnetron depends upon synchronism amid an alternating component of

electric field and periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to this field.

Cavity type magnetron depends upon the interface of electrons with a rotating electromagnetic
field of constant angular velocity.

CONSTRUCTION

A magnetron consist of a cathode which is used to release the electrons and number of anode
cavities and a permanent magnet is placed on the flipside of cathode and the space between the
anode cavity and the cathode is called interacting space.

The electrons which are emitted from the cathode moves in diverse path in the interacting space
depending upon strength of electric and magnetic fields applied to the magnetron.

OPERATION
Depending upon the relative strength of the magnetic and electric field the electrons released from
the cavity move towards the anode will navigate through the interacting space.
• Effect of electric field only

• In the nonexistence of magnetic field (B=0) ,the electrons move directly from the cathode
to the anode due to the radial electric field force acting on it .
• If the magnetic field strength increases vaguely (i.e for moderate value of B),it will apply
a lateral force bending the path of electron .
• If the strength of the electrons is made adequately high enough so as to avert the electrons
from reaching the anode ,the anode current becomes zero.
• The magnetic field required to return electrons back to cathode just gazing the surface of
the anode is called the critical magnetic field or cut-off magnetic field(Bc)
• If the magnetic field is larger than critical Magnetic field(B>Bc),the electrons experiences
a greater rotational force and may return back to cathode quite faster .This results in heating
of cathode.

Effects of magnetic fields only

• The magnetic field is applied perpendicular to electric field hence is is called axial
magnetic field, therefore the magnetrons are called cross field device because of radial
electric field and axial magnetic field are perpendicular to each other.
• If the magnetic field strength is more than the electrons emitted will return back to cathode
with high velocity which may destroy the cathode cavity this effect is called back heating
of cathode.

Combine effect of electric field and magnetic field

• When both fields are existing in that case the electron may have dissimilar path depending
upon the strength of E and H.
• If E>H ,in that case the electrons reach at the anode but the path will be bend because of
small magnetic field.
• If H>E,in this case the electrons return back to the cathode.
MECHANISM OF OSCILLATION IN MAGNETRON ( ∏ mode of Oscillation)

• It is understood that the oscillation are capable of starting a device because of high quality
factor.

Q=fc/BW(For oscillator BW→0,Hence Q→∞)

The self oscillation can be maintained if the phase dissimilarity between anode cavity is N∏/4
and the best result can be obtained for N=4.

Hence, it is called ‘∏’ mode oscillation .

 UNIT –II

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE COPONENTS

1.Wave guide attenuators: An attenuator is a passive device that is used to reduce the strength
or amplitude of the signal. At microwave frequencies these are also used to maintain the
characteristics impedance.
Principle: Microwave Attenuator on the principle of interfering with E –field or H-field or both
the fields. A resistive material is placed in parallel to electric field lines will induce a current in
the material, which will result in I2 R loss. Thus attenuation occurs. The micro wave power is
transferring from one section to another section can be controlled by a device known as.
Types

1. Fixed attenuators 2. Variable attenuator

Fixed attenuator:
These are to attenuate fixed amount of attenuation needed.
Also called PADS. In this a tapered absorbing material
structure inserted in a wave guide also called plug. The plug
is usually dielectric slab.

Variable attenuator:

These are may be in mechanical and electronic form. The mechanical type provides step wise
attenuation, electronic type provides continuous attenuation. The attenuation depends on the depth
of the pad into wave guide, maximum attenuation will be achieved when pad extends totally into
wave guide. They are

(i)Resistive card (flap type) and Slide vane attenuators (ii) Rotary vane attenuator

(i)Resistive card (flap type) and Slide vane attenuators:

These are mechanical type. It consists of a thin tapered resistive card, whose depth pf penetration
is adjustable. The fallowing figure operation and maximum attenuation and minimum attenuation
positions of Resistive card and Slide vane model variable attenuators
The main disadvantage of this type is the attenuation and phase shift are frequency sensitive.

(ii) Rotary vane attenuator:

It is most precision type and frequency independent. It

consists of two rectangular wave guides in between a
circular wave guide. The circular wave guide is made to
rotate, so called rotary type. The arrangement is shown in
figure. All these sections consist of resistive cards. The
signal passes through first wave guide with minimum
attenuation, then enters to circular wave guide. There the EM field divided into vertical and
horizontal components. The horizontal component undergoes strong attenuation; the remaining
vertical component undergoes attenuation in last section i.e rectangular wave guide.

The resistive cards usually εr >1, µr >1 and finite σ.

The attenuation in dB is given by Attenuation = -40 log10 (Cos θ). Where θ is the angle between
E-field at the input and the plane of the resistive card.

Maximum attenuation is when θ= 900

Minimum attenuation is when θ= 00

Multi port junctions:

Microwave junctions are the devices that are used to split or combine microwave power. The
important parts of microwave junctions are ports, arms, and junction regions. Ports are openings
to which the source or load is connected. Arms are pieces of the transmission lines or wave guide
with which the device is fabricated. The junction region is the common space where all the arms
of the device meet each other.

2.Microwave –Junctions:

A 4 – port junction model is shown here. The multi port

junctions used in microwave junctions are

(i) E-plane TEE

(ii) H- plane TEE
(iii) Magic TEE
(iv) Directional couplers

These multi port junction characteristics are analyzed by using s-parameters described in s-
matrix.

S- Parameter representation of a 2-port network. For 2- port

network the input and out puts are related by

𝑏1 = 𝑆11 𝑎1 + 𝑆12 𝑎2
𝑏2 = 𝑆21 𝑎1 + 𝑆22 𝑎2

𝑏𝑖
𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
𝑎𝑗

In matrix form , the above equations are written as

𝑏 𝑆 𝑆12 𝑎1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
𝑏2 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑎2
𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 1 𝑏
𝑆11 = 𝑎1 = 𝑆12 = 𝑎1 =
1 𝑎𝑡
𝑎2 =0 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 1 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑎1 =0
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 1
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 1

𝑏 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 1 𝑏

𝑆21 = 𝑎2 = 𝑆22 = 𝑎2 =
1 𝑎𝑡
𝑎2 =0 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 2 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑎1 =0
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 2
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 2

If the ports are not properly matched with the junction, there will be reflection from junction, back
towards the ports.
The scattering matrix or [S] matrix is defined in relation to these incident and reflected voltage
waves as
The incident waves on all ports except the jth port are set to zero, i.e. all ports should be terminated
in matched load to avoid reflections. Thus, Sii is reflection coefficient at the port 1, when the same
port is exited with incident waves, and rests of the ports are terminated in matched loads.
3.Properties of S- matrix:
i) Scattering matrix is always the square matrix of order of n X n
ii) Under matched condition principle diagonal elements are zero i. e 𝑆𝑖𝑖 = 0
iii) [S] is symmetric matrix for all reciprocal networks, that is [S]=[S]T
iv) If the device is loss less then s matrix is unitary that is [S][S]* =[I]
v) For loss less matrix the dot product any column or row of [S] with the conjugate of that
same column or row is equal to 1
vi) For loss less matrix the dot product any column or row of [S] with the conjugate of
another column or row is equal to 1

4.Calculation of S-matrix for E-plane TEE:

• The E-plane TEE shown in figure,
• E-arm – port 3 and Collinear arms – Port 1 & port
2,
• Due to the plane symmetry of junction, the
scattering coefficients out puts at port 1 & port 2
are 180 out of phase with the input port 3., so that
S23 = -S13
• Due to symmetry Sij =Sji i.e S12=S21, S13=S31, S23=S32
• The port three is perfectly matched, so S33=0
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
• The S-matrix is of the form [𝑆] = [𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 ]
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0
*
From unitary property [S][S] =[I]
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 ∗ 1 0 0
𝑆
[ 12 𝑆22 −𝑆 𝑆
13 ] [ 12 𝑆22 −𝑆 13 ] = [0 1 0]
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 0 0 1
1
On solving 𝑆13 = and 𝑆11 = 𝑆22 = 𝑆12
√2
 1
On solving 𝑆11 = 2
1 1 1
2 2 √2
1 1 −1
There four for E plane TEE the S-matrix is [𝑆] = 2 2 √2
1 −1
[√2 0]
√2
5.Calculation of S-matrix for H-plane TEE:
• The E-plane TEE shown in figure,
• H arm – port 3 and Collinear arms – Port 1 & port 2 ,
• Due to the plane symmetry of junction, the scattering
coefficients out puts at port 1 & port 2 are in same phase
with the input port 3., so that S23 =S13
• Due to symmetry Sij =Sji i.e S12=S21, S13=S31, S23=S32
• The port three is perfectly matched, so S33=0
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
• The S-matrix is of the form [𝑆] = [𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13 ]
𝑆13 𝑆13 0
*
From unitary property [S][S] =[I]
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 ∗ 1 0 0
𝑆
[ 12 𝑆 22 𝑆 𝑆
13 ] [ 12 𝑆22 𝑆13 ] = [0 1 0]
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 𝑆13 𝑆13 0 0 0 1
1
On solving 𝑆13 = and 𝑆11 = −𝑆12
√2
1
On solving 𝑆11 = 2
1 1 1
2 2 √2
1 1 1
There four for H plane TEE the S-matrix is [𝑆] = 2 2 √2
1 1
[√2 0]
√2
6.S-matrix calculation for Magic TEE

• It is 4 port device. So the order of the matrix is 4 X 4.

The s –matrix is of the form 2

• If two waves of equal magnitude and same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2 the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
• If a wave is fed into port 4 it will be divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of the
collinear arms and will not appear at port 3.(H-arm)
• If a wave is fed into port 3 , it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite
phase at port 1 and port 2. the output at port 4 is zero.(E-arm)
• If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 and port 2, it will not appear in
the other collinear arm at port 2 or 1 because the E-arm causes a phase delay while H
arm causes a phase advance. Therefore the S matrix of magic TEE is
 • All the four ports are perfectly matched to junction , so S11=S22=S33=S44=0
• The ports (1)(2) and (3)(4) are perfectly isolated ; that is S12 =S21=S34=S43=0
• It is combination of E-plane TEE (port-3) and H-plane TEE(port- 4) so that
Due to E-plane junction S23= - S13 and due to H-plane junction S41=S14
• The matrix is symmetrical so Sij=Sji the matrix will be

• Using unitary property [S][S]*=[I]

1 1
On solving 𝑆13 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆14 =
√2 √2

Therefore S-matrix will be

7.Directional coupler

The directional coupler is a passive reciprocal four- port network. In this the power incident at
one port is split two other (the coupled and through) ports. And little or no power emerge from the
other port.

Pi: incident power at port 1.

Pr: received power at port 2.

Pf: forward coupled power at port

4.

Pb: back power at port 3.

Directional coupler are built in waveguide assemblies, used to sample a small amount of
microwave power for measurement purposes, and can be either unidirectional on (i.e. measuring
only the incident power) or bi-directional one (measuring both incident power and reflected
power).
 • With matched terminations at all ports, the properties of an ideal directional coupler can be
summarized as follows:
• A portion of power travelling from incident port to received port is coupled to coupling
port but not to isolation port .
• A portion of power travelling from incident port to received port is coupled to isolation
port but not to coupling port (bi-directional case).
• A portion of power incident on isolation port is coupled to receive port but not to incident
port and a portion of power incident on coupling port is coupled to incident port but not to
received port. Also incident and isolated ports are decoupled as are received and coupled
ports.

A Directional Coupler characterized by three parameters

Coupling factor(C):
It is defined as the ratio of the incident power Pi to the forward power Pr measured in dB

.
Directivity, D:
The directivity of a D.C. is defined as the ratio of forward power Pf to the back power Pb, expressed
in dB.

Isolation, I: it is defined to describe the directive properties of a directional coupler. It is defined

as the ratio of incident power Pi to the back power Pb.

Coupling factor is a measure of how much of the incident power is being sampled while directivity
is the measure of how well the directional coupler distinguishes between the forward and reverse
travelling powers.
Isolation in dB is equal to the coupling factor plus directivity.
11.Ferrite Components:

These components are based on the principle of Faraday Rotation. The principle is if a linearly
polarized wave is made to pass through a ferrite rod and if it is
influenced by the magnetic field, the axis of polarization gets
tilted in clockwise direction. This is because the frequency of
microwave energy is much greater than the electron wobble
frequency. This is known as the Faraday rotation effect. The
tilt is based on the strength of magnetic field and geometry of
ferrite.

𝑙
The phase shift of resultant wave = (β+ - β-)
2
𝐸𝑦 𝑙
The angle of tilt is θ= arctan( ) = −(𝛽 − 𝛽 − )
+
𝐸𝑥 2
where β+ and β- are phase constant of Ex and Ey , l is length of Ferrite

Examples for ferrite components are: Gyrator, Isolator, and Circulator.

12.GYRATOR:

A gyrator is a passive, linear, lossless, two-port electrical network element having a relative phase
difference of 1800 when wave is transmitting from Port-1 to Port -2, and
00 when transmitting from port-2 to port-1.

It has circular wave guide, which changes over rectangular wave

guide at both ends. A ferrite rod which caused required polarization.
The plane of polarization of incident wave rotates by 900
because of wave guide’s twist. The wave again experiences a
faraday rotation of 900. So the wave coming from port 2 will
have a total phase shift of 1800 with respect to input at port-1.
In the same way a signal which is incident at port 2 experiences
a faraday rotation of 900 in anti-clock direction. It again rotates
back by 900 because of twist in the wave guide. So the resultant
phase shift when comes out of port -1 is 00. That is the wave comes out from port-2 is 1800
phase shift with respect to input at port-1. And the wave comes out from port 1 is no phase
shift with respect to input at port-2

13.ISOLATOR

An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one component from reflections
of other components in the transmission line. An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for
propagation in one direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction.

Thus the isolator is usually called uniline. Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability
of microwave generators, such as klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load
affects the generating frequency
In such cases, the isolator placed between the generator and load prevents the reflected power from the
unmatched load from returning to the generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency
stability of the generator. Isolators can be constructed in many ways.
Faraday rotation based Isolator:
The insulator consist of a piece of circular wave
guide with transitions to a standard rectangular
guide. It consist a ferrite material as shown in
figure, the setup surrounded by permanent magnet.
Two resistive cards are placed at input (port-1 )
and output (port-2) in parallel.
The incident wave made in perpendicular to the
resistive card, so minimum attenuation. The twist
causes a phase shift of 450, due to ferrite -450.
So the at there is no variation in face.
If any signal incidence at port 2(output) .
ferrite offers 450, the twist offer another 450.
So that at resistive cards it will be in parallel
with resistive card, causes complete
component loss. Thus it has power flow in
only one way direction
14.CIRCULATOR:
• A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only from
the nth port to the (n + l) th port in one direction
• There is no restriction on the number of ports; it is unilateral device; i.e. Power flow in only one
direction.
• It is a nonreciprocal device in which the ports are arranged in such a way that the EM wave which
entering in certain port is coupled to next port only but not coupled to other ports.
• A signal applied to port-1 emerges from port-2 with a loss if all ports of circulator are matched.
This loss is called insertion loss (IL). A small part of the input signal emerges from port 3.
Assuming that port 2 is terminated by matched load Isolation, the ratio of that emerging signal to
the input signal is called isolation (I)
𝑃
𝐼𝐿 (𝑑𝐵 ) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 𝑖𝑛1
𝑜𝑢𝑡2

𝑃0𝑢𝑡3
𝐼𝐿 (𝑑𝐵 ) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃𝑖𝑛2
• The main application of circulator is in connection with multiple isolation in radars
 UNIT – III

Objective:
• To familiarize the operation of different solid state devices.
• To introduce the concept of measurement of different microwave parameters using
microwave bench.

Outcomes:
Students will be able to
➢ Understand the operation of solid state devices
➢ Measure the microwave parameters like attenuation, power, frequency and VSWR
1.GUNN-EFFECT DIODES — GaAs DIODE:
Gunn-effect diodes are named after J. B. Gunn, who in 1963 discovered periodic fluctuations of current
passing through the n-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) specimen when the applied voltage exceeded a certain
critical value.

Gunn Effect

A schematic diagram of a uniform n-type GaAs diode with ohmic contacts at the end surfaces is shown in
the figure. GUNN DIODE J. B. Gunn observed the Gunn Effect in the n-type GaAs bulk diode in 1963, an
effect best exp1ained by Gunn himself, who published several papers about his observations. He stated in
his first paper that: Above some critical voltage, corresponding to an electric field of 2000-4000 volts/cm,
the current in every specimen became a fluctuating function of time. In the GaAs specimens, this fluctuation
took the form of a periodic oscillation superimposed upon the pulse current. The frequency of oscillation is
determined mainly by the specimen, and not by the external circuit. The period of oscillation was usually
inversely proportional to the specimen length and closely equal to the transit time of electrons between the
electrodes, calculated from their estimated velocity of slightly over 107 cm/s.

From Gunn’s observation the carrier drift velocity is linearly increased from zero to a maximum when the
electric field is varied from zero to a threshold value. When the electric field is beyond the threshold value
of 3000 V/cm for the n-type GaAs, the drift velocity is decreased and the diode exhibit negative resistance.
This situation is shown in the figure.
2.RIDLEY-WATKINS-HILSUM (RWH} THEORY:

• The fundamental concept of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory is the differ- ential negative
resistance developed in a bulk solid-state III-V compound when either a voltage (or electric field)
or a current is applied to the terminals of the sample. There are two modes of negative-resistance
devices: voltage-controlled and current- controlled modes
• In the voltage-controlled mode the current density can be multi valued, whereas in the current-
controlled mode the voltage can be multi valued. The major effect of the appearance of a differential
negative-resistance region in the current- density-field curve is to render the sample electrically
unstable.
• As a result, the initially homogeneous sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in an attempt to
reach stability. In the voltage-controlled negative-resistance mode high-field do- mains are formed,
separating two low-field regions. The interfaces separating low- and high-field domains lie along
equipotentials; thus they are in planes perpendicular to the current direction

3.Two-Valley Model Theory:

• Some bulk semiconductor materials such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphate
(InP) and cadmium telluride (CdTe), have two closely spaced energy bands in the
conduction band. A typical energy versus momentum band structure is shown in figure.
• At low electric field strengths in the material, most of the electrons will be located in the
lower energy band. At high electric field strengths, most of the electrons will be transferred
into the high-energy band.
• In the high-energy band the effective electron mass is larger and hence the electron mobility
is lower than what it is in the low-energy band.
• Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility, there is an intermediate
range of electric field strengths for which the fraction of electrons that are transferred into
the high-energy low-mobility conduction band is such that the average mobility, and hence
conductivity, decreases with an increase in electric field strength.
• Thus there is a range of applied voltages over which the current decreases with increasing
voltage and a negative incremental resistance is displayed by the device. A typical current-
voltage characteristic for a Gunn device is shown in figure below.
 When a sufficiently high field E is applied to the specimen, electrons are accelerated and
their effective temperature rises above the lattice temperature. Further- more, the lattice
temperature also increases. Thus electron density n and mobility µ are both functions of
electric field E. Differentiation of Eq. (7-2-2) with respect to E yields

Clearly, for negative resistance, the current density J must decrease with increasing field E
or the ratio of dJ/dE must be negative. Such would be the case only if the right-hand term
of Eq. (7-2-9) is less than zero. In other words, the condition for negative resistance is

High-Field Domain:
• When the applied voltage is above the threshold value, which was measured at about 3000 V/cm
times the thickness of the GaAs diode, a high-field domain is formed near the cathode that reduces
the electric field in the rest of the material and causes the current to drop to about two-thirds of its
maximum value.
• Specifically, it is assumed that at point A on the J-E plot as shown in Fig. 7-2-9(b) there exists an
excess (or accumulation) of negative charge that could be caused by a random noise fluctuation or
possibly by a permanent nonuniformity in doping in the n-type GaAs diode.
• An electric field is then created by the accumulated charges as shown in Fig. 7-2-9(d ). The field to
the left of point A is lower than that to the right. If the diode is biased at point EA on the J-E curve,
this situation implies that the carriers (or current) flowing into point A are greater than those flowing
out of point A, thereby increasing the excess negative space charge at A.
• Further- more, when the electric field to the left of point A is lower than it was before, the field to
the right is then greater than the original one, resulting in an even greater space-charge accumulation.
• This process continues until the low and high fields both reach values outside the differential
negative-resistance region and settle at points I and 2 in Fig. 7-2-9(a) where the currents in the two
field regions are equal.
• As a result of this process, a traveling space-charge accumulation is formed. This process, of course,
depends on the condition that the number of electrons inside the crystal is large enough to allow the
necessary amount of space charge to be built up during the transit time of the space-charge layer.
• When positive and negative charges are separated by a small distance, then a dipole domain is
formed as shown in Fig. 7-2-10. The electric field inside the dipole domain would be greater than
the fields on either side of the dipole in Fig. 7-2-lO(c).
• Because of the negative differential resistance, the current in the low-field side would be greater
than that in the high-field side.
• The two field values will tend toward equilibrium conditions outside the differential negative-
resistance region, where the low and high currents are the same as described in the previous section.
Then the dipole field reaches a stable condition and moves through the specimen toward the anode.
When the high-field domain disappears at the anode, a new dipole field starts forming at the cathode
and the process is repeated.
1. A domain will start to form whenever the electric field in a region of the sample increases above
the threshold electric field and will drift with the carrier stream through the device.When the electric
field increases, the electron drift velocity decreases and the GaAs diode exhibits negative resistance.
2. If additional voltage is applied to a device containing a domain, the domain will increase in size
and absorb more voltage than was added and the current will decrease.
3. A domain will not disappear before reaching the anode unless the voltage is dropped appreciably
below threshold (for a diode with uniform doping and area).
4. The formation of a new domain can be prevented by decreasing the voltage slightly below
threshold (in a non resonant circuit).
5. A domain will modulate the current through a device as the domain passes through regions of
different doping and cross-sectional area, or the domain may disappear. The effective doping may
be varied in regions along the drift path by additional contacts.
6. The domain's length is generally inversely proportional to the doping; thus devices with the same
product of doping multiplied by length will behave similarly in terms of frequency multiplied by
length, voltage/length, and efficiency.
7. As a domain passes a point in the device, the domain can be detected by a capacitive contact,
since the voltage changes suddenly as the domain passes. The presence of a domain anywhere in a
device can be detected by a decreased current or by a change in differential impedance.
4.Criterion for Classifying the Modes of Operation
The Gunn-effect diodes are basically made from an n-type GaAs, with the concentrations of free
electrons ranging from 1014 to 1017 per cubic centimeter at room temperature. Its typical
dimensions are 150 x 150 µm in cross section and 30 µm long.
• Gunn described the behaviour of Gunn oscillators under several circuit configurations.
When the circuit is mainly resistive or the voltage across the diode is constant, the period of
oscillation is the time required for the domain to drift from the cathode to the anode. This
mode is not actually typical of microwave applications. Negative conductivity devices are
usually operated in resonant circuits, such as high-Q resonant microwave cavities. When
the diode is in a resonance circuit, the frequency can be tuned to a range of about an octave
without loss of efficiency.
• As described previously, the normal Gunn domain mode (or Gunn oscillation mode) is
operated with the electric field greater than the threshold field (E > Eth). The high-field
domain drifts along the specimen until it reaches the anode or until the low field value drops
below the sustaining field Es required to maintain as shown in the figure. The sustaining
drift velocity for GaAs is vs = 107 cm/s. Since the electron drift velocity υ varies with the
electric field, there are three possible domain modes for the Gunn oscillation mode.
• Transmit time domain mode (fL ≈ 107 cm/s): When the electron drift velocity is equal to
the sustaining velocity vs , the high-field domain is stable. In other words, the electron drift
velocity is given by vd = vs = fL ≈ 107 cm/s. Then the oscillation period is equal so the transit
time--that is, τo = τt. This situation is shown in figure below (a). The efficiency is below
10% because the current is collected only when the domain arrives at the anode.
• Delayed domain mode (106 cm/s < fL < 107 cm/s): When the transit time is chosen so that
the domain is collected While E < Eth as shown in figure (b), a new domain cannot form
until the field rises above threshold again. In this case, the oscillation period is greater than
the transit time that is, τo > τt. This delayed mode is also called inhibited mode. The
efficiency of this mode is about 20%.
• Quenched domain mode (fL > 2 x 107 cm/s): If the bias field drops below the sustaining
field Es during the negative half-cycle as shown in figure (c), the domain collapses before
it reaches the anode. Then the bias field swings back above threshold, a new domain is
nucleated and the process repeats. Therefore the oscillations occur at the frequency of the
resonant circuit rather than at the transit-time frequency. It has been found that the resonant
frequency of the circuit is several times the transit-time frequency, since one dipole does
not have enough time to readjust and absorb the voltage of the other dipoles. Theoretically,
the efficiency of quenched domain oscillators can reach 13%.
 5.IMPATT DIODE:
Impatt diodes are manufactured having different forms such as n+pip+, p+nin+, p+nn+ abrupt junction
and p+ i n+ diode configuration. The material used for manufacture of these modes is either
Germanium, Silicon, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or Indium Phosphide (In P). Out of these materials,
highest efficiency, higher operating frequency and lower noise is obtained with GaAs. But the
disadvantage with GaAs is complex fabrication process and hence higher cost. The figure below shows
a reverse biased n+ pi p+ diode with electric field variation, doping concentration versus distance plot,
the microwave voltage swing and the current variation.
PRINICPLE OF OPERATION:
• When a reverse bias voltage exceeding the breakdown voltage is applied, a high electric field
appears across the n+ p junction. This high field intensity imparts sufficient energy to the
valence electrons to raise into the conduction band.
• This results in an avalanche multiplication of hole-electron pairs. With suitable doping profile
design, it is possible to make electric field to have a very sharp peak in the close vicinity of the
junction resulting in "impact avalanche multiplication".
• This is a cumulative process resulting in rapid increase of carrier density. To prevent the diode
from burning, a constant bias source is used to maintain average current at safe limit 10.
• The diode current is contributed by the conduction electrons which move to the n+ region and
the associated holes which drift through the steady field and ac field. The diode wings into and
out of avalanche conditions under the influence of that reverse bias steady field and the ac field.
• Due to the drift time of holes being' small, carriers drift to the end contacts before the ac voltage
swings the diode out of the avalanche Due to building up of oscillations, the ac field takes
energy from the applied bias lid the oscillations at microwave frequencies are sustained across
the diode. Due to this ac field, the hole current grows exponentially to a maximum and again
decays exponentially to Zero.
• During this hole drifting process, a constant electron current is induced in the external Circuit
which starts flowing when hole current reaches its peak and continues for half cycle
Corresponding to negative swing of the ac voltage as shown in figure Thus a 180 degrees Phase
shift between the external current and ac microwave voltage provides a negative Resistance for
sustained oscillations.
 UNIT-IV

1.Microwave Bench Setup

• Electrical measurements encountered in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum

are discussed through microwave measurement techniques. This measurement technique is vastly
different from that of the more conventional techniques. The methods are based on the wave
character of high frequency currents rather than on the low frequency technique of direct
determination of current or voltage
• The micro wave test bench incorporates a range of instruments capable of allowing all types of
measurements that are usually required for a microwave engineer .The bench is capable of being
assembled or disassembled in a number of ways to suit individual experiments .A general block
diagram of the test bench comprising its different units and ancillaries are shown above.
• Microwave source generates the microwave signal. The source may be reflex klystron oscillator
or gunn diode.
• Isolator: This un attenuated device permits un attenuated transmission in one direction (forward
direction) but provides very high attenuation in the reverse direction {backward direction). This
is generally used between the source and rest of the set up to avoid overloading of the source due
to reflected power
• Variable Attenuator: The device that attenuates the signal is termed as attenuator. Attenuators
are categorized into two categories namely, the fixed attenuators and variable attenuators. The
attenuator used in the microwave set is of variable type. The variable attenuator consists of a strip
of absorbing material which is arranged in such a way that its profusion into the guide is adjustable.
Hence, the signal power to be fed to the microwave set up can be set at the desired level.
• Frequency Meter: It is basically a cavity resonator. The method of measuring frequency is to use
a cavity where the size can be varied and it will resonate at a particular frequency for given size.
Cavity is attached to a guide having been excited by a certain microwave source and is tuned to
its resonant frequency. It sucks up some signal from the guide to maintain its stored energy. Thus
if a power meter had been monitoring the signal power at the resonating condition of the cavity it
will indicate a sharp dip. The tuning of the cavity is achieved by a micrometer screw and a curve
of frequency versus screw setting is provided. The screw setting at which the power indication dip
is noted and the frequency is read from the curve
• Slotted Section: To sample the field with in a wave guide, a narrow longitudinal slot with ends
tapered to provide smoother impedance transformation and thereby providing minimum
mismatch, is milled on the top of broader dimension of wave guide. Such section is known as
slotted wave guide section. The slot is generally so many wave lengths long to allow many minima
of standing wave pattern to be covered. The slot location is such that its presence does not
influence the field configurations to any great degree. On this Section a probe inserted with in a
holder, is mounted on a movable carriage. The output is connected to detector and indicating
meter. For detector tuning a tuning plunger is provided instead of a stub.
 • Matched Load: The microwave components which absorb all power falling on them are matched
loads. These consist of wave guide sections of definite length having tapered resistive power
absorbing materials. The matched loads are essentially used to test components and circuits for
maximum power transfer.
• Short Circuit Termination: Wave guide short circuit terminations provide standard reflection at
any desired, precisely measurable positions. The basic idea behind it is to provide short circuit by
changing reactance of the terminations.
• VSWR meter: Direct-reading VSWR meter is a low-noise tuned amplifier voltmeter calibrated
in db and VSWR for use with square law detectors. A typical SWR meter has a standard tuned
frequency of 100-Hz, which is of course adjustable over a range of about 5 to 10 per cent, for exact
matching in the source modulation frequency. Clearly the source of power to be used while using
SWR meter must be giving us a 1000-Hz square wave modulated output. The band width
facilitates single frequency measurements by reducing noise while the widest setting
accommodates a sweep rate fast enough for oscilloscope presentation. For precise attenuation
measurements, a high accuracy 60 db attenuator is included with an expand offset feature that
allows any 2 db range to be expanded to full scale for maximum resolution. Both crystal and
bolometer may be used in conjunction with the SWR meter. There is provision for high (2,500-
10,000 ohm) and low (50-200 ohm) impedance crystal inputs. This instrument is the basic piece
of equipment in microwave measuring techniques and is used in measuring voltage peaks valleys,
attenuation, gain and other parameters determined by the ratio of two signals.
• Crystal Detector: The simplest and the most sensitive detecting element is a microwave crystal.
It is a nonlinear, non reciprocal device which rectifies the received signal and produces a current
proportional to the power input. Since the current flowing through the crystal is proportional to
the square of voltage, the crystal is rejoined to as a square law detector. The square law detection
property of a crystal is valid at a low power levels (10 mw), the crystal gradually becomes a linear
detector.

2.Microwave power measurement

To measure power at high frequencies from 500 MHz to 40 GHz two special type of absorption
meters are popularly used. These meters are, 1. Calorimeter power meter 2. Bolometer power meter Both
these meters use the sensing of heating effects caused by the power signal to be measured.
Bolometer method:
• The Bolometer power meter basically consists of a bridge called Bolometer bridge. One of the
arms of this bridge consists of a temperature sensitive resistor. The basic bridge used in
Bolometer power meter is shown in the Fig. The high frequency power input is applied to the
temperature sensitive resistor RT. The power is absorbed by the resistor and gets heated due to
the high frequency power input signal.
• This heat generated causes change in the resistance RT. This change in resistance is measured
with the help of bridge circuit which is proportional to the power to be measured.
• The most common type of temperature sensitive resistors are the thermistor and barretter. The
thermistor is a resistor that has large but negative temperature coefficient. It is made up of a
semiconductor material. Thus its resistance decreases as the temperature increases. The barrette
consists of short length of fine wire or thin film having positive temperature coefficient. Thus
its resistance increases as the temperature increases. The barrettes are very delicate while
thermistors are rugged. The bolometer power meters are used to measure radio frequency power
in the range 0.1 to 10 mw.
 • In modern bolometer power meter set up uses the differential amplifier and bridge an oscillator
which oscillates at a particular amplitude when bridge is unbalanced. The modern bolometer
power meter circuit is shown in the Fig.8.15. Initially when temperature sensitive resistor is
cold, bridge is almost balance. With d.c. bias, exact balance is achieved.
• When power input at high frequency is applied to RT, it absorbs power and gets heated. Due to
this its resistance changes causing bridge unbalance. This unbalance is in the direction opposite
to that of initial cold resistance. Due to this, output from the oscillator decreases to achieve
bridge balance. The electronic voltmeter measures the power decrease from oscillator. It
indicates this as an increase in power due to high frequency power input.
• Basically a bolometer is very short thin wire. A wire with positive temperature coefficient of
resistance is called Baretter. Similarly a wire with negative temperature coefficient of resistance
is called thermistor. Both are able to measure small power of the order of microwatts

Measurement of medium power:

• Medium power is in the range of 10mW to 10W. Such powers can be measured by
calorimetric technique. The principle is very simple wherein the temperature rise of a
special load is monitored which is proportional to the power responsible for the rise.
• The special load must necessarily have high specific heat. Water happens to be a good load.
Alternately rate of temperature rise with a fixed quantity of fluid also can be adopted for
measurement of power.
• The normally used method is the self balancing bridge technique. It consist of identical
temperature sensitive resistors or gauges in two arms, an indicating meter and two load
resistors. The input load resistor senses the unknown input microwave power and the
comparison head is associated with the comparison power.
• The input load power and input temperature gauge are placed close to each other so that
the heat generated in the input load resistor raises the temperature of the gauge.
• This results in unbalancing the bridge. The signal due to the imbalance is amplified and
then applied to the comparison load resistor which is placed closer to the comparison
gauge.
 • Hence the heat generated in comparison load resistor is transferred to its gauge and the
bridge is rebalanced.
• The meter measures the amount of power that is supplied to the comparison load in order
to rebalance the bridge. It can be calibrated directly in terms of input microwave power.

3.Attenuation measurement

The amount of attenuation can be measured by two methods

1. Power ratio method
2. RF substitution method
Power ratio method:
• This method involves measuring the input power and output power with and without the
device whose attenuation is to be measured as shown in set up.
• The powers are measured in each set up as P1 and P2. The ratio of powers P1/P2 expressed
in decibels give the attenuation.

RF substitution method:

• The method consists of measuring the output power say ‘P’ by including the
network whose attenuation is to be measured in setup 1.
• In setup 2 this network is replaced by a precision calibrated attenuator which can
be adjusted to obtain the same power ‘P’ as measured in setup 1.

4.Microwave Frequency measurement

5.Microwave VSWR measurement
6. Precautions of Microwave bench:
• Connections among the components should done tightly to avoid the leakage.
• The source should be isolated from the load to prevent the damage of source due to
reflected power.
• While using klystron higher input voltages should be avoided.
• Impedance matching has to be provided to avoid mismatching.
• Never look into the open end of the waveguide.
• Micro power source should be turned off while assembling or dissembling the
components.
• The Selected Coaxial line should be suitable for desired frequency.