Chapter 1 Introduction of foundation

1.1 Foundation
Foundation is a part of structure which interfaces the superstructure to the adjacent zone of soil
or rock below it. The purpose of having a foundation is to transfer the superstructure loads to
the underlying soil or rock without overstressing the soil or rock.
The importance of a foundation in a structure is a major consideration in the construction
of any building, whether it is intended for residential, commercial and industrial purposes. The
load of the structure is the primary consideration in the design.
The type of foundation of any structure depends upon the soil type. It's always a challenge for
Geo technical Engineers to investigate the soil type and suggest the optimum design for
foundation. As we all know the strength of the building depends upon the foundation and which
again depends upon the soil strata on which they are resting, so soil play's a vital role in
deciding the type of foundation for the structure. it's always a challenge to design foundation
in black cotton and sandy soils, there are some places where you wont get any friction or end
bearing to rest the footing, there we have to first strengthen the soil before designing for
foundation, by strengthening means increasing the soil SBC so that the soil is suitable for the
footing.
1.2 Requirement of good foundation
The three basic requirements of a satisfactory foundation
 The foundation must be properly located with respect to any future influences which
could affect its performances.
 The foundation, including the soil below it, must be stable and safe from failure.
 The foundation must not settle sufficiently to damage the structure.
 The foundations should sustain the dead and imposed loads and transmit these to the
sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would impair
the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
 The base of the foundation should be rigid so that differential settlements are
minimized, specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
 Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or
distress caused by swelling shrinkage of the sub-soil.
 Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.

1.3 Types of Foundation

The types of foundation used can be classified into 2 categories that are shallow and deep
foundations. Shallow foundations are used when the soil formation has adequate strength for a
safe bearing support. However, if the soil has lower shear strength or is highly compressible,
shallow foundations may not be a suitable option. Under such circumstances, deep foundation
may be used. The loads will be transmitted to a greater depth or to a stiffer stratum or to rock
by deep foundation.

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I.3.1 Shallow Foundation
Shallow foundations are used to transmit the loads of the superstructure to the adjacent soil
below it Foundation depth usually involves depth, measured from the terrain surface, to the
base surface through which the foundation transfers the structure load to the soil. According
to code, shallow foundations are considered to be bases whose width is greater than the depth
of foundation (D <B). Shallow foundation is applied in cases where the good load-bearing
soil is at a relatively low depth.

The foundation depth must meet the safety requirements of the breakdown, whereby after the
load application, the complete structure settlement will be within acceptable limits.
Foundation depth is also conditioned by local climate conditions. The minimum value
depends on the depth of the freezing soil, which is defined by the lowest temperature in the
shade for the return period of 50 years. During soil freezing, the water is attracted to the
frozen area from a greater depth so the foundation cavity must be below the freezing depth

FIGURE 1.3.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION

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1.3.2 Deep foundation
When depth is equal to or greater than its width, the foundation is termed as deep foundation
Poor soil conditions at shallow depth, huge design loads, and site constraints such as property
lines can make a deep foundation a better option than one that is shallow. Deep foundations
carry building loads to more competent strata that are down too far below the ground level,
preventing the surface conditions from affecting their base bearing capacity. They usually go
beyond 3 meters below the finished ground surface.

Or

A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther
down from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of
depths. A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled
deep into the ground at the building site.
. There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including the
pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a column), drilled shafts,
and caissons. Piles are generally driven into the ground in situ; other deep foundations are
typically put in place using excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may vary between
engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out
of timber, steel, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.

FIGURE 1.3.2 DEEP FOUNDATION

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1.4 Foundation Selection
The selection of suitable foundation is the most important part of design process but he most
difficult to define. The selection process involves the consideration of the type, nature and
availability of the information required, its collection and its validity. The selection is
governed by many factors which include sub-soil conditions, past site usage, adjacent
construction, size and scale of development proposal, timescale and cost limitation. The
selection process will be based on the site information obtained in the following list, which is
not presented in any significant order.
a) History of the site

b) Soil qualities

c) The effect of water table

d) Chemical properties of soil

e) Access to site

f) Condition of existing structures

g) Site contours and vegetation

h) Acceptable settlements and movement

i) Availability of materials

j) Proposed superstructures requirement

k) Foundation of adjoining buildings

l) Nature of proposed works

m) Future development and extension

n) Amount of loads supported

o) The variation of pressure and loading with time

p) The effect of removal of overburden

q) The possibility of errors in information received

r) The costs of materials and labour A Study of Building Foundations in INDIA

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 Chapter 2 Shallow foundation
2.1 Shallow foundation
We also discuss that shallow foundation previous chapter Shallow foundations, often
called footings, are situated beneath the lowest part of the structure. A footing is the first
constructed element of a structure which is built after excavating the ground. In general, the
depth of a shallow foundation is less than its width.

Shallow foundations are commonly used as they are the most economical foundation system
and are relatively easy to construct. A careful investigation of the foundation site and detailed
information of the subsurface stratum is necessary to design the foundation and avoid any
future degradation of the foundation performance.

Shallow foundations must meet certain design requirements:

 Safety against bearing capacity, i.e., shear strength exceedance of the underlying soil;

 Control of the excessive settlements that can be damaging to the overlying structure, or
affect functionality.

2.2 Type of shallow foundation

I. Spread footing foundation

II. Combined footing foundation
III. Strap foundation
IV. Raft or mat foundation

2.3 Spread footing foundation

A spread footing foundation, which is common in residential buildings, has a wider bottom
portion than the load-bearing foundation walls it supports. This wider part "spreads" the weight
of the structure over more area for greater stability.

The design and layout of spread footings is controlled by several factors, foremost of which is
the weight (load) of the structure it must support, penetration of soft near-surface layers, and
penetration through near-surface layers likely to change volume due to frost heave or shrink-
swell.These foundations are common in residential construction that includes a basement,
andin many commercial structures. But for high rise buildings they are not sufficient.

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2.3.1 Type of spread footing foundation
 Single footing for a column:
Single footings are used to support single columns. This is one of the most economical
types of footings and is used when columns are spaced at relatively long distances
 Stepped footing for a column:
Stepped footing is simply type of isolated footing provided over soil having less
bearing capacity.
 Sloped footing for a column:
Sloped footings are trapezoidal footings. They are done with great care to see that the
top slope of 45 degree is maintained from all sides. When compared the
trapezoidal footing with the flat footing the usage of concrete is less. Thus, it reduces
the cost of footing in concrete as well as reinforcement
 Wall footing without steps or with step
Wall footings carrying direct vertical loads might be designed either in plain concrete
or in reinforced concrete

.
 Grillage foundation
The grillage foundation consists of two or more tiers of beams laid at right angles to
distribute the load over a large area. This type of foundation is generally used for heavy
structure columns piers and stanchions.

FIGURE 2.3.1 GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

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2.4 Combined footing
Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they are close to each other
and their foundations overlap.

Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as

 When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings

 Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings

 Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building column.

FIGURE 2.4 COMBINED FOOTING WITH LOAD

2.4.1 Types of Combined Footing

 The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan.

 The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centeroid of the footing area
coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in uniform pressure below
the entire area of footing.
 Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the other. As
a result, the both projections of footing beyond the faces of the columns will be
restricted.
 Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing is restricted
or the width of the footing is restricted

FIGURE 2.4.1 TYPE OF COMBINED FOOTING

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2.4.2 Rectangular combined footing
 Longitudinally, the footing acts as an upward loaded beam spanning between columns
and cantilevering beyond. Using statics, the shear force and bending moment diagrams
in the longitudinal direction are drawn. Moment is checked at the faces of the column.
Shear force is critical at distance‘d’ from the faces of columns or at the point of contra
flexure. Two-way shear is checked under the heavier column.

 The footing is also subjected to transverse bending and this bending is spread over a
transverse strip near the column.

FIGURE 2.4.2 CROSS SECTION OF COMBINED FOOTING

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2.4.3 Strap footing
A strap footing is a component of a building’s foundation. It is a type of combined footing,
consisting of two or more column footings connected by a concrete beam. This type of beam
is called a strap beam. It is used to help distribute the weight of either heavily or eccentrically
loaded column footings to adjacent footings

A strap footing is often used in conjunction with columns that are located along a building’s
property or lot line. Typically, columns are centre on column footings, but in conditions
where columns are located directly adjacent to the property line, the column footings may be
offset so that they do not encroach onto the adjacent property. This results in an eccentric
load on a portion of the footing, causing it to tilt to one side. The strap beam restrains the
tendency of the footing to overturn by connecting it to nearby footings.

A strap footing is often used in conjunction with columns that are located along a building's
property or lot line.

FIGURE 2.4.3 STRAP FOOTING

2.5 Mat foundation

Raft foundation is a type of shallow foundation that is made with dense reinforced concrete
slab covering the total area of the bottom of a structure. Raft foundation is also known as mat
foundation. It is a large spread footing that supports most of the structure loads. A raft
foundation spreads the structural load over a large area to reduce the bearing pressure. It is
more rigid and thus reduces the potential for excessive differential settlements. Raft has greater
weight and is able to resist greater uplift loads. It distributes lateral loads into the soil more
evenly and efficiently. Since most of the structures require a ground floor slab, it is economic
to incorporate it with the foundation into one element. The combination of floor ground slab
and the foundation can be done by making the upper surface of the raft foundation coincides
with the top surface of the floor slab. The raft slab is projected at a distance of 30 cm to 40 cm
on every side of the outer walls of a structure. Thus the area of excavation

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 FIGURE 2.5. MAT FOUNDATION

2.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF MATT FOUNDATION

 Raft foundation can be suitably used in difficult site conditions. It is mostly preferred
for the erratic, soft and marshy sites. It bridges the erratic deposits and reduces the
differential settlement.

 The intensity of pressure on the foundation soil is considerably decreased due to the
distribution of total load over a large

 The load is uniformly distributed on the entire foundation area.

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 Chapter 3 Deep foundation
3.1 Deep foundation
If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width of footing, it is known as the deep
Foundation. Deep Foundation is used Where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low. The
load coming from the superstructure is further transmitted vertically to the soil. There are many
reasons that a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow
foundation, such as for a skyscraper. Some of the common reasons are very large design loads,
a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints like property lines.

Types of deep Foundation

 Pile Foundation

 Pier Foundation

 Well Foundation

3.2 Pile Foundation

In this type of foundation, the load is is known as a pile. These piles are generally made of
steel, concrete and wooden. These days precast members are used but we can create these
members on site as well. transmitted by a vertical member. This vertical member

FIGURE 3.2 PILE FOUNDATION

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Classification of pile Foundation
 According to function
 According to material

3.2.1. According to function

It is subdivided into two types they are as follow
Bearing piles
Friction piles
(A) Bearing pile
They are driven till hard Strata or layer of Rock beds. The load is transmitted by columns to
the hard layer of soil.

(B) Friction pile

These piles are used where the soil is soft at a considerable depth. The load is transferred to the
soft soil due to the friction produced between the soft soil which is in contact with these piles.

FIGURE 3.2.1 BEARING & FRICTION PILE

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3.2.2 According to material
It is further divided into four types they are as follows
 Concrete pile
 Wooden pile or Timber pile
 Steel pile
 Composite pile

(A) Concrete pile

FIGURE 3.2.2(A) CONCRETE PILE

The piles which are made with the help of concrete are known as concrete piles. The diameter of these
pile varies from 30 to 50 cm. Minimum length of these pile is not taken less than meters
Concrete piles are manufactured by following two types
 Precast (Ready Made)
 Cast in situ
(a) Precast (Ready Made)
These piles are manufactured in the factory which is further transported to the construction site
where ever it is required. These piles can bare load up to 800 KN.

Advantages of precast piles

 It saves our time as these piles are ready to install.
 By using these piles the construction is done at greater speed.
 For these piles, deep excavation is not required.
 Disadvantages of Precast Piles
 These concrete piles are costly.
 As these precast members are prepared in a factory and then they are transported to the
construction site the transportation charges are also added which increases the ultimate
cost of these piles.

(b) Cast-in-situ
These piles are made or manufactured on site where it is to be installed. So it saves money as
the transportation cost is reduced. These files bare load up to 750 KN.

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(B) Wooden or Timber piles
As the name suggests these piles are made up of wooden so they are known as wooden or
Timber piles. For these piles, seasonal Timber wood is used. The diameter of the timber pile
varies in between 20 to 50 cm. Length of a pipe is taken 20 times that of its diameter. (For
Example – 25 cm is its diameter. Then, L = 20 x 25 = 500 cm). The maintenance cost of these
pies is more because as it is wood if it comes in contact with water then it can be damaged by
fungus or white ants. So care has to be taken.

FIGURE 3.2.2 (B) WOODEN PILES

(C) Steel piles
These files are generally in shape of ‘I’ or hollow section. It can be easily driven in the soil
because it has a very small cross-sectional area. These piles can be used as a bearing pile but
cannot be used as friction piles because if we use them as a friction pile it can sunk in the soil
due to structural load

Figure 3.2.2 (C) STEEL PILES

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(D) Composite pile
When the piles are made from more than one material they are known as composite pile. These
piles are made from concrete and wood. These piles are used in those areas where the water
table is up. These piles are used in such conditions just because concrete and wood both are
good water absorbers.

Advantages of Pile Foundation

 Use of these piles can save time.
 They are very much economical.
 By using this pile system it reduces the needed excavation.
 Pumping of water is not required as we are not excavating much in soil.

3.3 Pier Foundation

A pier Foundation is a vertical column of relatively larger cross-section than a pile. The load
coming from the superstructure is carried to the hard strata through these vertical columns.
They are generally cast on site. A pier is installed in dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole.
If the diameter is greater than 0.6 m or equal to 0.6 meters then it is termed as a pier.

Figure 3.3. PIER FOUNDATION

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3.3.1 Types of Pier Foundation
 Masonry or concrete pier.
 Drilled caissons.

(A). Masonry or concrete pier

FIGURE 3.3.1(A) MASONARY PIER

This type of footing is chosen when the depth of the hard strata is at 5 meters or less than 5
meter. Also, this type of footing is done when not much heavy load is coming from the
superstructure. The masonry work is done by brick or concrete. The size of excavation
depends upon the level at which hard strata exists. The size and shape of these masonry or
concrete pier depend upon the level of hard strata is present.

(B) Drilled Caissons

Figure 3.3.1 (B) DRILLED CAISSION

They are mainly in a cylindrical shape so they are also known as cylindrical foundations.
Distribution for drilled caissons is generally carried out by drilling process. This foundation
work as a compression member. The lord acted on top of these members, so we can say that
they are subjected to axial load and which is further transferred to hard layer of soil.

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Drilled Caissons are classified into three categories
 Concrete caissons with enlarged bottom.
 Caissons of steel pipe with concrete filled.
 Caissons of steel pipe with concrete and steel core.
(a) Concrete caissons with enlarged bottom
In this at top which is at ground level of cap is provided. Above that cap brickwork is carried
out. Below this cap a pier is constructed which is further followed by the enlarged bottom
which is also known as bell. The angle of this bell at bottom is 60 degree.

(b) Caissons of steel pipe with concrete filled

In this also at the top which is at ground level, a cap is provided. Below this cap, at both extreme
ends, a steel shell is created. This steel shell is the outer portion. Inside this steel shell concrete
is filled.

(c) Caissons of steel pipe with concrete and steel core

The assembly of this type is also the same as the caissons of steel pipe with concrete-filled. But
the only change is that in the central portion of the steel core or a rod is fixed which gives more
stability to the structure as the weight taking capacity increased due to the steel core

Advantages of Pier Foundation

Pier Foundation is found in the coastal areas. There are many advantages of it:

 This method is easy and requires less amount of materials and labor. The materials
required here is easily available

 It has a wide range of variety when comes to design. There are varied materials we can
use here to increase the aesthetic view and also it remains in our budget

 Pier foundation save money and time as it doesn’t need extensive excavation and lot of
concrete

 As it lifts the house above the ground, floods cannot do any damage to the structures.

 Inspection is possible as the diameter of the shafts are large.

 Engineers can change the design whenever they want if necessary

 The ground vibration that is normally associated with driven piles is absent in case of
drilled pier construction\.
 Bearing capacity can be increased by under-reaming the bottom (in non-caving
materials)

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3.4 Well or Caissons foundation
Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the water level
for bridges. Caissons or well have been in use for foundations of bridges and other structures
since Roman and Mughal periods.

The term ‘caisson’ is derived from the French word which means box or chest. Hence caisson
means a box like structure, round or rectangular, which is sunk from the surface of either land
or water to some desired depth.

Figure 3.4 CROSS SECTION OF WELL FOUNDATION

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3.4.1 Type of well foundation

(i) Box caisson:

It is open at the top and closed at the bottom and is made of timber, reinforced concrete or steel.
This type of caissons is used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth.

(ii) Open caisson (wells):

Open caisson is a box opened both at top and bottom. It is made up to either timber, concrete
or steel. The open caisson is called well. Well foundation is the most common type of deep
foundation used for bridges in India.

(iii) Pneumatic caissons has its lower end designed as a working chamber in which compressed
air is forced to prevent the entry of water and thus excavation can be done in dry conditions.

FIGURE 3.4.1 TYPE OF WELL FOUNDATION

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 Chapter 4 Foundation Design
4.1 Foundation design
Foundation design is one of the most challenging aspects of engineering. No two foundation
conditions are similar. It requires a good sound basic approach to achieve the required result.
Foundation design is carried out using a careful blend of geological, soil mechanics, theory of
structures, design of materials, experiences, & engineering.

The design is a process using all the available tools and information to produce a good solution.
Part of the design process is to understand the practical difficulties, seek indications of
unreliability in the results, assess the implication and magnitude of such errors, make suitable
allowance in design and to understand the theories used. he design of a foundation consists of
determining the elevation, size, shape and structural details of the foundation which need to
meet the three basic requirements that are sufficient depth, safety against failure and safety
from objectionable deflection. A Study of Building Foundation procedures for foundation
design follow the currently accepted methods which are usually conservatives. The procedures
are subjected to improvement for greater precision as new techniques are developed to better
determine the soil properties. A safe foundation design provides a suitable factor of safety
against the shear failure of the soil and excessive settlement. The limiting shear resistance is
known as the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. For design, the allowable bearing capacity
which is obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by a safety factor is used. The
design criteria as per Indian standard are as follows:

 Foundations should be kept as shallow as possible because excavation can be expensive

and timely.
 Avoid expensive and complex details of foundation.
 Pay attention to the buildability of foundation.
 The effect of new foundation loading on the existing adjoining structures.
 The reliability of soil investigation.
 Cost and speed of construction.
 Effect of construction on existing ground.
 The effect of varying length, shape and rigidity of foundation.
 After-effect on completed foundation such as sulphate attack, ground movement.
 Change in local environment such as new construction, re-routing of road.
 Follow the currently reviewed construction techniques.

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4.2 Bearing Capacity Equation
Classical theories of elasticity and plasticity are applied in investigating the soil behaviour to
develop the equations for foundation design. The original concept using the theory of elasticity
was introduced by the effect of a long metal tool bearing against a smooth surface of a metal
mass that possess cohesion and internal friction. Meanwhile, Reissner included the condition
of the bearing area located below the surface of structure and the surcharge weight acting on
the plane in his studies. (McCarthy, 1998) The studies done by these two men were combined
by Terzaghi, whom considered he rough surface of the foundation in design. The theory
assumed that no deformation occur beyond the point of shear failure when loads are applied to
the foundation. It also assumed that plastic deformation occurred is small. Terzaghi developed
an equation which combined the effect of soil cohesion and internal friction, soil weight,
surcharge and foundation size in design. The ultimate bearing capacity equation is shown as:
A Study of Building Foundations in Indian standard

Terzaghi’s equations are acceptable as the ultimate bearing capacity is reduced to an allowable
bearing capacity by factor of safety. All the above mentioned equations have their own
limitation and usage, therefore judgement is still needed when choosing the suitable equation
for design.

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4.3 Analytical Methods
Pile is supported in two ways namely end-bearing and side friction. The ultimate capacity of
a pile is due to the soil resistance developed by friction between the soil and pile and due to
end bearing at the tip of the pile. The total pile load can be expressed as

Qu = Q p + Qs

where Qu = total pile load

Qp= tip resistance

Qs= side friction resistance

The tip or point resistance can be found using Terzaghi’s equation that is

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4.4 Design Procedures
A good foundation design must not only be safe but also minimize the construction costs, time
and materials. Indian code provides the following procedures to design a good foundation.

1) Mark the position of columns and load bearing walls and any other induced loading and
bending moments on the building plans. Loads are classified as dead, imposed and wind loads.
Adopt a suitable factor of safety for these loads.

2) Determine the strength of soil at various depths below the foundation from the site
investigation to find the safe bearing capacity. These values will be used to estimate the
allowable bearing pressure.

3) Determine the invert level of the foundation by either using the minimum depth below the
ground level which is unaffected by temperature, moisture content or by the depth of basement.

4) Determine the foundation area from the characteristics working loads and allowable
pressure. This will determine the type or combination of types of foundation. This selection is
based on economic consideration, speed and buildability.

5) Determine the various depth of vertical stress and check for possible overstressing of any
underlying weak layer.

6) Carry out settlement calculations to check whether the total and differential settlements are
acceptable. If the settlements are unacceptable, a revised allowable bearing pressure will be
determined and foundation size is increase or is taken to a deeper and stronger layer.

7) Preliminary costing of alternative design is made before finalizing the choice of foundation
type.

8) Alternative safe designs are checked for economy, speed and ease of construction.

9) Design office should be prepared to amend the design if excavation shows variation in
ground condition from those predicted from soil investigation.

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 Chapter 5 Foundation Failures
5.1 Foundation failure
A whole building may, to the extent, collapse due to the failures in its foundation system.
Therefore, it is important to identify the factors that can cause a foundation system to fail and
also the ways to minimize these problems. The major cause for foundation failures especially
in expansive soil is due to water. The variation of water level results in settlement and upheaval
problem. Besides that, failures may also due to non-moisture factors

Figure 5.1 FOUNDATION FAILURE

There are some condition of foundation failure:

5.1.1 Soil moisture

Soil moisture is loss through 3 processes that are evaporation, transpiration and combination
of both. Evaporation losses can be noticed by the appearance of cracks on the walls. The cracks
appearances can be seen in Figure 4.4. The foundation will move up and down during each
cycle and the length of foundation will be shorter during wet cycle. The transpiration loss is
limited on top shallow soil. The estimation of transpiration loss is difficult because transpiration
depends on the type, size and density of plant and also the ambient wind and temperature

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5.1.2 Uneven loading
The uneven distribution of loading from the superstructure can induce uneven stresses at
different locations of the foundation. This can cause differential settlement at locations where
vertical structural elements, such as columns and walls, directly transfer the superstructure
loads to the foundation. Differential settlement can eventually lead to cracks at the
foundation.
5.1.3 Overloading
Overloading from the superstructure can also create foundation failure. Foundations can fail
by cracking when the design moment and/or shear is above its moment and/or shear capacity.
Failure can also occur when there are large concentrated or point loads, which can induce
large punching shear onto the foundation, and when there is over designing of bearing
pressure.
5.1.4 Different properties of soil at the foundation interface
Different parts of the foundation can rest on different properties of soil. For example, one part
of the foundation can sit on clay, while another part of the foundation can sit on rock. When
all design checks are adequate for one part of the foundation due to that part resting on good
soil and when checks fail for another part of the foundation due to bad soil properties at the
other part of the foundation, the whole foundation can fail.
Ground investigation will need to be used to determine these different soil properties. The
foundation structure will need to be designed in consideration of the different soil stiffness
and soil properties

5.1.5 Vibration from adjacent construction

Vibration from nearby construction can displace soil particles underneath the foundation. This can
then create air voids within the soil, which can loosen up the soil and lower the soil density. The lower
the soil density, the lower the soil strength for the support of the foundation. This will then cause
foundation failure.

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CONCLUSIONS
 Foundation problems can be caused by both homeowners and mother-nature. No matter if
homeowner lived in the same home for years or have purchased a newer home, it is good
to know the causes and signs of a failing foundation.
 Unfortunately, mother-nature can cause foundations to fail and a homeowner can't do
much about it. Knowing the signs and getting homeowner foundation fixed by a
professional foundation contractor early can potentially save money.
 Most foundation problems are caused by the soil surrounding a home. Throughout
the year, the soil expands and contracts from moisture and temperature levels.
 Foundations fail when there is too much water or not enough. Sections of the soil can have
different moisture levels causing the soil to swell and shrink at various locations.
 Some sections of the soil can become much drier or wetter than other parts causing stress
on your home's foundation.
 These inconsistencies in the soil generally result from overloading, poor water
management, faulty compaction, abundance of organic materials, and erosion.

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 Future scope
 Foundation Design will coordinate the various aspects required for proper foundation
design. This includes: · Perform structural design of foundation. · Coordinate design
with geotechnical survey.
 Coordinate vibration isolation with foundation. · Design the foundation to maximize
economy of construction materials and construction methods.
 Construction Drawings: Unisorb will assemble construction documents to be used for
construction of the foundation.
 General layout of machine within building. Providing general information such as: ·
Proposed utility locations. · Control points. · Existing construction (columns,
footings, walls,
 underground utilities, etc.). ·

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REFERENCE
 Soil mechanics and Foundation engineering by P. PURUSHOTHAMA RAJ
 GOOGLE WIFIPEDIA https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)
 https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses/9237/
 IS 1904 1986 Code of practice for design and construction of foundations in soils:
General requirements

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