Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No.
2, May 1992
A PC-Based Computer Program for Teaching the Design and Analysis of Dry-Type Transformers
W. M. Grady R. Chan M. J. Samotyj
Senior Member Student Member Member
University of Texas at Austin Electric Power Research Institute
Austin, Texas Palo Alto, Califomia
Keywords - Transformer Design, Dry-Type Transformers,
Power Electronics Transformers, PC-Based Design, Design
Education.
Abstract - Dry-type transformers are used extensively in low-
voltage power elecmnics equipment to provide electrical isolation, to
limit fault currents, and to provide some measure of protection
against incoming electrical transients. These transformers are
produced in very large quantities, yet they are typically designed
using a few simple approximations and tedious hand calculations.
This paper illustrates the use of a new PC-based interactive computer
program that has been developed specifically for the design of dry-
type transformers. The program has applications in both the
classroom and in the power electronics industry.
INTRODUCTION
Transformer modeling and design has been traditionally taught in
an introductory power engineering course. In fact, it is often the f i s t
power topic that a beginning power student studies.
On the surface, transformer design, especially dry-type
transformer design, appears to be a simple (and perhaps boring) task
- wire sizes are chosen based on current ratings, core dimensions are
selected according to peak flux densities, and so on. While it is true
thatfuncrionol dry-type transformers can be designed using simple
rules, these designs are often less efficient and more costly than they
should be.
Optimized designs are more difficult to achieve because there are
many design trade-offs and considerations, such as
Material cost versus cost of losses,
Ratio of full-load loss to no-load loss,
Constraints on operating temperature, impedance, weight,
size, and cost,
Cost of core steel versus cost of conductors,
Nonlinear relationship between core loss and magnetic flux
density,
Placement of air ducts,
Number of winding layers and tums-per-layer,
Volts-per-tum in the windings,
Fill factors for the core windows,
Impact of nonlinear load currents on operating temperature,
Possible operation at frequencies higher than 60 Hz (for
example, 400 Hz).
91 SM 344-2 PWRS A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Prwer Engineering Education Committee of
the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation
at the IEEE/PES 1991 Summer Meeting, San Diego,
California, July 28 -
August 1, 1991. Manuscript
submitted January 22, 1991; made available for
printing May 17, 1991.
0885-8950/92$03.0001992 IEEE
1- 1
709
R. J. Ferraro J. L. Bierschenk
Member Non-Member
Ferraro, Oliver, & Associates Marlow Industries, Inc.
Knoxville. Tennessee Dallas, Texas
Therefore, optimized dry-type transformer design is a complex
problem, and ideally a designer should be able to perfect hisher
designs "on paper" before models are constructed. Interactive PC-
based computer programs provide this capability.
A new PC-based interactive computer program [ 11, written
specifically for the design and analysis of low-voltage (600 V RMS
and below), three-phase or single-phase, dry-type transformers, is
described in this paper. The program and user manual [ l ] were
developed by the Electric Power Research Institute for use in the
power electronics industry and by power engineering educators.
The BASIC language program executes on a DOS-based PC with
512kbytes of RAM and a CGA display. No additional software is
needed. Simulation of a design case requires approximately I O
seconds of execution time on a 4.7 MHz PCIXT.
From an educational point of view, this program provides power
professors with a modem design tool that is both attractive and useful
to power students. The authors believe that computer programs such
as this can improve the power image among electrical engineering
undergraduate students and, at the same time, serve the power
industry.
PROGRAM CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
The PC-based program is intended for designing the following
classes of transformers:
Dry-type, wire-wound,
Single-phase, shell-type,
Three-phase, three-legged, core-type,
1 - IO00 kVA rating,
120- 600 volt ratings,
One high-voltage winding and one low-voltage winding per
phase,
20 - 500 Hz fundamental operating frequency.
The two transformer types modeled by the program are shown in
Figures 1 and 2, and an end view of a typical winding structure is
illustrated in Figure 3.
Since desirable transformer characteristics are highly user-
dependent, the program does not attempt to automatically optimize an
objective function. Rather, the user specifies input parameters such
as cross-sectional dimensions of the core frame, high-voltage and
low-voltage wire sizes, peak operating magnetic flux density,
insulation spacing, material costs, etc. Standard core frames, wire
sizes, and suggested values of input parameters are provided on the
input screens when possible.
Given the input set, the program simulates the winding process,
determines the core build (or depth), checks the feasibility of the
design, and performs a complete analysis of operating costs,
temperatures, and impedances.
Power electronics transformers are often subjected to
nonsinusoidal current waveforms that cause excessive heating. For
that reason, the capability to analyze the effect of six-pulse, twelve-
pulse, or other nonsinusoidal waveforms has been included.
Impedance and loss are determined for each harmonic, and total loss
is used to compute average temperature rise.
I@
710

KEY ASSUMPTIONS
As with any design procedure, a number of assumptions are
made. The most important axe:
1 . Uniform magnetic flux density throughout the care.
2. Rectangular winding structure with elliptical comers,
3. Same number of turns in each layer of a winding,
4. No fractional turns,

5 . No stray magnetic flux,

I
F Fluxpathwidth 6. Vertical magnetic field that is parallel to the winding layers,
Corewindowwidth
B: Corewindowheight 7. Uniform temperature,
A, D One-half flu path width
s: corrb&l(ordepuI)
8. Cost of non-metals ignored,
Figure 1: Single-phase, Shell-Type Transformer
9. Natural air convention and radiation cooling.
INPUT DATA
Input data are entered through the self-explanatory interactive
CRT screens, as illustrated in Figures 4 - 10 for an 18 kVA three-
phase, 460/460V RMS transformer. Range checking is performed
at the time of data entry. Suggested values are shown on the input
screens when possible.
The input screens not shown in this aper are the Unit Selection
Menu (SI or English), Low-Voltage ginding Input Menu, Data
Save/Recall Menu, two graphical assistance Screens for displaying
the winding configurations of Figures 1 and 2. and two menus for
specifying nonstandard core frame or wire sizes (selected using
"Other" in Figures 6 and 8).
A: Flux path width and core window width
B:
S:
Corewindowheight
Core.build (ordepth) - >>>>> UAGCALC - Deslpn of Power El.ctronlo m q n s t i e C-nents <<<<e

Figure 2: Three-phase, Three-Legged, Core-Type Transformer

NUUBER OF PHASES AND CONNECTION CONFIGUPATION

Hiqh Vo1t.w SLde L a w VoLtaqc Sldc

3-Phase Wye wy.

Low Voltage Inter-windinp H@ Voltage
Winding Layers Airduct S p r a inrulation windii Layas )-Phase Wye Delta

3-Phars Delta WY=

)-Phase Delta klta I

Slnqlc Phars

Press ENTER ( A t o select t h e hlqhllqhted optlon.

-FI b i n ~ c n u r r ~Previous
2 "F-S H=*I~-T @ an

Figure 4: Number of Phases and Connection Configuration Input

Menu

- >>>>> puGu\Lc - Dealqn of P n n r Electronlea h q n e t i c COnPOmnts <<<<< -

RATINGS:

1. Porar RstInq (kVA1 18

2. High Slde ( P r l r u r y l Voltaqe Ratlnq Illne CO Ilnel 460

3 . Lou Sldc (Secondary1 Voltaqe Ihtlnq ( l l n c t o line1 460

4. Frequency ( H z 1 60

Press F2 when completed.

\
Enter the value f o r t h e hlqhllqhted optlon.
Core Tube outer wrap

-FI wnl*-FZ Previous ~ l e n - ~ ) RI-T ld~ a r n

Figure 3: End View of One Phase of a Winding Structure
1 Figure 5: Ratings Input Menu 1
 I .

71 1

- >>>>> MAGCALC - Design of Power Electronics Magnetic Components <<<<< >>>>> MAGCALC - Design o f Power Electronics Maqnetlc Components C<<<<

ECONOMIC INPUTS:
1. Cozt of WIre - HV Winding I S I k a l 5.2

8 2. cost of Wlre - LV Winding (Slkgl 5.2

.308
Stamned E11 I I I VAI IVAikol .38 3. Cost of Core Material ISIkgl 2.54
1.5
1.08 4. Cost o f Electricity (SIkWhl .06
1.43
1.8 5. t of Hours Energized p e r Year 5000
2.02
VA3 lVA/kgl 11.7 6 . Average Load Level - Energized lpercentl BO
'default values f a r 60 Hz onlb

Enter t h e v a l u e for the highlighted option.

Press ENTER (dl t o Select t h e highlighted option.

-F1 Hain Men-FZ Previous Hen-FS ~e1-T Up--1 Down

,F1 b i n H e n l ~ F 2Previous Hen-FS H~F--T U p p . 1 Down

Figure 6: Core Material Input Menu Figure 10: Economic Input Menu

r >>>>> MAGCALC - Design of Power Electronics Magnetic Components <<(<<

* * * TRANSFORMER HARMONIC DATA * * * CALCULATION PROCEDURE

LOAD CURRENT SELECTION

HARMONIC MULTIPLE SELECTION Winding Process

1. Pure Sinusoidal 6 PULSE ASD

-
4 Once all input data are entered, the program simulates the
2. Typical 6 Pulse ASD

3. Typical 12 Pulse ASD

1 4 . Other 1 MULTIPLE
HARMONIC % OF FUNDAMENTAL
winding process by doing the following (please refer to Figures 1 -
3 and to the flow chart shown in Figure A. 1 in the Appendix):
1. Determining which winding (high or low voltage) will be the
tallest, given the wire types, number of layers per winding
I I I I phase, transformer turns ratio, and connection configuration.
I Press ENTER IJI t o select the highlighted option.
I 2. Finding the integer number of turns in each layer of the tallest
winding that fills the height of the core window (parameter B
in Figures 1 and 2, less the minimum clearance specified as
item 9 in Figure 9). The integer number of turns per layer for
I Figure 7: Harmonic Data Input Menu I the shorter winding is then found using the transformer tums
ratio and connection configuration.
* >>>>> MAGCALC - Deaiqn of Power Electronics Magnetic Components <<<<<
3. Determining the core build (parameter S in Figures 1 and 2),
using the total tums per winding, voltage rating, peak core
WINDING
A.W.GILUGE CURRENT
DENSITY
A.W.GAUGE CURRENT
DENSITY
I flux density, stacking factor, and flux path width of the core
(parameter F in Figure 1 and parameter A in Figure 2).

1II
lA/nn21 (A/.="I

Rnd Cu 18r 1585 12r I of Layers 3

squ C" 171 1257 Ilr 4. Simulating the winding process, while being careful to insert
Rect Cu 16r 991 10r
15r 790 9r 197 insulation and spacers according to the specifications given in
Rnd AI
Squ AI
14r
13r
627
491
8r 156 Figure 9. For wire length, inductance, and surface area
Rect AI Wire Diameter lmm) 0 calculations, each winding comer is treated as a quarter-
t of Layers 3
Other11
ellipse, centered at the actual comer of the core frame (see
Figure 3).
O t h e r 1
Press ENTER 121 t o select the highlighted option. 5 . Performing a feasibility check to determine if the winding
structure will fit inside the core window.
-FI bin previous I~~W-FS ~ d p . T UP-J w
Leakage Inductance
Figure 8: High-Voltage Winding Input Menu I
Once the winding process has been simulated, leakage inductance
r >>>>> MAGCALC - ~ e s i g nof Power Electronics flagnetis Components <<<(< - L is computed from the following energy principle equation from [2]:

INSULATION L C W L I N G DATA

1. Core Tube Thickness Imml 1.588

2. Layer Insulation Thickness -
HV Winding (mml .I27
3. Layer Insulation Thickness -
LV Windlng lml .I27 Magnetic field intensity H is assumed to be vertical (using Figures 1
4. Air Dust Thickness lm) 9.525
5. Insulation Thickness (between HV L LV windings1 Iml .254 and 2 to define vertical reference), tangential to the winding layers,
6. I of Layers Between Air D u c t s
7. Wire Insulation Thickness -
HV Winding Iml
2
.064
and zero outside the winding structure. The value of H is found by
8. Wire Insulation Thickness -
LV Winding 1") .064 applying Ampere's Circuital Law from [2],
9. Hinimwn Clearance Between Winding Ends and Core lcml .9525
10. Innermost Winding (I-High Voltage, 2-Lou Voltage1 1
11. Thickness of Outer Wrap (m) .I27 J-H.~=NI, (2)
12. N i e n t Temperature ldeg C) 30

Enter t h e v a l u e for t h e hiqhllghted option.

within and between the layers. The volume integral of H2 is then
r F 1 win H e n l r r F 2 Previous menu-F5 He1-f U+ Down computed, and inductance L is determined from (1).

I Figure 9: Insulation and Cooling Input Menu J

1- 1
712
Harmonic Impedances
Transformer leakage inductance is essentially constant for low-
ordered harmonics (multiples 1 through 25). Therefore, leakage
reactanceis calculated once for the fundamental frequency and is then
scaled Proportionately with harmonic multiples.
Resistive skin effect is modeled by treating each winding layer as
a sheet of c m n t [3]. The equivalentwinding resistance Rh for each
winding at a harmonic h is calculated from
Average Temperature
Average transformer operating temperature is determined by
finding the equilibrium point where electrical power loss (windings
plus core) equals the heat power dissipated by radiation and
convection. The followingradiation and convection heat dissipation
equations from [4] relate heat dissipation to transformer temperature:
W, = 5.7E-12*(T4-Tkb) W / m 2 , (7)

R h = R x q [ ( h n Z + l ) * F , ( A ) - 4 ( m Z - 1 ) *F2(A)], (3)
where where T and Tmb are transformer average temperature and ambient
Internal DC resistance of the winding. air temperature, respectively, in OK (Note: OK = OC + 273.16).
RE: Next, total heat dissipation is found from
m: Number of layers in the winding,
Wtot = Wrmj + W-v Amnv 9 (9) .
A: A constant equal to the winding layer thickness divided Where
by skin depth 6,
&: Outside surface am of the transformer
6: S k i n d e p t h = E ,' (4) A, : Armj plus the inside surface area exposed to air ducts
(providing that the air duct thickness is greater than 5
a: Radian frtquency of the harmonic. mm).
Since (7) and (8) are nonlinear, an iterative procedure is required
and to find the value of T at the equilibrium point.
sinh(2A) + sin(2A) A simple bisection algorithm is employed for this purpose. Winding
Fi(A). = resistances are adjusted during each iteration as the T estimate
Cosh(2A)- COS(~A) changes. Although hot spot temperature is not computed, it is
usually assumed to equal T plus 15 'C.
sinh(A) cos(A) + cosh(A) sin(A)
FZ(N = (6) OUTPUT DATA
coSh(2A)- COS(~A)
Output data can be displayed in tabular or graphical forms and
Core Loss can be printed. Complete printed output for the 18 kVA three-phase
example is given in the Appendix. The correspondingCRT graph is
Peak core flux density is an input design parameter that has a shown in Figure 12. where the current distortion factor is the total
major impact on transformer loss. In order to model the relationship harmonic distortion of current computed from the data entered in
between core loss and magnetic flux density, core loss-per-weight Figure 7.
for three operating flux densities at rhe design frequency must be
obtained from the core manufacturer and entered (seeFigure 6). The
program curve-fits an interpolating power expression of the form
shown in Figure 11 through the three points. Magnetizing
voltampem are handled in a similar manner.

P
1 ::
198.8 x Load
i I1.80.2021 I

(0.80.0.308) Figure 12: Distribution of Losses, Costs, and Weights for the 18
0.01. I - I . I . I . I - . kVA Three-phase Transformer at 100% Load
0.91.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
EXAMPLES
Peak Core Flux Density -Tesla
Note: Using the three points shown, core loss P(B) is approximated in Ihe Three examples are presented for illustrative purposes. Input
B = 0.80 - 1.80 Tesla range by screen data fur the fmt example, an 18 kVA three-phase. 460/460V
P(B) = 0.308 + 1.712 (B - 0.80) 2.2329 W / Kg @ 60 Hz. ' RMS transformer, have already been shown in Figures 4 - 10. The
corresponding printed output report is given in the Appendix. The
second two examples consist of a 100 kVA three-phase, 460/460 V
Figure 11: Core Loss-Per-Weight Point Selection and Interpolating RMS unit and a 10 kVA single-phase, 240/240 V RMS unit.
Function

I n
 713
Graphical output for the 18 kVA, 100 kVA, and 10 kVA 120
transformers are shown in Figures 12 - 14, respectively. As
expected, the distributions of losses, costs, and weights vary among 110
the three designs. These figures were obtained by using the PRINT
I
SCREEN keyboard command. e! 100
3 -Type
&!XI -t Six-Pulse ASD
6 -0- Sinusoidal
80

C
199.9 z Load

50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Load Level - Percent of Rated Load

Figure 15: Average Temperature versus Load Level and Load Type
for the 18 kVA Three-phase Transformer

fl MlllN MEW RHnllYI M

320
Figure 13: Distribution of Losses, Costs, and Weights for the 100
kVA Three-phase Transformer at 100% Load
(A 310
I

33
CI
300

F:
P 50
199.9 X Load 290

f
L
25
280
0 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70
Peak Core Flux Density -Tesla

Figure 16: Total Cost of Materials versus Peak Core Flux Density
for the 18 kVA Three-phase Transformer

Figure 14: Distribution of Losses, Costs, and Weights for the 10
kVA Single-phaseTransformer at 100% Load
Once a base design is established, sensitivity to operating
conditions can be easily determined by changing the appropriate input
data and re-executing the program. For example, the relationship
between average temperature and load level for the 18 kVA
transformer is computed and shown in Figure 15. As expected, the
operating temperature is a few degrees higher when the transformer
serves a six-pulse adjustable-speed drive (ASD).
A similar sensitivityanalysis is performed on the 18 kVA unit by
observing the impact that peak core flux density has on the total cost
of materials. The variation is given in Figure 16.
CONCLUSIONS
Dry-type transformers have traditionally been designed using
simple approximations and tedious hand calculations. This paper
introduces a new interactive PC-based transformer design and
analysis program which enables transformer designers to test,
modify, and optimize their designs.
The self-contained program executes on a DOS-based F T with
5 12kbytes of RAM and a CGA display. Simulation of a design case
requires approximately 10 seconds of execution time on a 4.7 MHz
pcm.
The program is being used for instructional purposes in
undergraduate classes at the University of Texas at Austin. A typical
homework assignment is to have students, beginning with a given
"base case" design, attempt to minimize an objective function while
meeting temperature constraints. A typical objective function is the
weighted sum of loss, cost, and weight.
This program can be a useful training tool in the classroom and
an effectiveproduction design tool in the power electronicsindustry.

T 1 . -
1' P
714

APPENDIX Printed Output for the 18 kVA Three-Phane Transformer

ELECTRIC POYER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Customer S y s t e n s D l v i s i o n
H A G C A L C
________________________________________--------------------------------
J o b I: 0 1
Curve-fit polynomial to D e s c r i p t i o n : TEST CASE 01, l8KVA EXMPLE
Date: Septmnbtr 1, 1990
three-point core data U-: n i c k Grady

I Determinetallestwindingand
checkwindowclc$nlnces I GCNCRAL INFORlvlTION
OUTPUT REPORT

Compute number of turns Nlllnbcr of Phases 3

per winding layer Power R a t i n g 18 kVA
Hlqh S i d e V o l t a q e R a t l n q 460 volts-Rns
( l i n e t o 11ne1
L a Side Voltaqe Ilatlnq 460 volts-RnS
Calculate dimensions of the (line t o line1
D e ~ l q nFrequency 60 Hz
core flux path Connection C o n f i g u r a t i o n (High-Lor1 Delta-Yye

f I Simulate the winding process I ___________________

WINDlNG INFOIWATION

High Voltage Low VOltlge

Wire H e t i 1 N cu
Wire Shape Round square
Ylre q.uqe/dli"ster/dimenrlon. 1Or 8s
Length of W i r e per Phase Iml 12.4 61.2
C u r r e n t D e n s i t y a t Rated Load ( A I - 2 ) 248 210
C u r r e n t D e n s i t y a t 80.0 4 Load IAISnzl 198 168
Wire R e s i a t l v i t y (ohma1 1.1241E-08 1.1241E-08
Calculate volts per turn in T a p . C-f. of R e s i s t i v i t y of Wire 0.00393 0.00393
!#Ire D e n s l t y ( kq/m31 8.891.0 8.891.0
the windings Layera w z Phase 3 3

...
Turns p e r Layer 49 28
V o l t s p e r Turn 3.13 3.12
I n n e m s t Winding
Uinding Heiqht (a) 13.3 9.5
Windinq Window Height F i l l F a c t o r ( 4 1 81.3 62.6
Loss a t Rated Load (kW) 0.165 0.209
loss a t 8 0 . 0 b a d (kW1 0.100 0.127
W l t e r l a l Cost ( $ 1 52.82 91.06
Weight ( kq) 10.2 17.5

I
I compute core loss
I CORE INFORlUTION

n a t e r l a l Type Stcel
Core Depth 13.1 M
Window Width 6.10 M
for all harmonics Window Halqht 15.24 cm

--
Width of Flux P a t h 6.10 cm
R a t i o of Core Depth t o Width of Flux P a t h 214.5 4
Peak Flag. F l u Den.(e Rated V o l t a g e and F r e q . ) 1.55 Wb/&
Winding NIndor Area F i l l Factor Sl.4 4
Loss a t Rated V o l t a g e 0.014 kW
0.125 kVA
1 Core l l a q n e t i z l n q Volt--res
uat.ri.1
Wrlmht
CO*t 1155.82
--.-,"
61 .
I
Compute transformer average D e n s i t y of Core l l a t e r i a l 7,593.0 kgIn3
-7

~~~ ~~~~ ~
-
Minlnun C l e a r a n c e Between Ends and Cora
Core S t a c k i n a Factor
~~~~~-
3 SETS OF POINTS FOR CORE LOSS Flux D e n a l t y
.9S25 c m
.._
q=, no .
Core Loss
4.
.
I(aqnetir1nq
4 AND MAGNETIZING VOLT-AUPERES
Set b 1
set I 2
(NbhZJ
0.800
1.500
(YIkql
0.31
1.08
(VAIkgl
0.38
1.43
Set I 3 1. 800 2.02 11.10

change in computed
tempelamre?

Core Tube T h i c k n e s s 1.588

I n s u l a t i o n T h i c k n e s s Between Hlqh V o l t a q c Layera .I21

7
I-
Compute annual cost of losses
I
ule leakage inductance
I n s u l a t i o n T h i c k n e s s Between l o w V o l t a g e Layers
I n s u l a t i o n Thlcknesa On Hiqh V o l t a g e Wire
I n s u l a t i o n Thlcknesa On low V o l t a g e Wire
A i r Duct T h i c k n e s s
I n s u l a t i o n Thiokdess Between High
V o l t a g e C Low V o l t a q e Winding.
O u t e r Y r i p Thicknasa
Number of Wlndlnq L a y e r s Between A i r Ducts
.127
..064
9.525
.254
0 64

.127
2
I M i a n t Temperature 30

I Dataoutput I
Figure A.l: Simulation Flow Chart

1
 R
715
Page 3 BIOGRAPHIES
________________________________________---------------

DISTRIBUTION O f LOSSES, COSTS, AND WEIGHTS W. Mack Grady, (SM,1983) was bom on January 5, 1950, in
______-_POWER LOSSES ------- -- MATERIAL -- -- MA?ERIAL -- Waco, Texas. He received the BSEE degree from the University of
RATED LOAD 80.0) LOAD
* of COSTS WEIGHTS
* of Texas at Arlington in 1971 and the MSEE and PhD degrees from
* of
Total Total
5 of
Total Total Purdue University in 1973 and 1983, respectively.
kW LOPS kW Loss $ Cost k g Weight
+------+----.+ +------+-----+ +------+-----+ +------+-----+
High Voltage 0.165 36.8 0.100 33.2 52.82 17.6 10.2 11.4 From 1974 through 1980 he was employed as a system planning
Winding
Lou Voltage 0.209 46.6 0.121 41.2 91.06 30.4 17.5 19.7
engineer at Texas Power & Light Company (now TU Elecmc),
Winding Dallas. Afier receiving the PhD, he joined the University.of Texas at
0.014 0.014 52.0
Core 16.6 24.6 155.82 61.3 68.9
Austin, where he is currently Associate Professor of Electrical and
Total Naterlal CooZ $299.70
89.0 k g
Computer Engineering. His areas of interest include power system
Total Material Weight
RATED LOAD 80.01 LOAD analysis and operation, power system harmonics, power quality, and
Total Loss IkW)
Winding Loss/Core Loss Ratio (%I
0.448
5.0
0.302
3.1
short-term load farecasting.
Transformer E f f i c i e n c y ( 0 91.6 91.9
93.1 76.0
Avg. Temp.luslng 30.0 deg C ambient)
Annual Cost of Losses ( 5 1 235 91 Dr. Grady is a member of Eta Kappa Nu and Tau Beta Pi. He is
........................................................................ the chairman of the IEEE Working Group on Power System
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT P A R W E T E R S (Transformer Bare at 20 deq. C and 60 HZI Harmonics and a registered professional engineer in Texas.

Winding Resistance (R) 1.53 Ricardo Chan, (M, 1983) was bom on August 15, 1962, in
Leakage Reactance (IL) 1.23 a Panama City, Panama. He received the BS and MS degrees in
Series Impedance (21 1.97 4
Shunt Core Resistance 24211.69 I Elecmcal Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1985
17810.86
Shunt Core Reactance
Voltage Regulation (Reslstancc load) 1.55 % and 1987, respectively.
Voltaqe Regulation (Inductive Load! 1.24 )
He is a member of Eta Kappa Nu and has served as an officer in
the local student chapter of IEEE. He is presently a Ph.D. candidate
........................................................................ and graduate research assistant in the Department of Electrical and
__-______--____-------
HARMONIC INFORMATION
Computer Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin.
Current Distortion 21.48 Percent
Load Current 6 PULSE ASD Marek J. Samotyj, (M, 1987) was bom on May 22, 1947, in
Harmonic Impedences of Transformer Windings (Percent on Tranformer B a s e l
Poland. He received the BS and MS degrees in Electrical
Engineering from Silesian Polytechnical University in Gliwice,
Magnitude
Avg. Load Level
+------------------+
RaLed Load Level
+-------------------+ Poland, i n 1971, and an MS degree in Engineering-Economic
Order % of Fund. R X R X Systems from Stanford University in 1985.
+-----+ +--------+ +--------+---------+ +---------I---------+
1 100.0 1.95 1.23 1.86 1.23
5 11.5 2.38
2.81
6.17
8.61
2.31
2.15
6.17
8.64
He was a Fulbright Senior Scholar from 1981-82 and a
7 11.1
11 4.5 4.02 13.51 4.02 13.51 consulting member of the Scientific Board of the Future Research
13
17
2.9
1.5
4.19
6.59
16.04
20.97
4.82
6.68
16.04
20.97
Center at Technical University in Wroclaw, Poland, in 1980-81. He
19 1.0 7.59 23.44 7.10 23.44 served as editor in chief of the Polish Review weekly magazine,
which is published by the Polish Federation of the Engineering
Associations, 1979-81.
---_-_-----_----
PROGRAM MESSAGES

I The high voltage coil la t h e tallest coil.

Mr. Samotyj joined EPRI in 1985, where he is presently Senior
2 ?he depth of the core flux path Is more than 2.0 t i e s t h e uldth. Project Manager of Power Electronic Systems and Controls Program
3 The depth of t h e winding assembly is more than 2.0 tlmer the width. of the Customer Systems Division.
........................................................................
Ralph J. Ferraro, (M, 1990) was born on July 6, 1938, in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Jersey City, New Jersey. He received the BSEE degree from
Newark College of Engineeringin 1%5.
The authors would like to thank the Electric Power Research
Institute for supporting this work. Appreciation also goes to Mr. From 197’3 through 1977, he was employed by Bechtel Power
Kenneth Gooding, Pine Brook, New Jersey. and Dr. David R. Corporation, Houston, Texas, where he directed the design of
Brown, U. T. Austin, for providing technical advice and insight on electric utility power plant control and instrumentation systems.
the design of dry-type transformers for the power electronics While with EPRI from 1977 through early 1990, he managed power
industry. Thanks also go to Dr. David F. Beer, U. T. Austin, for electronic equipment development activities across six EPRI R&D
his editorial assistance. Divisions and promoted collaborative projects between
semiconductor researchers, end-use product manufacturers,
REFERENCES consultants, and utilities. He is the founder of EPRI’s Power
ElectronicsApplications Center in Knoxville, Tennessee.
[l] W. M. Grady, J. L. Bierschenk, The MAGCALC Code:
Version 2.0 User’s Guide.Projects 1966-13, -17, -20, and - Mr. Ferraro started his own power electronics and motor
23, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, applications consulting business in 1990. He is a registered
(publication pending). professional engineer in Califomia and Texas.
W.H. Hayt, Jr., Engineeting Electromagnetics, Mdjraw-Hill James L. Bierschenk. (non-member) was bom on October
Book Company. NY. 1989. 26, 1960, in Weatherford, Texas. He received the BSME degree
from the University of Texas at Austin in 1984.
[3] M. S. Hwang. Assessment of Harmonic Current Effects in
Power System Tranrformers,PhD Dissertation, University of From 1984 through 1986, he was employed by Software
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX,August 1985. Systems Corporation in Austin, Texas, where he developed software
for engineering applications. He joined Marlow Industries, Inc., in
[4] W. T. McLyman, Transformer and Inductor Design 1986, where he is pmsently a project engineer working in the design
Handbook, Marcel Dekker, Inc., NY, 1978. of thermoelectric cooling devices and systems.
He is a member of ASME and the InternationalThermoelectric
Society.
 716
DISCUSSI(MI
L. U. PIWCB (General Electric Company, Rome. Ga.) I
commend the authors for presenting this paper describing
the computer program used in their teaching program.
The development and optimization of transformer designs
has been a source of employment for the engineering
profession for over one hundred years. Industry
welcomes the efforts of the authors to improve the power
image among electrical engineering undergraduates.
Computers have been used for several decades by
transformer manufacturers to perform the engineering
design calculations. With modifications the authors'
program might be used to teach the design of larger dry
type transformers used in industrial plants. Although
computers reduce the design time their use sometimes
inhibits innovation as transformer design becomes simply
putting numbers in the computer and getting numbers out.
There is a need for engineers with the ability to
innovate and modify computer programs as required to
utilize new materials or concepts. More attention
should be given to optimization studies in the teaching
program. The authors state "the program does not
attempt to automatically optimize an objective function"
however the conclusion claims that the program allows
the designer to optimize their design. The available
options shown in the menus in Figures 6 and 8 indicates
that there is little opportunity for optimization by the
student. I have the following suggestions for the
authors to consider as possible assignments for their
students:
1. The core material comprises over half the
material cost of the transformer and should be
considered first. Core material waste from the punching
operation should be considered in the material cost.
The flux path width and core window width are both
designated by the letter A in Figure 2 however in actual
designs these are not necessarily equal. The core
dimensions shown in Figures 1 and 2 should not be
restricted to preselected values. For a given rating
what are the values of dimensions A, B. and S which
' result in minimum cost when the cost of losses are
considered and when not considered?
2. Suppose a core material were available with
improved properties but higher cost. Amorphous core
steel is an example. Although higher cost it gives
drastic reductions in core loss. Would this material
result in a lower total cost?
3. With unrestricted core dimensions does
copper or aluminum conductor material result in the
lowest cost design?
4. The cost of insulation materials should be
added to the design. A choice of different temperature
classes with progressively higher costs should be
available. Which insulation material results in the
lowest cost transformer design?
5. The simplifiedtemperature equations maybe
adequate as a teaching exercise. Further refinement is
needed to study optimization alternatives. A width need not be equal. Note - there is also an "Other"selection in
calculation of hottest spot temperature is needed to
prove that the insulation temperature class is not
exceeded. Additional eddy losses caused by harmonic
currents are not uniformly distributed and may affect
the hottest spot temperature more than the average
temperature. Both the primary and secondary windings
should be considered when determining average
temperature and hottest spot temperature rises. The
core loss affects primafily the inner winding and
radiation area should be considered for only the outer
winding. For the center leg of the three phase unit
shown in figure 2 a portion of the radiation area inside
the cote window is blocked by the adjacent legs and
should not be used. The PSpice program 151 familiar to
electrical eqgineers could be used to refine the heat
transfer analysis by simulating the thermal network as
an electrical network [ 6 ] . Lindsay ( 7 ) used an
in I
analogous electric circuit to determine the temperature
rise of a transformer for transient loading. A more
accurate heat transfer analysis would allow the student
to study the rearrangement of cooling ducts in the
winding. Ducts could be omitted inside the core window
and additional ducts added outside the core window.
Would this cooling duct arrangement result in a savings
of expensive core steel?
6. The class could be divided into teams to
simulate competitive companies. Each team could be
given the same material costs for known materials but
each team might use one material with a higher or lower
cost with better or worse properties. This material
would be available to only one team and unknown to the
others. Which team can achieve the lowest cost design?
The above assignments may give the students an
insight into the challenges faced by a power industry
engineer. The authors are encouraged to continue their
efforts to develop teaching programs centered around
equipment used in the power industry.
. .
[6] P. W. Tuinenga. SPICE A Guide to Circuit
ion & PSuice,Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hell,Inc., 1988.
[6] M. Ahmad and E. I. Rassy, "Thermal Analysis with
PSpice," bchine Desieq, vol. 59 no. 2 , p.107,
Jan. 2 2 , 1987. .
[ 71 J. F. Lindsay, "Temperature Rise of an Oil-Filled
Transformer with Varying Load," U E E Transactions
on Power Amaratus and Systems, vol. PAS-103,no.
9, pp. 2530-2536, September 1984.
Hanuscript received August 21, 1991.
W. M. GRADY,R. CHAN, M.J. SAMOTYJ. R. J. FERRARO, J.
L. BIERSCHENK: We appreciate Mr. Pierce's suggestions for
improving the program and his list o f possible homework
assignments.
We would like to respond to several points in his discussion. First,
as we stated in the section on capabilities and limitations, the program
analyzes transformer designs but does not automatically search for
optimal designs. A user can i m p v e and optimize his/her design by
observing the effects that different wire sizes. wire types, core
frames, operating flux densities, etc., have on transformer
performance. We believe that this sensitivity analysis is an important
part of the leaming process.
Second, a user is not resmcted to the preselected core dimensions in
Figure 6. Any core dimensions can be entered using the "Other"
selection in Figure 6. Therefore, flux path width and core window
Figure 8 for entering non-standard wire sizes. However, due to page
limitations, these "Other"screens w m not included in the paper.
Third, the surface area used for computing radiated heat dissipation
includes the outside surface of the transformer but excludes any
portion blocked by adjacent windings or the core frame.
Fourth, the exact calculation of hottest spot temperature is best
performed by finite element or finite difference codes. We have
successfully used finite elements in the past to study harmonic losses
in oil-filled transformers [SI,[9]. However, due to the additional
input data and expertise required to use finite element codes, we
chose not to incorporate our finite element algorithm into this
program.
Again, we would like to thank Mr. Pierce for identifying some of the
points that we needed to clarify.
I"" -

REFERENCES
181 M. S. Hwang, W. M. Grady, H. W. Sanders, Distribution
Transformer Winding Losses Due to Nonsinusoidal Currents,
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. PWRD-2,no. 1, pp. 140-
146. January 1987.
717
[9] M. S. Hwang, W. M. Grady, H. W. Sanders, Calculation of
Winding Temperaturesin Distribution Transformers Subjected
to Harmonic Currents,IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 3,
no. 3, pp. 1074-1079, July 1988.
Manuscript received November 5 , 1991.