See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/233267308

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation, and Exercise

in Older Adults

Article  in  Activities Adaptation & Aging · July 2011

DOI: 10.1080/01924788.2011.596764

CITATIONS READS

20 3,764

4 authors:

Rena A. Kirkland Nancy J. Karlin

University of Northern Colorado University of Northern Colorado
3 PUBLICATIONS   183 CITATIONS    58 PUBLICATIONS   361 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Megan Babkes Stellino Steven Pulos

University of Northern Colorado University of Northern Colorado
44 PUBLICATIONS   398 CITATIONS    65 PUBLICATIONS   1,983 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Masters thesis View project

Psi Chi Video View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nancy J. Karlin on 02 August 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article was downloaded by: [University of Northern Colorado]
On: 20 September 2011, At: 11:05
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Activities, Adaptation & Aging

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/waaa20

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction,

Motivation, and Exercise in Older Adults
a a b
Rena A. Kirkland , Nancy J. Karlin , Megan Babkes Stellino &
a
Steven Pulos
a
School of Psychological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado,
Greeley, CO
b
School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern
Colorado, Greeley, CO

Available online: 20 Sep 2011

To cite this article: Rena A. Kirkland, Nancy J. Karlin, Megan Babkes Stellino & Steven Pulos
(2011): Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation, and Exercise in Older Adults, Activities,
Adaptation & Aging, 35:3, 181-196

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01924788.2011.596764

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation
that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any
instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary
sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,
demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly
in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 35:181–196, 2011
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0192-4788 print/1544-4368 online
DOI: 10.1080/01924788.2011.596764

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction,

Motivation, and Exercise in Older Adults

RENA A. KIRKLAND and NANCY J. KARLIN

School of Psychological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

MEGAN BABKES STELLINO

School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO

STEVEN PULOS
School of Psychological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO

A predominate motivation theory used to predict exercise behavior

is self-determination theory, which posits that motivation is driven
by satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy,
competence, and relatedness. This study investigates the relation-
ship between motivation, basic psychological needs satisfaction,
and exercise in a sample of older adults. Significant differences
were found between older adult exercisers and nonexercisers in
intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, non-
self-determined extrinsic motivation, autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. This study suggests that self-determination theory is a
suitable framework to investigate older adult exercise behaviors.

KEYWORDS older adults, exercise motivation, self-determination

theory, basic psychological needs

Older adults who exercise experience, many health and psychological ben-
efits, yet many older adults do not engage in exercise (Hirsch et al., 2010;
Kruger, Ham, & Sanker, 2008; Pollard, Taylor, & Smith, 2000). Understanding
why only some older adults engage in exercise is essential not only for
the health of this sample but also for the economic well-being of society

Received 11 May 2010; accepted 11 May 2011.

Address correspondence to Rena A. Kirkland, School of Psychological Sciences,
University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Campus Box 94, Greeley, CO 80639. E-mail:
thom6071@bears.unco.edu

181
 182 R. A. Kirkland et al.

(Geithner & McKenney, 2010; Yazdanyar & Newman, 2009). One predom-
inate motivation theory in sport and exercise is self-determination theory,
which posits that motivation is driven by three basic psychological needs:
autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Self-determination theory has been
a successful framework to investigate exercise motivation in younger adults
and has also helped illuminate why some older adults engage in physical
activity and others do not. The current study investigates exercise motivation
in older adults within the perspective of self-determination theory.
Understanding what motivates individuals to exercise, and under what
circumstances these motives are most likely to manifest, is not an incon-
sequential matter. Consider the health benefits of exercise: lower blood
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

pressure, lower body fat, lower cholesterol and triglycerides, increased bone
mineral density, and decreased risks of coronary heart disease, type 2 dia-
betes, chronic diseases, falls, and injuries (Lee, Sesso, & Paffenbarger, 2000;
Pollock et al., 2000; Shephard & Balady, 1999; Stewart, 2002). Research
also suggests that sedentary lifestyles increase morbidity rates (Schnohr,
2009). Research in populations of older adults has found similar health and
longevity benefits when individuals engage in regular exercise (Buchner,
2009; O’Conner, Rousseau, & Maki, 2004; Schnohr, 2009). Beyond medi-
cal and health benefits, exercise has been associated with a higher quality
of life in older adults (Acree et al., 2006; Hirsch et al., 2010; Spirduso &
Cronin, 2001).
Based on a substantive body of research, health care providers are
increasingly prescribing exercise programs to older adults for both preven-
tive and rehabilitative medical issues (Geithner & McKenney, 2010; Haber
& Rhodes, 2004; Katula, Sipe, Rejeski, & Focht, 2004; McDermott & Mernitz,
2006; Nelson et al., 2007; Schutzer & Graves, 2004; Thurston & Green, 2004).
Although it has become common practice to recommend exercise for health
benefits, the problem of compliance is paramount (Kruger et al., 2008; Lee
et al., 2000). Schutzer and Graves (2004) report that only 30% of older men
and 15% of older women participate in sustained physical activity.
Understanding the relationship between motivation and exercise behav-
ior in older adults is essential when considering the positive association
between maintenance of regular exercise and optimal health outcomes.
Previous research with younger adults has identified factors that support
and undermine motivation; however, it cannot be assumed that exercise
motives are the same for younger adults and older adults (Frederick-
Recascino, 2002). While the ultimate responsibility of adhering to an exercise
program rests on any given individual, a significant amount of research
with younger adults suggests that practitioners and fitness profession-
als can optimize the motivational climate for an individual, leading to
greater exercise compliance (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle,
2003; Spray, Wang, Biddle, & Chatzisarantis, 2003; Taylor & Ntoumanis,
2007).
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 183

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

Self-determination theory is a dialectic organismic theory of motivation that

has been used to investigate motivated behavior in education (Grolnick &
Ryan, 1987; Ryan & Deci, 2007), health care (Williams, Gagne, Mushlin, &
Deci, 2005), marriage (Blais, Sabourin, Boucher, & Vallerand, 1990), work
(Richer & Vallerand, 1995), prosocial behavior (Gagne, 2003), and sport and
exercise (Ryan, Fredrick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). At the heart of
self-determination theory is the premise that humans are innately active and
are driven by their pursuit to satisfy the psychological needs of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

Self-determination theory purports that the psychological need of

autonomy is fundamental to the growth and active nature of individuals.
Autonomy is the psychological need to be the origin of one’s own behavior.
When an individual perceives that they have choice in a situation, he or she
will experience high levels of autonomy. Autonomous behavior, as opposed
to controlled behavior, is a critical component to understanding motivation
within the framework of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2006).
Another basic psychological need, according to self-determination the-
ory, is competence. Competence is the psychological need to interact
effectively with one’s environment and to have opportunities to express
one’s abilities. Competence is related to autonomy in that it is reflected in
most of the choices and behaviors in which individuals choose to engage
(Conroy, Elliot, & Coatsworth, 2007). The most important aspect of compe-
tence is an individual’s perceived competence, that is, the perception that
one can effectively interact with one’s world. Perceived competence in any
given behavior is associated with higher levels of persistence in that behavior
(Elliot, 2005).
The psychological need for relatedness is associated with a sense of
belonging and connectedness to others within a social context (Baumeister &
Leary, 1995). Individuals who perceive high levels of relatedness with people
in their social environment show adaptive patterns of behavior (Deci & Ryan,
2008). Similar to autonomy and competence, relatedness need satisfaction is
associated with perseverance in behavior.
Additionally, self-determination theory accounts for the interaction
of an individual’s activity level within his or her social environment
(Cohen-Mansfield, Marx, Biddison, & Guralnik, 2004). In other words, the
social environment critically mediates the action a person takes. As self-
determination theory predicts, when the psychological needs of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness are satisfied, individuals are more likely to ini-
tiate and sustain in a wide range of behaviors (Losier, Bourque, & Vallerand,
1993; Rejeski, Ip, Katula, & White, 2006; Vallerand & Losier, 1999).
An additional premise of self-determination theory posits that moti-
vation exits on a continuum with amotivation on one end and intrinsic
 184 R. A. Kirkland et al.

motivation on the other (Vallerand & Losier, 1999). Amotivation has been
defined by Deci and Ryan (1985) as the absence of motivation as well as the
lack of self-determination. Intrinsic motivation has been defined as the rea-
son for engaging in activities for the inherent pleasure and satisfaction in the
activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Additionally, between amotivation and intrinsic
motivation, various types of extrinsic motivation exist. In contrast to intrin-
sic motivation, extrinsic motivation is behavior that is driven by expected
outcomes or contingencies and is not driven by the inherent pleasure of
the activity (Frederick-Recascino & Ryan, 1993). The extrinsic motivation
continuum is based on relative states of internalization and self-regulation,
which is intimately tied to autonomy. Self-determined extrinsic motivation
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

exists when external motives are integrated within an individual’s identity

and is driven by self-regulated behaviors. Nonself-determined extrinsic moti-
vation is the least internalized motivation, lacks self-regulation, and instead
is guided by external operant contingencies. The distinction between types
of motivation is important because research provides evidence that intrinsic
and self-determined extrinsic motivation are related to psychological needs
satisfaction, while nonself-determined extrinsic motivation is less related to
needs satisfaction (Vallerand, 2000; Vansteenkiste, Soenens, & Lens, 2007).

Exercise and Self-Determination Theory

Collectively, two prominent findings have emerged from exercise motivation
research. First, intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation
are associated with high levels of exercise adherence. Second, when psy-
chological needs satisfaction is met, motivation to engage in exercise is
enhanced.
At the most basic level, intrinsic motivation has consistently been found
to be an essential component of exercise adherence with younger adults and
adolescents (Frederick & Ryan, 1993; Ryan et al., 1997; Sebire, Standage, &
Vansteenkiste, 2009; Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 1987). External motivation
is also positively associated with physical activity when it is integrated
within the individual’s expected outcomes and his or her personal identity
(Spray et al., 2003; Vansteenkiste, Simons, Soenes, & Lens, 2004). Research
suggests that self-determined and nonself-determined extrinsic motivation
differentially explain exercise behavior; specifically, self-determined extrin-
sic motivation has been associated with higher levels of exercise than
nonself-determined extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
A substantial amount of research has examined the relationship of basic
psychological needs satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness)
with intrinsic motivation and the subtypes of extrinsic motivation. Research
indicates that both intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motiva-
tion are correlated with psychological needs satisfaction as well as exersize
levels (Loiser et al., 1993; Vallerand, & Losier, 1999; Wilson, Rodgers, &
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 185

Fraser, 2002). The relationship found between motives and psychological

needs is in line with self-determination theory’s premise that satisfaction of
psychological needs underlies motivation.
In sum, when psychological needs are satisfied, an individual will
behave in self-determined ways that will lead to initiation and persistence in
an exercise program. Research suggests that autonomy is a primary psycho-
logical need driving motivation to participate in activities, including exercise.
Furthermore, there is substantial evidence that competence and relatedness
are central components of self-determination theory, and that they have been
fruitful in explaining exercise behavior. In addition to accounting for differ-
ent types of motivational factors, self-determination theory accounts for the
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

interaction of an individual’s activity level within his or her social environ-

ment (Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2004; Deci & Ryan, 2008). Finally, intrinsic and
self-determined extrinsic motivation are associated with higher satisfaction
of psychological needs than nonself-determined extrinsic motivation and are
also associated with exercise adherence (Deci et al., 2001).
Self-determination theory has been an adequate framework for predict-
ing exercise adherence, suggesting methods of increasing motivation and
providing a comprehensive model of describing the heterogeneous nature
of an individual’s exercise behaviors. Little research, however, has investi-
gated exercise patterns and motivational factors in older adults within this
framework. The following section reviews the existing research.

Exercise Motivation in Older Adults

Dacey, Baltzell, and Zaichkowsky (2008) investigated whether intrinsic and
extrinsic motives could differentiate between levels of physical activity in
older adults (age range 50–79; m = 63.8). Both intrinsic motivation and self-
determined extrinsic motivation correlated with higher levels of physical
activity than nonself-determined extrinsic motives. For example, enjoy-
ment, an intrinsic motivation, correlated with the highest levels of exercise.
Fitness, social/emotional, and stress management are described as being
self-determined extrinsic motivations, which correlated with moderate levels
of exercise participation. Weight management and appearance are consid-
ered to be nonself-determined extrinsic motives, and, accordingly, these
two factors correlated negatively with exercise. Dacey et al.’s (2008) find-
ings suggest that self-determination theory may be an appropriate approach
to studying exercise motivation in older adults.

Purpose
The current study is the first to investigate the relationship of psychologi-
cal needs satisfaction and exercise in older adults. Additionally, the current
study sought to examine differences in intrinsic motivation, self-determined
 186 R. A. Kirkland et al.

extrinsic motivation, and nonself-determined extrinsic motivation in older

adult exercisers and nonexercisers.

Hypothesis
We hypothesized that exercisers and nonexercisers would be significantly
different in intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation.
Furthermore, we hypothesized that exercisers would show differential
needs satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness compared to
nonexercisers.
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

METHODS

The study was conducted primarily in Colorado’s Front Range (N = 172)

with a small subsample obtained in Miracopa County, Arizona (N = 37).
The internal review board of a Midwestern university approved the study.

Participants
The participant group was made up of 209 adults (86 male/123 female) age
55 and older. Ages ranged from 56 to 95 years (M = 68.69, SD = 10.19, for
the total sample; M = 70.32, SD = 11.13, for females; M = 65.85, SD = 7.50
for males). A t test indicated that females were significantly older than males
(t = −3.416, p = .001, d = −.492). Males and females did not differ signif-
icantly in exercise (t = .597, p = .551). This sample was highly educated
according to self-reported demographics; 56% (n = 110) of the participants
had a bachelor’s degree and 38% (n = 73) had graduate degrees. The males
tended to be better educated than the females, with 71% of the males hav-
ing a bachelor’s degree or higher while only 49% of the females had a
bachelor’s degree or higher. The socioeconomic status of the participants
was primarily middle to upper class as inferred by occupations reported
(lawyers, engineers, scientists, physician assistants, financial analysts, airline
pilots, and research scientists are a few examples). Seventy-eight percent of
the participants were Caucasian.

Instruments
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY SCALE FOR ELDERLY ADULTS (PASE)
The PASE is a 10-item scale developed specifically to assess physical activity
levels in adults age 65 and older during a 1-week time frame (Washburn,
Smith, Jette, & Janney, 1993). While three subscales are calculated, including
leisure, household, and occupational physical activities, only leisure is used
in the current study.
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 187

Exercise is typically defined as a subset of physical activity; exercise is

planned, structured, and repetitive for the specific purpose of improving or
maintaining physical fitness (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985). In the
current study, exercise is the variable of interest and, therefore, household
and occupational subscales are not used.
Several studies have examined, and found evidence for, the validity
of PASE scores for populations of older adults (Washburn et al., 1993;
Washburn, McAule, Katula, Mihalko, & Boileau, 1999). Washburn et al.
(1999) examined test-retest reliability of PASE scores after a 3–7-week
interval and found a reliability coefficient of .75.
An examination of the exercise items found significant skew because of
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

the large number of participants who did not exercise at all. For example,
item five states: “Over the past 7 days, how often did you engage in stren-
uous sport and recreational activities such as jogging, swimming, cycling,
singles tennis, aerobic dance, skiing or other similar activities?” When exam-
ining the distribution of responses on item five, it was noted that 45% of the
participants had scores of 0, reflecting no exercise in this domain. The rest
of the participants were spread across 10 of the 12 responses. Accordingly,
we classified individuals as exercisers and nonexercisers based on item
number five.

EXERCISE MOTIVATION INVENTORY-REVISED OLDER ADULT (EMI-2/OA)

Exercise motives were measured using the EMI-2/OA, a 37-item Likert-type
scale. We used the version modified by Dacey, Baltzell, and Zaichkowsky
(2008), which was developed specifically for populations of older adults.
Participants were asked to rate on a scale of 1–5 (from “not at all true for
me” to “very true for me”) reasons for engaging in physical activity.
The EMI-2/OA provides a mean score for six subscales: enjoyment,
fitness, social/emotional, social/emotional stress management, weight man-
agement, and appearance. The current study is primarily concerned with
the distinction between intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic moti-
vation, and nonself-determined extrinsic motivation. Based on previous
research, scores for these three variables are obtained by collapsing the six
factors from the EMI-2OA and calculating their means (Dacey, 2004; Dacey
et al., 2008). The intrinsic motivation subscale is made up of the enjoyment
factor. The self-determined extrinsic motivation subscale is comprised of
three factors; fitness, social/emotional, and stress management. The nonself-
determined extrinsic motivation subscale includes weight management and
appearance factors.
In the current study, internal consistency was calculated for EMI-2/OA
scores for each of the subscales used in this study. Cronbach’s alpha was .95
for intrinsic motivation, .85 for self-determined extrinsic motivation, and .79
for nonself-determined motivation (N = 209).
 188 R. A. Kirkland et al.

BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS IN EXERCISE SCALE (BPNE)

Vlachopoulos and Michailidou (2006) developed the BPNE to assess psy-
chological needs satisfaction of autonomy, competency, and relatedness
in exercise. This 12-item scale asks participants to respond from 1 to 5
(from “not at all true” to “definitely true”) for each of the items. The
three subscales—psychological needs satisfaction of autonomy, competency,
and relatedness—are assessed by four items each. The BPNE is scored by
calculating a mean, for a possible range of 1–5, for each subscale.
In the current study, internal consistency was calculated for each of
the subscales using Cronbach’s alpha. Reliability was good for all three
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

subscales; .83 for autonomy, .87 for competence, and .95 for relatedness.

DEMOGRAPHICS
The final portion of the survey included demographic questions. Information
gathered included the participants’ age, gender, ethnicity, marital status,
residence status, general health, injuries, arthritis, financial strain, care-
giver status, education, and occupation. The demographic questions were
designed for the dual purpose of collecting information regarding the sam-
ple (age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status) as well as obtaining
information regarding possible extraneous variables.

Procedures
A total of 500 surveys were distributed between November 2009 and
February 2010 in Front Range, Colorado, and Maricopa, Arizona. The 6-page
survey takes approximately 15 minutes to fill out and includes 74 items.
In an effort to increase cooperation of retirement communities, one of two
incentives were provided: either a free exercise-band class or a presentation
on exercise motivation. The response rate where presentations were offered
was 54%, and for all locations with no incentives was 53%. The response
rate was highest for surveys collected by snowball sampling, which was
68%. The final response rate for the entire study was 45%.

RESULTS

Differences between exercisers and nonexercisers (Table 1) were exam-

ined with a series of t tests with Bonferroni adjustment. A statistically
significant effect was found for exercisers versus nonexercisers in intrinsic
motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, nonself-determined extrin-
sic motivation, autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Table 2). All the
differences were beyond a small effect size, bearing in mind that from .3
to .5 is considered moderate and from .5 to 1.0 is considered large, which,
consequently, would not be considered trivial (Cohen, 1988).
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 189

TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics for Motivation and Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction

Female Male
Variable N Total (n = 124) (n = 80)

Intrinsic motivation 209 3.23 (1.1) 3.19 (1.2) 3.37 (1.1)

Nonexercisers 96 2.68 (1.2)
Exercisers 113 3.70 (0.9)
Self-determined extrinsic motivation 209 2.97 (0.9) 3.02 (0.9) 2.90 (0.9)
Nonexercisers 96 2.66 (1.0)
Exercisers 113 3.22 (0.7)
Nonself-determined extrinsic motivation 209 2.97 (1.3) 2.98 (1.3) 3.01 (1.2)
Nonexercisers 96 2.63 (1.4)
Exercisers 113 3.25 (1.0)
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

Autonomy 209 3.78 (1.2) 3.93 (1.1) 3.64 (1.2)

Nonexercisers 96 3.34 (1.4)
Exercisers 113 4.16 (0.9)
Competence 209 3.36 (1.3) 3.46 (1.2) 3.26 (1.3)
Nonexercisers 96 3.09 (1.3)
Exercisers 113 3.59 (1.1)
Relatedness 209 3.51 (1.5) 3.86 (1.3) 3.02 (1.5)
Nonexercisers 96 3.16 (1.6)
Exercisers 113 3.80 (1.3)

TABLE 2 t Test Statistics and Cohen’s d Testing the Effect of Exercises Versus
Nonexercisers on Motivation and Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction

Variable t d

Intrinsic motivation 6.89a .98

Self-determined extrinsic motivation 4.73a .67
Nonself-determined extrinsic motivation 3.47a .50
Autonomy 5.12a .74
Competence 2.84a .40
Relatedness 3.10a .44
a
Significant beyond the .05 level with a Bonferroni adjustment.

A series of two-by-two ANOVAs examined gender differences and

gender by exercisers/nonexercisers interaction in the motivation variables
previously examined. Using a Bonferroni adjustment, females were sig-
nificantly higher than males in the psychological need of relatedness
(f = 19.443, p <.001, d = .59). No other significant gender differences
or interactions were found.

DISCUSSION

Significant differences were found between exercises and nonexercisers

for intrinsic motivation, self-determined extrinsic motivation, nonself-
determined extrinsic motivation, autonomy, competence, and relatedness
at the .01 level. As self-determination theory predicts, the strongest effect
 190 R. A. Kirkland et al.

was found in intrinsic motivation, suggesting that exercise enjoyment

is a particularly effective motivational factor for older adults. In addi-
tion to intrinsic motives, older adult exercisers differed significantly from
nonexercisers in self-determined extrinsic motivation (fitness improvements,
social/emotional benefits, and stress management) and nonself-determined
extrinsic motivation (appearance and weight management).
Self-determination theory postulates that individuals who are intrinsi-
cally motivated to exercise are most likely to engage in regular exercise.
Furthermore, the theory anticipates that individuals under the guise of
self-determined extrinsic motivates will habitually participate in exercise.
Compared to intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation,
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

the theory specifies that nonself-determined motivation is the least effec-

tive motive for exercise adherence. The results in the current study follow
this pattern; intrinsic motivation had the largest effect, followed by self-
determined extrinsic motivation, and finally nonself-determined extrinsic
motivation, which had the smallest effect. Notably, however, all three types
of motives in the current study had moderate to large effects, suggesting that
each of the examined motives are strong factors propelling older adults to
exercise.
A rational suggestion for practitioners working with older adults is to
first identify whether each individual client/patient is working from an intrin-
sic or extrinsic form of motivation. If an individual is already working from
an intrinsic framework, the practitioner should be cognizant of enhancing
and not sabotaging their intrinsic motivation. When considering the large
effect of intrinsic motivation for exercisers versus nonexercisers, it might
be advantageous for practitioners to encourage a motivational shift from an
external to a more intrinsic state. Finally, it is important for practitioners
working with this population to consider that extrinsic motivational factors
may elicit a motivational scheme that will be sufficient to initiate and sustain
exercise behavior.
Practitioners should not “throw in the towel” when they find clients who
are not intrinsically motivated. In this study, results indicate that older adults
who exercise are adequately motivated by extrinsic factors. Professionals
working with older adults should consider the potential of utilizing extrinsic
motivational factors as a starting place to encourage exercise commencement
and compliance.
The results from the current study also provide evidence that the psy-
chological needs satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are
positively associated with exercise adherence in older adults. The moder-
ate to large effect sizes for the aforementioned variables suggest that older
adult exercisers have attained psychological needs satisfaction. Professionals
working with older adults should consider the possibility of encouraging
this population to exercise by enhancing psychological needs satisfaction by
increasing autonomy, competence, and/or relatedness.
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 191

A description of possible motivation interventions is beyond the scope

of this article, but the point should be made that practitioners should be
cognizant of building their clients’ sense of autonomy and, in particular,
competency. A primary finding in self-determination theory research is that
the more choice a person has in a situation, the more autonomy is felt
and, therefore, the more likely the person is to engage in and adhere to
an activity (Gagne, Ryan, & Bargmann, 2003; Krane, Greenleaf, & Snow,
1997). Practitioners can put these research results into practice by giving
older adults as much choice as possible in exercise program design and
increasing their perceived exercise competence by encouraging appropriate
goals and challenges (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Soenens, & Lens, 2004).
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

Optimal social environments are not likely to be identical for two

individuals. In order to satisfy the psychological need of relatedness, a
professional must accurately identify an individual’s motives to foster the
environment that is socially supportive to that given individual. In other
words, the specific motivational needs of each client will dictate the impor-
tant aspects to emphasize or deemphasize. By evaluating and identifying
motives, practitioners working with older adults can appropriately foster a
positive social environment, which is likely to be a critical component to the
client’s long-term success or failure in adhering to an exercise program.
The current study findings suggest that older adults who exercise are
driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic motives as well as satisfaction of basic
psychological needs. Additionally, this study supports the premise of self-
determination theory, which is that satisfaction of the psychological needs
is related to motivation and exercise adherence. Accordingly, practitioners
might want to consider motivating older adults to exercise based on the
tenants of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in addition to endorsing
motivational factors.
A logical next step for future research would be to investigate inter-
ventions for optimizing motivational climates for older adults. Edmunds,
Ntoumanis, and Duda (2007) conducted an experimental study testing a
self-determined theory-based intervention in a sample of female college
students and staff who signed up for a 10-week exercise class. The exper-
imental group had significantly greater attendance in the exercise class
and had a significant increase in relatedness and competence compared
to the control group. Results from Edmunds et al. (2007) provide evidence
that an intervention based on self-determination theory can be effective in
increasing exercise adherence in a real-life setting. One worthwhile line of
research would focus on investigating the effectiveness of similar interven-
tions in older adults. Prospective studies using an experimental research
design and randomly assigning different types of motivation interventions
can help researchers and practitioners understand the direction of the var-
ious components of self-determination theory and their effects on exercise
adherence.
 192 R. A. Kirkland et al.

Limitations
This study is limited in its ability to generalize to a population with demo-
graphic features outside this sample. The sample in the present study
is almost entirely Caucasian, highly educated, and upper-to-middle class,
which does not equally represent proportions in the broad population of
older adults. Another limitation of the current study relates to measurement.
First, the current study uses self-report measures of behavior, which can
be impacted by social desirability. Also, the majority of the data for this
study (83%) was collected in Colorado during the winter. When consid-
ering the environmental conditions of winter in Colorado, it is likely that
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

PASE scores were lower than they would be in summer months. In the
current study, about a dozen participants commented in the open-ended
question at the end of the survey about their exercise levels being lower
because of the winter. Finally, directional effects cannot be inferred because
of the cross-sectional, nonexperimental research design. For instance, it is
unclear if intrinsic motivation leads to psychological need satisfaction or if
psychological need satisfaction leads to intrinsic motivation.
A substantial amount of research provides evidence that exercise adher-
ence is greatest when individuals are intrinsically motivated (Wilson, Mack, &
Grattan, 2008). Furthermore, self-determination theory research suggests that
the needs satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are associ-
ated with physical activity persistence (Vlachopoulos & Neikou, 2007). The
current study provides support to the idea that older adults who exercise are
active in their pursuit to satisfy the three psychological needs of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, providing evidence that older adults are under
the guise of the motivational tenets put forth by self-determination theory.
A long line of research provides evidence that exercise is associated
with both the quality and length of life. Physical fitness is intimately tied
to not only the quality of an individual’s life but also to the survival of our
genome. A premise of achieving physical fitness, and hence reaping health
benefits, rests on engaging in a long-term exercise program. The dialectic
nature of self-determination theory is based on the proclivity of individ-
uals to be actively oriented toward growth in addition to the interaction
of the individual with the social environment. The current study suggests
that older adult exercise motivation can be investigated from the theoretical
perspective of self-determination theory.

REFERENCES

Acree, L. S., Longfors, J., Fjeldstad, A. S., Fjeldstad, C., Schank, B., Nickel, K., . . .
Gardner, A. W. (2006). Physical activity is related to quality of life in older
adults. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 4, 37–42.
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 193

Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117,
520–529.
Blais, M. R., Sabourin, S., Boucher, C., & Vallerand, R. J. (1990). Toward a motiva-
tional model of couple happiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
59, 1025–1031.
Buchner, D. M. (2009). Physical activity and prevention of cardiovascular disease in
older adults. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 25(4), 661–675.
Caspersen, C. J., Powell, K., & Christenson, G. M. (1985). Physical activity, exercise
and physical fitness: Definitions and distinctions for health-related research.
Public Health Reports, 100(2), 126–131.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.).
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

Cohen-Mansfield, J., Marx, M. S., Biddison, J. R., & Guralnik, J. M. (2004). Socio-
environmental exercise preferences among older adults. Preventive Medicine,
38, 808–811.
Conroy, D. E., Elliot, A. J., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2007). Competence motivation
in sport and exercise: The hierarchical model of achievement motivation and
self-determination theory. In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.),
Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp. 23–34).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Dacey, M. (2004). Exercise motivations inventory-revised (EMI-2) applied to older
adults: Exploratory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
75(1), A-38.
Dacey, M., Baltzell, A., & Zaichkowsky, L. (2008). Older adults’ intrinsic and extrin-
sic motivation toward physical activity. American Journal of Health Behavior,
32(6), 570–582.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in
human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological
well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23.
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Gagne, M., Leone, D. R., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. P.
(2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations
of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
27, 928–942.
Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2007). Testing a self-determined theory-
based teaching style intervention in the exercise domain. European Journal of
Social Psychology, 38, 375–388.
Elliot, A. J. (2005). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals.
Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 169–189.
Frederick, C. M., & Ryan, R.M. (1993). Differences in motivation for sport and exer-
cise and their relations with participation and mental health. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 16, 124–126.
Frederick-Recascino, C. M. (2002). Self-determination theory and participation moti-
vation research in the sport and exercise domain. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan
(Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 277–294). Rochester, NY:
University of Rochester Press.
 194 R. A. Kirkland et al.

Gagne, M. (2003). The role of autonomy support and autonomy orientation in

behavior engagement. Motivation and Emotion, 27(3), 199–223.
Gagne, M., Ryan, R. M., & Bargmann, K. (2003). Autonomy support and need satis-
faction in the motivation and well-being of gymnasts. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 15, 372–390.
Geithner, C. A., & McKenney, D. R. (2010). Strategies for aging well. Strength and
Conditioning Journal, 22(5), 36–52.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). Autonomy in children’s learning: An experi-
mental and individual difference investigation. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 52, 890–898.
Haber, D., & Rhodes, D. (2004). Health contracts with sedentary older adults. The
Gerontologist, 44(6), 827–835.
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

Hagger, M., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Culverhouse, T., & Biddle, S.J.H. (2003). The
process by which perceived autonomy support in physical education promotes
leisure time physical activity intentions and behavior: A trans-contextual model.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(4), 784–795.
Hirsch, C. H., Diehr, P., Newman, A. B., Gerrior, S. A., Pratt, C., Lebowitz, M. D., &
Jackson, S. A. (2010). Physical activity and years of healthy life in older adults:
Results from the cardiovascular health study. Journal of Aging and Physical
Activity, 18, 313–334.
Katula, J. A., Sipe, M., Rejeski, W. J., & Focht, B. C. (2004). Strength training in older
adults: An empowering intervention. Medicine in Science in Sport & Exercise,
38(1), 106–111.
Krane, V., Greenleaf, C. A., & Snow, J. (1997). Reaching for gold and the practice
of glory: A motivational case study of an elite gymnast. Sport Psychologist, 11,
65–71.
Kruger, J., Ham, S. A., & Sanker, S. (2008). Physical inactivity during leisure time
among older adults—Behavioral risk factor surveillance system, 2005. Journal
of Aging and Physical Activity, 16, 280–291.
Lee, I. M., Sesso, H. D., & Paffenbarger, R. S. (2000). Physical activity and coronary
heart disease risk in men: Does duration of exercise episodes predict risk?
Circulation, 102, 981–986.
Losier, G. F., Bourque, P. E., & Vallerand, R. J. (1993). A motivational model of
leisure motivation in the elderly. Journal of Psychology, 127, 153–170.
McDermott, A. Y., & Mernitz, H. (2006). Exercise and older patients: Prescribing
guidelines. American Family Physician, 74, 437–444.
Nelson, M. E., Rejeski, W. J., Blair, S. N., Duncan, P. W., Judge, J. O., King, A. C.,
. . . Castaneda-Sceppa, C. (2007). Physical activity and public health in older
adults: Recommendations from the American College of Sports Medicine and
the American Heart Association. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise,
39, 1435–1445.
O’Conner, B. P., Rousseau, F. L., & Maki, S. A. (2004). Physical exercise bod-
ily changes: The emergence of benefits and limits on benefits. International
Journal of Aging and Human Development, 59(3), 177–203.
Pollard, J. M., Taylor, W. C., & Smith, D. P. (2000). Patterns and correlates of physical
activity among older adults residing independently in retirement communities.
Activities, Adaptation, & Aging, 24(4), 1–17.
 Exercise Motivation in Older Adults 195

Pollock, M. L., Franklin, B. A., Balady, G. J., Chaitman, B. L., Fleg, J. L., Fletcher,
B., .. Bazzarre, T. (2000). Resistance exercise in individuals with and without
cardiovascular disease: Benefits, rationale, safety, and prescription. Circulation,
101, 828–833.
Rejeski, J. W., Ip, E. H., Katula, A. J., & White, L. (2006). Older adults’ desire for
physical competence. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise; Symposium,
38(1), 100–105.
Richer, S. F., & Vallerand, R. J. (1995). Supervisor’ interactional styles and subor-
dinates’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The Journal of Social Psychology,
135(6), 707–712.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic
definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25,
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

54–67.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilita-
tion of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American
Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human auton-
omy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will? Journal of
Personality, 74, 1557–1586.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2007). Active human nature: Self-determination theory and
the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. In M. S. Hagger
& N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in
exercise and sport (pp. 1–19). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Ryan, R. M., Fredrick, C. M., Lepes, D., Rubio, N., & Sheldon K. (1997). Intrinsic
motivation and exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology,
28, 335–354.
Schnohr, P. (2009). Physical activity in leisure time: Impact on mortality. Danish
Medical Bulletin, 56(1), 40–71.
Schutzer, K., & Graves, S. (2004). Barriers and motivations to exercise in older adults.
Preventative Medicine, 39, 1056–1061.
Sebire, S. J., Standage, M., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2009). Examining intrinsic versus
extrinsic exercise goals: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. Journal
of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31, 199–210.
Shephard, R. J., & Balady, G. J. (1999). Exercise and cardiovascular therapy.
Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Associate, 99, 963–972.
Spirduso, W. W., & Cronin, D. L. (2001). Exercise dose-response effects on quality
of life and independent living in older adults. Medicine & Science in Sport &
Exercise, 33(65), S598–S608.
Spray, C. M., Wang, J., Biddle, S., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2003). Understanding motiva-
tion in sport: An experimental test of achievement goal and self-determination
theories. European Journal of Sport Science, 6(1), 43–51.
Stewart, K. J. (2002). Exersize training and the cardiovascular consequence of type 2
diabetes and hypertension: Plausible mechanisms for improving cardiovascular
health. JAMA, 288(13), 1622–1631.
Taylor, I. M., & Ntoumanis, N. (2007). Teacher motivational strategies and student
self-determination in physical education. Journal of Educational Psychology,
99(4), 753–760.
 196 R. A. Kirkland et al.

Thurston, M., & Green, K. (2004). Adherence to exercise in later life: How can
exercise on prescription programs be made more effective? Health Promotion
International, 19(3), 378–387.
Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory: A view from the
hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Psychological Inquiry,
11(4), 312–319.
Vallerand, R., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). Intrinsic motivation in sport. Exercise
and Sport Sciences Reviews, 15, 389–425.
Vallerand, R. J., & Losier, G. F. (1999). An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation in sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 142–169.
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2004). How to become a
persevering exerciser? Providing a clear, future intrinsic goal in an autonomy-
Downloaded by [University of Northern Colorado] at 11:05 20 September 2011

supportive way. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 232–249.

Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2007). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal
promotion in exercise and sport: Understanding the differential impacts on
performance and persistence. In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.),
Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp. 167–180).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Vlachopoulos, S. P., & Michailidou, S. (2006). Development and initial validation of
a measure of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in exercise: The basic
psychological needs in exercise scale. Measurement in Physical Education and
Exercise Science, 10(3), 179–201.
Vlachopoulos, S. P., & Neikou, E. (2007). A prospective study of the relationship of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness with exercise attendance, adherence,
and dropout. Journal of Sports Medicine Physical Fitness, 47, 475–482.
Washburn, R. A., McAule, A. E., Katula, S. L., Mihalko, S. L, & Boileau, R. A. (1999).
The physical activity scale for the elderly (PASE): Evidence for validity. Journal
of Clinical Epidemiology, 52, 643–651.
Washburn, R. A., Smith, K. W., Jette, A. M., & Janney, C. A. (1993). The physical
activity scale for the elderly (PASE): Development and evaluation. Journal of
Clinical Epidemiology, 46, 153–162.
Williams, G. C., Gagne, M., Mushlin, A. I., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Motivation
for behavior change in patients with chest pain. Health Education, 105(4),
304–321.
Wilson, P. M., Mack, D. E., & Grattan, K. P. (2008). Understanding motivation for
exercise: A self-determination theory perspective. Canadian Psychology, 49(3),
248–256.
Wilson, P. M., Rodgers, W. M., & Fraser, S. N. (2002). Cross-validation of the revised
motivation for physical activity measure in active women. Research Quarterly
for Exercise & Sport, 73(4), 471–478.
Yazdanyar, A., & Newman, A. B. (2009). The burden of cardiovascular disease in
the elderly: Morbidity, morality, and costs. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 25(4),
563–577.

View publication stats