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Factorsinvolved Taper Vo.20No.3 PDF
Factorsinvolved Taper Vo.20No.3 PDF
Factorsinvolved Taper Vo.20No.3 PDF
489-502
The study investigated several factors (level of exposure to English language, metacognitive awareness, and
country) that affect the use of language learning strategies among Taiwanese students who live in Taiwan and
in the Philippines and who speak English. The language learning strategies were also studied as predictors of
oral proficiency (measured using the Test for Spoken English). The participants were 80 Taiwanese students
studying in the Philippines and 66 Taiwanese studying in Taiwan. It was found in the study that English
exposure and country of residence were significant predictors of language learning strategy. Students living
and studying in the Philippines with high English exposure had higher oral proficiency than the Taiwanese in
Taiwan sample. All language learning strategies when taken together significantly predicted oral proficiency
(R=.58, p<.05). Only memory (B=-2.03), compensation (B=1.31), metacognition (B=1.54), and affect (B=-
2.73) of the six strategies, significantly predicted oral proficiency.
Keywords: Language learning strategies, oral proficiency, metacognitive knowledge awareness, English
exposure
In second language acquisition, the effective The present study is based on the social cognitive
use of learning strategies is often associated with approach to learning (Bandura, 1986), according
increased language proficiency. Previous studies to which human functioning is seen as reciprocal
show that people differ in their use of learning interactions between behaviors, environmental
strategies according to some personal as well as variables, cognition, and other personal factors.
environmental characteristics (Bremner, 1999; By using this conceptual focus, this study aims to
Hsiao & Oxford, 2002; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner- investigate the effects of individuals’ metacognitive
Manzanares, Kupper, & Russo, 1985; Peacock & knowledge awareness and level of English language
Ho, 2003). Among the personal characteristics that exposure on their use of different learning strategies in
may influence individuals’ use of learning strategies acquiring the second language as well as the resulting
are motivation (Kim & Margolis, 2000; Macleod, P., oral proficiency.
2002) as well as cognitive and metacognitive abilities
(Peacock & Ho, 2003). Environmental factors include, Exposure in English
among other things, the level of exposure that an Among the environmental factors that can affect
individual has to the second language, contextual, and individuals’ acquisition of a second language is the
cultural variables (Ji, Zhang, & Nisbett, 2004; Kim & degree to which they are exposed to that language.
Margolis, 2000).
one’s own knowledge was first studied by Flavell Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) classified
(1971) under the label of metacognition. Knowledge fifty strategies in learning English into six specific
of cognition is made specific in the study as applied categories: Memory, cognitive, compensation,
to learning English. metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. These
Several studies on metacognitive knowledge language learning strategies differ with metacognitive
assessing individuals in different domains (Corno, knowledge awareness. The factors of SILL are
1986; Cross & Paris, 1988; Schoenfeld, 1987; cognitive in nature, while MKAI refers specifically to
Schraw, 1997; Swanson, 1990) have shown that metacognition. The SILL as cognitive skills refers to
individuals who are more aware of their strengths, processing of information while metacognition such as
limitations, and ways of monitoring and regulating the MKAI refers to the awareness in processing such
their knowledge perform better in cognitive tasks and information. An individual can have metacognitive
transfer knowledge more efficiently from one situation knowledge of their language strategy use (see Magno,
to another. However, these metacognitive skills are not 2010 for further distinction between cognitive and
innate in individuals but rather are improved through metacognitive skills).
teaching and training, hence learners rely heavily on Previous studies have observed differences in
the cognitive strategies that are taught to them (Victori the amount and type of learning strategies utilized
& Lockhart, 1995). Thus, there are individuals who according to students’ gender (Peacock & Ho, 2003)
are not aware of using metacognitive knowledge but and learning levels (Shmais, 2003). The results of these
are able to learn and acquire a second language. studies suggest that individuals with distinct personal
There are also a limited number of studies characteristics are likely to use different strategies and
explaining specifically the application of metacognitive that, in turn, those strategies may aid their language
knowledge awareness (MKAI) on language. Previous proficiency in different ways. Choice of strategies
studies predominantly discuss learning strategies that appears to be influenced by individual differences
explain language learning (Turner, 1989; Wenden, brought about by the interaction of specific personal
1993). It was only recently when metacognitive and situational factors (Macleod, 2002). For instance,
knowledge was used to facilitate learning in general. metacognitive, cognitive, and compensation strategies
These studies, however, were not specifically designed consistently emerge as the ones most commonly used
to assess second language learning in the context of by second language learners in studies done in various
strategy use and oral proficiency. In the present study, contexts (Bremner, 1999; Magno, 2008; Peacock &
it is also being hypothesized that individuals with Ho, 2003). Second language learning strategies shown
higher metacognitive knowledge will consequently by university students in Thailand, Puerto Rico, and
have better oral proficiency. China (countries where English is learned as a second
language) coincide with the aforementioned findings
Language Learning Strategies (Bedel & Oxford, 1996, as cited in Peacock & Ho,
It has been shown in previous studies that the use 2003; Green & Oxford, 1995, as cited in Peacock &
of different learning strategies plays an important role Ho, 2003; Mullins, 1992, as cited in Peacock & Ho,
in the acquisition of a second language. Strategies of 2003). For instance, Ku (1997, as cited in Peacock
learning a second language consist of techniques that & Ho, 2003) suggested that Taiwanese students are
learners use to help them retain and retrieve newly likely to use compensation strategies more frequently
acquired information (Shmais, 2003). Oxford (as in learning the English language; however, the
cited in Hsiao & Oxford, 2002; Lee, 2003) defines results of her study were not conclusive. Considering
second language learning strategies as specific actions, both levels of exposure to the second language and
behaviors, steps or techniques used intentionally individuals’ level of metacognitive knowledge, it is
for improvement in utilizing a new language. being hypothesized that individuals with high exposure
These learning strategies reflect students’ cognitive, to the second language and high metacognitive
metacognitive, and socio-affective styles of learning knowledge will use more language learning strategies
(O’Malley et al., 1985). and have better oral proficiency than individuals
The most comprehensive and widely used with low exposure to the second language and low
categorization of second language learning strategies metacognitive knowledge.
is the one done by Oxford (1989). Oxford’s Strategy
492 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3
predictors of Taiwanese students’ oral proficiency in point scale (always, often, sometimes, rarely, never).
English? The items were reviewed by two English professors
To study the relationship between second language and two psychologists who specialize in language
exposure and metacognitive knowledge awareness, research. The checklist was pilot tested with a sample
Taiwanese college students living and studying in of students taking general psychology courses from
Taiwan and in the Philippines were requested to two different universities in the Philippines. Results
respond to a scale about their use of learning strategies of this analysis yielded an alpha coefficient value of
in acquiring a second language and undergo an oral .87, indicating high reliability. In the current study with
English language proficiency test. They were then 146 respondents an alpha coefficient value of .89 was
assigned to one of two metacognitive knowledge obtained which indicates higher reliability. Construct
groups (high vs. low) according to their scores in a validity of the instrument was determined in two ways.
metacognitive assessment. First, evidence of divergent validity was tested where
the mean scores of the CELE among the Taiwanese in
Method the Philippines was significantly higher than the mean
scores of the Taiwanese in Taiwan. Second, the factor
Participants structure of the CELE was tested where a one-factor
Participants were 146 Taiwanese college students. structure was compared to a four-factor structure
Sixty-six are students living and studying in (exposure at home, with friends, in schools, and with
Taiwanese universities (M age = 17.2, SD = 2.1), media) measurement model using Confirmatory Factor
while 80 are Taiwanese students living and studying Analysis (CFA). A one-factor structure of the CELE
in the Philippines (M age = 18.4, SD = 3.8). The was supported where the fit was better (χ2=590.53,
two Taiwanese samples are all college students df=170, AIC=4.62, SBC=5.44, BCCVI=4.72) than the
who started to take English as part of their school four factor structure (χ2=658.47, df=224, AIC=5.26,
curriculum in 2001. They belong to the middle and SBC=6.33, BCCVI=5.40). A single score for CELE
upper class. The Taiwanese students studying in the was used as a predictor in the present study.
Philippines were born and raised in Taiwan but are
currently spending 2 to 3 years in the Philippines to Metacognitive Knowledge Awareness Inventory
study various preservice education course. These 80 (MKAI). The MKAI was used to measure metacognitive
students came to the Philippines as college freshmen. awareness in speaking English. It is composed of 17
Differences in their interaction and use of English items assessing the degree of awareness of one’s own
were assessed in the Checklist for English Language knowledge of strengths and weaknesses in learning
Exposure (CELE). A significant difference between (Schraw & Dennison, 1994). It includes three sub-
these two groups English Language Exposure processes that facilitate the reflective aspect of
was found, p<.05. Participation in the study was metacognitive knowledge awareness: declarative
voluntary and no extra course credits were given to knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional
the students. knowledge. The instructions in answering the
questionnaire were contextualized in learning English
Instruments as a second language. Schraw and Dennison (1994)
Checklist for English Language Exposure reported that in a factor replication analysis, the
(CELE). The CELE was administered to the coefficient alpha derived for knowledge of cognition
students in Taiwan and in the Philippines. The survey scale reached .88. In the study, the obtained coefficient
checklist is composed of 23 items that assesses alpha is .90 which also indicates high reliability. The
various situations (at home, with friends, at school construct validity of the MKAI measure was tested in
and in the media) in which individuals are exposed to the present study by determining its factor structure.
the English language. These items depict situations A one-factor structure was compared with a three-
where individuals listen to or are required to speak factor structure (declarative knowledge, procedural
the English language (see Appendix A). Participants knowledge, and conditional knowledge) measurement
answered the survey checklist by marking the option model using CFA. The sample in the study favors
that best corresponds to the frequency with which a one-factor model (χ2=451.19, df=119, AIC=3.58,
they experience that particular situation on a five- SBC=4.28, BCCVI=3.65) as compared to a two-factor
494 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3
model (χ2=490.17, df=116, AIC=4.62, SBC=5.38, has been reviewed according to the degree of
BCCVI=4.69). A single factor for MKAI was used in congruence between the test’s theoretical basis and
the succeeding analysis. test specifications (Douglas & Smith, 1997; Hudson,
1994). The instrument has obtained a high degree of
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning concordance with interrater reliability ranging from
(SILL). The SILL was used to determine the degree 0.91 to 0.92, test form reliability ranging from 0.97
to which different language learning strategies are to 0.98, and test score reliability ranging from 0.89 to
used by the participants (Oxford, 1989). The SILL is 0.90. In the present study, the TSE obtained an alpha
a self-report questionnaire with 50 items that is used coefficient of .90 indicating high reliability of the
to collect and analyze information composed of six scale. In the present study, two raters were used to
factors: Memory strategy (I use new English words in assess the recorded responses of the participants in the
a sentence so I can remember them), cognitive strategy TSE. The coefficient of concordance of the two raters
(I practice the sounds of English), compensation is .72 for the Taiwanese students in Taiwan sample
strategy (I make up new words if I do not know the and .67 for the Taiwanese students in the Philippines
right ones in English), metacognitive strategy (I pay sample.
attention when someone is speaking English), affective
strategy (I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using Procedure
English), and social strategy (I ask English speakers The data was gathered in the Philippines and in
to correct me when I talk) (Peacock & Ho, 2003). Taiwan. The participants answered three scales:
The participants were asked to report on how often CELE, MKAI, and SILL. Partial counterbalancing
they use each of the six learning strategies, using a of the order of instruments presentation was done.
five-point Likert scale (ranging from never or almost One possible order of presentation was: first, the
never to always or almost always). Different studies Checklist for English Language Exposure (CELE)
on the SILL have shown high content, predictive, was administered to the participants followed by the
and construct validity. Various reliability studies have MKAI and SILL. The participants were instructed
also yielded high internal consistency obtaining a to read each statement and check their answer to
Cronbach’s alpha of above .90 (Oxford & Burry-Stock, each of the items. The participants were requested
1995). In the present study, the internal consistencies to make sure that they have answered all items in
of the scales are .74, .82, .65, .84, .62, and .78 for the scales.
memory strategy, cognitive strategy, compensation After administering the three scales, the students
strategy, metacognitive strategy, affective strategy, underwent the Test of Spoken English (TSE). The
and social strategy, respectively. The six factors of participants were informed that the test would last for
the SILL were tested in a measurement model using about 20 minutes. They listened to an audio-recording
CFA. All the items were significant for each respective of the TSE while reading the same items in a test
factor and the goodness of fit was adequate for a six- booklet. They were then asked to respond to all the
factor structure (χ2=2020.69, df=1112, RMSEA=.07, items in English. The time allotted for each response
PGI=.90, and GFI=.91). ranged from 30 to 90 seconds. First, the participants
were given 30 seconds to study a map and were
Test of Spoken English (TSE). The TSE which asked to answer three questions about it. Next, the
is part of the Test of English as a Foreign Language participants were asked to look at a sequence of
(TOEFL) was used to determine the oral proficiency pictures and tell the story that the pictures showed.
of participants. The primary purpose of the TSE is to The participants then discussed a topic of general
measure the ability of nonnative speakers of English interest and described information presented in a
to communicate orally in an English context. The TSE simple graph. Finally, the participants were asked to
consists of 12 pre-recorded items to which participants present information from a revised schedule. They
listen and respond while using a computer. These items were told to speak as though they were presenting
require participants to perform and record particular the information to a group of people. Their responses
speech samples, including narration, recommendation, were recorded on compact discs. Upon completion of
persuasion, expression, and support of opinions. all these tasks, the participants were debriefed about
The TSE has undergone construct validation and the purpose of the study.
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES MAGNO, C., ET AL 495
Data Analysis CELE, and their interactions; and (c) oral proficiency
The responses on the TSE were scored by two raters is predicted by the six language learning strategies.
who are English teachers and who were trained using All the factors were also tested for their significant
the guidelines outlined in the Speak Score User’s relationship (see Appendix B). Most of the correlations
Guide of the TSE. They were instructed to listen and showed to be significant. The MKAI did not
rate each participant’s speech sample based on the significantly correlate with some factors of the SILL
guidelines provided by the Speak Score User Guide. and TSE.
All responses on the TSE were scored independently The data on country is categorical which do not
by the two raters. Raters individually assessed produce a linear function and it necessitates the
each item response and assigned a score level transformation of the predictors into logarithm scales.
using descriptors of communicative effectiveness The data used as predictors were all transformed into
delineated by the TSE rating scale. Evaluators were logarithms in order to treat the aptness of the model
provided with one rating sheet for each participant’s and consequently meet the assumptions of performing
speech sample. The coefficient of concordance of a multiple regression (see Hardy & Reynolds, 2005;
the two raters on the TSE was determined using Jaccard & Dodge, 2005; Long & Cheng, 2005).
Kendall’s ω. In the first multiple regression analysis, country
Three sets of multiple regression analyses (Taiwanese students in the Philippines and Taiwanese
were conducted. The first set determined whether students in Taiwan), metacognitive knowledge
exposure, country, and metacognitive knowledge awareness (MKAI), and English exposure (CELE)
awareness significantly predicts second language were used to predict each of the subscales of the
learning strategies. The second set investigated SILL.
the interaction of the predictors mentioned in the The overall multiple regression coefficient (R)
first set to predict oral proficiency. The third set of country, MKAI, and CELE in predicting each
investigated the factors of second language learning language strategy use was significant, p<.05. Country
strategies as predictors of oral proficiency. To was a significant predictor for most language learning
meet the assumptions of using multiple regression strategies except for compensation and metacognitve.
in the analysis, the normality of the distribution MKAI consistently failed to predict significantly
of scores were assessed using the Kolmogorov any of the language learning strategies. The CELE
Smirnov. The linearity was tested by comparing the remained as a significant predictor for all language
eta coefficients with the correlation coefficients. The learning strategies, p<.05.
scores were transformed into logarithms and entered In the next regression analysis, oral proficiency
as predictors in the analysis. (TSE) is predicted by country, MKAI, CELE, and their
interactions. Country is coded dichotomously (1 and
Results 2) and the values are converted to logarithm functions
Three sets of multiple regression analysis were together with MKAI and CELE. The interaction terms
conducted: (a) One where each language learning are multiplicative terms of logarithm functions. This
strategy is predicted by country, MKAI, and CELE; procedure allows linear transformation of main and
(b) oral proficiency is predicted by country, MKAI, interaction effects (see Long & Cheng, 2005). The
Table 1
Country, MKAI, and CELE Predicting SILL Subscales
SILL Subscales
Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social
B R B R B R B R B R B R
Country -.34* -.33* .005 -.16 -.39* -.20*
MKAI .12 .41* .11 .55* .15 .38* .04 .47* .03 .35* -.001 .45*
CELE .39* .58* .32* .51* .18* .50*
Note. Reported regression coefficients are standardized
*p<.05
496 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3
Table 2
Predicting Oral Proficiency
Unstandardized Standardized
t p value
B SE Beta
Country -91.19 78.45 -2.35 -1.16 .247
MKAI 24.93 145.57 0.24 0.17 .864
CELE -39.97 154.88 -0.35 -0.26 .797
CELE x MKAI -2.42 36.97 -0.15 -0.07 .948
CELE x country 43.10 13.06 5.06* 3.30 .001
MKAI x country -15.33 13.19 -1.71 -1.16 .247
Note. R=.819; R2=.670; Adjusted R2=.656; SE=11.35
*p < .05
Table 3
SILL Factors as Predictors of Oral Proficiency
Unstandardized Standardized
t p value
B SE Beta
Memory -1.08 0.39 -0.27* -2.79 0.00
Cognitive -0.29 0.30 -0.11 -0.95 0.345
compensation 1.31 0.44 0.24* 2.99 0.003
metacognitive 1.54 0.42 0.41* 3.63 0.000
Affective -2.73 0.47 -0.51* -5.85 0.000
Social 0.77 0.43 0.16 1.77 0.078
Note. R=.576, R2=.332, Adjusted R2=.303, SE=16.15
*p < .05
interaction effects between CELE and MKAI, and In the next regression analysis, the relative
CELE and country determines if level of CELE can potencies of the factors of the SILL were examined
moderate the relationship between MKAI and oral as independent predictors in a multiple regression
proficiency, and country and proficiency. Country of analysis where oral proficiency served as a criterion
origin was also used as moderator between and MKAI variable.
and oral proficiency. The subscales of the SILL when taken together
The overall relationship of country, MKAI, to predict TSE were significant as indicated by F(6,
CELE, and their interactions combined to predict 139)=11.158, p<.05. With other variables held constant,
oral proficiency was significant as indicated by oral proficiency scores were negatively related to
F(6, 139)=47.108, p<.05. With other variables held memory and affective strategy scores and positively
constant, oral proficiency scores were related to the related to compensation and metacognitive strategy,
interaction between CELE and country, decreasing decreasing by 1.081 for every extra point of memory,
by 43.096 for every extra point of the interaction by 1.310 for every extra point of compensation, by
between CELE and country. The effect of this 1.535 for every extra point of metacognitive strategy,
predictor was found to be significant t(139)=3.300, and by 2.728 for every extra point of affective strategy.
with p<.05. In this case, country moderated the The effects of these four predictors were found to be
relationship between CELE and English proficiency. significant t(139)=-2.785, t(139)=2.993, t(139)=3.629,
The moderation showed that high exposure to English t(139)=-5.848, respectively, with all p<.05.
increases with TSE scores among the Taiwanese
students in the Philippines, but exposure did not Discussion
increase TSE scores among the Taiwanese students It was found that the Taiwanese students in the
in Taiwan (see Figure 1). Philippines (country) predicted an increased use of
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES MAGNO, C., ET AL 497
memory, cognitive, affective, and social language second language learning (Bremner, 1999; Ku,
learning strategies. High exposure to the English 1997). Exposure to a language serves as an important
language likewise increases the use of all six language opportunity for utilizing and mastering learning
learning strategies. strategies. Specifically, when a learner is exposed to
The Taiwanese students living and studying in English materials, they start to use different language
the Philippines were more likely to use the language learning strategies in acquiring that language. When
learning strategies compared to those in Taiwan (as learners are constantly confronted with the English
indicated by the negative regression coefficients) language, there is an opportunity for them to make
because they have many opportunities to use the use of a variety of strategies in learning that language.
strategies such as communicating to others and reading Students who are highly exposed to English are more
reference materials in English. It is necessary for the likely to apply language learning strategies. It can
Taiwanese students staying in the Philippines to use be noted in the results that exposure significantly
the language learning strategies in order to adapt in increases the use of all language learning strategies
the country since English is a medium through which and this is highly achieved in a setting where English
they can communicate. When they are in an English is used often like in the case of the Philippines.
speaking country, there is less opportunity for them This shows that the six learning strategies become
to speak in their native language (Chinese), especially functional when a learner has already had a high
if they interact with others. The language learning exposure to the English language. The exposure to
strategies become more functional in a place where English serves as a prior experience that activates the
they are most required. use of the strategies. When the exposure to English
The result where the learners’ country of residence becomes sufficient, all six learning strategies will be
significantly predicted the use of language learning required. This means that when learners are exposed
strategies is explained by the cultural context that to a wide array of English materials and other forms
influences strategy use (Bremner, 1999; Yang, of English communication, the use of all six language
2007). Given one’s cultural orientation, the specific learning strategies will be essential.
strategies might be interpreted and used in a different No effects were observed regarding metacognitive
way. It cannot be assumed that one strategy will be awareness on language learning strategies. The choice
effective across different cultures. For instance, in of strategy relies primarily on the learners’ exposure to
some contexts where asking questions is considered the second language and country of residence where
disrespectful and disruptive, strategies of such a English is highly used.
nature (e.g., “I ask questions in English”) would Existing theories and studies commonly use
be less frequently used. In the results, country language learning strategies as antecedent conditions to
of residence did not significantly predict the any measures of language proficiency and performance
compensation and metacognitive strategy. This given the premise that using the strategies facilitates
indicates that not all of the language learning better performance. However, there is a need to identify
strategies can be useful in learning a second language. certain variables that would strengthen the impact of
The use of other language learning strategies is more the strategies on the outcome. Having identified that
effective depending on the place of residence. In exposure and country of residence strengthen the use
the case of the Taiwanese students in Taiwan and in of the language learning strategies, this result further
the Philippines, metacognitive strategies were not opens theorizing on different variables that make the
predicted because these strategies require sufficient use of language learning strategies effective.
ability and expertise in making them work effectively. The result of the present study showed that high
Likewise, compensation strategies were not predicted exposure to English and country of residence suggest
because the context might not facilitate strategies such the use of language learning strategies will be used
as guessing due to limited grammatical and vocabulary frequently. These results were further supported in
knowledge. the second regression analysis where the interaction
The results point to the important contribution not between CELE and country resulted in a significant
only of place of residence but also to the exposure to prediction of oral proficiency as measured by the
a language and its role in using the language learning TSE. It is imperative to analyze the interaction of
strategies. Being exposed to a language involves the predictors especially between CELE and country
a socialization process that aids in competency in of residence since they were significant in the first
498 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3
analysis and putting them in an interaction term would extends explanations on achieving oral proficiency
further prove their effects. The significant interaction in English. Previous studies commonly identify ways
between CELE and country in predicting TSE to explain oral proficiency but the present study
strengthens the claim that higher exposure to English shows a condition to strengthen its relationship with
in an English speaking country (like the Philippines) exposure by introducing the condition of country of
results in better proficiency of the learner. This shows residence.
that high exposure to English, which in turn increases
English proficiency, is possible in a context where
English is a primary medium of communication.
The two-way interaction also showed that even if
exposure to English is increased among the Taiwanese
students in Taiwan, there is not much increase in
their English proficiency level (see Figure 1). The
country of residence defines the quality of language
exposure as shown by the interaction. An interaction
between exposure and country of residence further
enhances oral proficiency in English. The fact that the
Philippines is generally an English-speaking country,
the quality of high exposure to English is better. For
that reason, exposure predicts oral proficiency better
in the Philippines setting. The high exposure and oral
proficiency in English of the Taiwanese students in Figure 1. Plot of the two-way interaction of CELE and
the Philippines supports previous findings (Holmes country on TSE.
& Brown, 1977; Jia, Aaronson, & Wu, 2002; Kim
& Margolis, 2000; Magno et al., 2009; Reber, 1985) Note: TSE=Test of Spoken English, CELE=Checklist for English
where the English learner within an English-speaking Language Exposure
context is more exposed to English and is thus enabled
to imbibe and internalize the English language The findings of the study show that metacognitive
through communication. Specifically, the quality of knowledge awareness did not significantly predict
English exposure brought about by a context with an English oral proficiency. This was also the case in the
extensive use of English allows the Taiwanese students first regression analysis where it did not predict any
to enhance their proficiency in spoken English. of the six language learning strategies. This indicates
The Philippines provides a good venue for English that metacognitive knowledge awareness seems to
exposure among foreign students because English is have a different function when it comes to language
used as a medium of instruction in the educational proficiency as compared to previous studies. For
system. In the Philippines, English has been used in instance, the study of McCleod (2002) demonstrated
the schools since the early 1900s during the period of that successful second language learners need to be
American colonization. In Taiwan, however, it was actively aware of their language learning (knowledge
only introduced in 2001 (Butler, 2004). Because of cognition) and at the same time know what needs to
of this scenario, the Taiwanese students in the be done to facilitate the learning process (regulation of
Philippines have become more proficient in English cognition). Likewise, Kasper’s (1997) study showed
as a result of being immersed in a context where that successful students in ESL (English as Second
English is used predominantly for instruction and Language) writing reflected metacognitive growth
communication (Bautista, 2000). The country of in both knowledge and regulation of cognition. An
residence and exposure provides a venue where the individual may become aware of his intellectual
language used results in the learners’ socio-linguistic resources and abilities but it does not necessarily
competency (Brown, 1994). With this prior premise, follow that their performance is parallel with this
it is not only linguistic competency that improves but knowledge. These previous studies used regulation of
the use of strategy in learning the language as well (as cognition in conjunction with knowledge awareness
indicated in the first regression result). The interaction as sufficient predictors of their hypothesized effect.
between exposure and country of residence further Metacognitive knowledge awareness is only a matter
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES MAGNO, C., ET AL 499
of reflection and it may not be powerful enough The present study finds that memory and affective
to affect change in one’s actual performance. The strategies, when used, decrease oral proficiency. This
results indicate that both metacognitive knowledge indicates that there is no guarantee that students learning
and regulation are imperative when it comes to a second language are using the strategies effectively.
successful second language learning. Given these Vann and Abraham (1990) explain that successful
findings, metacognitive knowledge awareness can and unsuccessful L2 learners generally use the same
now be understood better in terms of its function in strategies but the difference lies in the degree of
three different areas. First, in terms of its impact, it adaptability in choosing the strategies as well as how the
works better in other domain specific variables such strategies are applied in a given situation. In the case of
as academic performance, reading, mathematics, memory strategies, learning through rote memorization
memory, and problem solving but the case is different of English words and phrases was found to not be
for language proficiency in English especially if the sufficient predictors of oral proficiency (Goh & Foong,
learners are still in a status struggling to learn English 1997). Language learning requires deeper appreciation,
as in the case of the participants in the study. Second, comprehension, and application of grammar and
in terms of its components, knowledge awareness is pragmatics in order to be spoken fluently. Furthermore,
usually studied together with regulation of cognition it is possible that certain situations require different
and not knowledge of cognition alone. The isolation types of memory strategies. Memory strategy might not
of knowledge of cognition as a single predictor of be effective for language learning but it can be for other
English proficiency has less impact because a learner tasks. In the case of affective strategies, apprehensive
needs a procedural component (like the regulation states work effectively for Asian learners.
of cognition) to make metacognition per se to work. The findings of the present study further extend
Knowledge of cognition is only limited as the theory in the use of language learning strategies in two
declarative and reflective aspect of metacognition. The ways. First, the context that triggers the heavy use
control aspect of metacognition is needed in order to of language learning strategies was identified. This
carry out this component better. Third, in terms of the was shown where sufficient exposure to the English
ability of the learner, metacognition works best among language facilitates the use of the six language learning
expert type of learners (Ertmer & Newby, 1996). This strategies enumerated by Oxford (1989). A context
means that metacognition among language learners where English is widely used also increases the use of
who are not yet that highly proficient in speaking the strategies among learners who undertake English
English would be difficult to implement. A leaner as a second language. Second, the strategies need to be
must possess the necessary ability in order to make used appropriately in order for them to work effectively
metacognition work effectively. for the learner. The results showed varied significance
When the language learning strategies were used to among the predictors and thus they were not shown to
predict oral proficiency in English, it was found that not consistently increase oral proficiency. These variations
all of them were significant. Cognition, metacognition, in predicting oral proficiency indicate that Asian learners
memory, and affective strategies were significant have a different way of using the strategies.
while compensation and metacognitive strategies
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Appendix A
Appendix B
Correlation Matrix of the Factors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 M SD
1 Memory --- 26.75 4.87
2 Cognitive .66** --- 46.79 7.16
3 Compensation .44** .45** --- 19.34 3.58
4 Metacognitive .46** .68** .43** --- 30.81 5.16
5 Affective .46** .46** .31** .56** --- 18.17 3.59
6 Social .44** .51** .36** .64** .42** --- 20.54 4.12
7 TSE -.21* -.05 .15 .14 -.31** .13 --- 28.54 19.34
8 MKAI .18* .19* .24** .09 .03 .11 -.02 --- 70.64 11.28
9 CELE .26** .44** .35** .45** .00 .42** .48** .21* 74.19 12.30
* p < .05. ** p < .001.