Soil stabilization techniques
oil stabilization can be The degree of stability is governed
S achieved by pulverizing the
natural soil or borrow ma-
terial, mixing in a chemical
additive, and thoroughly compact-
ing the mixture. The additive can be
either portland cement, lime or salt
(sodium chloride).
A stabilized soil has increased
strength. It has greater bearing ca-
pacity, and decreased water sensi-
tivity, which diminishes volume
change during wet/dry cycles.
Soil stabilization is used to pro-
vide a firm base or sub-base for all
types of paved areas, to improve
foundation conditions, and as a lin-
ing for ditches and banked earth-
works.
STABILIZING SOILS
WITH CEMENT
Types I and IA, normal and air-
entraining cements, are most com-
monly used.
All soils can be stabilized with
portland cement, provided suffi-
cient quantity is added. Some soils
with a high organic content do not
react well with cement and harden-
ing may be delayed. As clay content
increases, soils become more diffi-
cult to pulverize and work, and larg-
er quantities of cement must be
added to harden them.
The thickness of a cement-stabi-
lized base depends upon the traffic
loads and volumes and the stability
of the subgrade. Thicknesses greater
than 7 inches are built in more than
one lift. The thickness of subbase or
subgrade stabilization depends up-
on the nature of the soils and the
conditions of the job.
Chemical bonds or linkages are
developed between adjacent ce-
ment grain surfaces and exposed
soil particle surfaces. There is also a
secondary effect produced when
lime, which is formed as the cement
hydrates, reacts with the silica and
alumina in the clay fraction to
produce secondary cementitious
material.
ment has been added. When sub-
by:
a. the physical and chemical
properties of the soil.
b. the proportion of cement.
c. moisture conditions (content,
temperature, duration) during
both compaction and curing.
d. degree of compaction.
Almost all soil types can be used,
from gravelly and sandy to fine-
grained silts and clays. Generally,
the more granular materials are
used because they pulve ri ze and
mix readily and require the least
amount of cement. Waste and sub-
standard materials found at aggre-
gate plants, old gravel road and
street materials, as well as cinders
and slag, make excellent soil-ce-
ment, if they contain 55 percent or
more gravel passing the No. 4 sieve.
Materials containing more gra ve l
retained on the No. 4 sieve can be
used if they are well graded. Stones
that are larger than 3 inches and
highly organic matter should be re-
moved.
Soils have been stabilized with
cement contents ranging from 4 to
15 percent by weight of the soil. The
majority of work, however, is com-
pleted with a cement content of
around 6 to 8 percent.
Representative soil samples
should be identified and subjected
to:
a. moisture-density tests to deter-
mine optimum moisture con-
tent and maximum density.
b. freeze-thaw and wet-dry tests
to determine the lowest ce-
ment content that will produce
a hard, durable base. (ASTM
designations D 558, D 559 and
D 560). Short-cut test methods
have been developed for use
with granular soils.
Various bearing capacity tests can
be run on subgrades (and some
sub-bases) before and after the ce-
bases are stabilized with cement,
the purpose of the stabilization is to
improve the properties of a sub-
standard material.
The method calls for these steps:
a. Grade area
b. Scarify, pulverize and pre-wet
soil as necessary
c. Regrade
d. Spread portland cement and
mix
e. Apply water and mix
f. Compact
g. Final grade
h. Cure
The central-plant-mixed method
calls for this procedure:
a. Grade and compact subgrade
b. Mix soil, cement and water in
central plant
c. Haul mixed material to area
and spread
d. Compact
e. Final grade
f. Cure
Pu l ve rization is necessary with
heavier-type soils to break up the
soil particles and ensure intimate
contact with the cement.
Optimum moisture is necessary
to both hydrate the cement and fa-
cilitate compaction. As a rule-of-
thumb guide, optimum moisture
content can be assumed to be the
driest condition at which a 2-inch
ball of soil, molded in the fingers, re-
tains its shape. As a further aid, the
ball should break into only a few
pieces when dropped. Traces of
moisture on the fingers means that
the optimum content has been ex-
ceeded.
Proper curing for 7 days is essen-
tial. The surface must be sealed to
prevent evaporation losses.
Stabilization should not be at-
tempted at temperatures below 40
degrees.
Compaction should be done to at
least 95 percent of maximum densi-
ty (ASTM D 558).
 Conventional earth moving and
compaction equipment is used. Ce-
ment spreaders for mixed-in-place
construction methods and cement
meters for use with central mixing
plants are available. Single shaft,
multiple shaft and windrow-type
mixes are used for mixed-in-place
work.
The cost of cement stabilization is
principally affected by the cement
requirement, type of soil, thickness
of treatment and size of job. If a soil
proposed for use requires a high ce-
ment factor, the cost of the job can
be kept at a normal figure by using
a low-cost borrow material which
has a low cement requirement.
Strength and modulus of elastici-
ty increase with cement content and
age. Unconfined compressive
strength of hardened soil-cement at
7 days normally ranges from 300 to
800 psi. Flexural strength is approx-
imately 20 percent of compressive
strength.
Information available from:
Portland Cement Association
5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, Illinois 60078
STABILIZING SOILS WITH LIME
Hydrated lime (calcium hydrox-
ide) is mainly used. There are two
basic types of lime: high calcium
and high magnesium. Their soil-sta-
bilizing ability is roughly equal.
Quicklime is occasionally used to
stabilize heavy clays. Quicklime is a
strong caustic and requires the use
of goggles and protective clothing.
Use of a non-dusting granulated
product reduces the danger slightly.
Principal advantage is a saving in
shipping costs: hydrated lime is
about one-fourth chemically com-
bined water; quicklime is free from
water.
Lime reacts readily with most
plastic soils containing clay. Soils
containing more than 3 percent or-
ganic matter cannot be stabilized
readily. Non-plastic soils and soils
with a low Plasticity Index (under
10) may also need the presence of a
pozzolan, such as fly-ash, to initiate
the stabilizing reaction of the lime.
Lime does not improve sands or
other cohesionless granular materi-
als.
Thickness can be any economi-
cally practical depth. Work normally
proceeds in 6-inch layers. Depths
down to 5 feet, built up in lifts, have
been successfully stabilized. Depths
down to 2 feet can be stabilized in a
single lift by first scarifying with a
back ripper.
Base-exchange first agglomerates
the fine clay into coarse friable par-
ticles. This is accompanied by a
marked drying-out action. A chem-
ical reaction then takes place with
available silica and alumina in the
soil to harden the mass.
Stability is governed primarily by
the plasticity of the soil (which is a
measure of its clay content), by the
amount of lime used and by the de-
gree of compaction and curing.
Soils ranging in Plasticity Index
from 10 to 50+ are suitable for lime
stabilization. If the soil has a low In-
dex value, it is essential for the soil
to contain at least 15 percent of ma-
terial passing a minus No. 200 mesh.
Stones larger than 3 inches and oth-
er foreign matter must be removed.
The amount of time to be used
may range from 2 to 6 percent by
weight of the dry soil, depending on
the nature of the soil. Increasing the
lime content above optimum does
not substantially improve the final
properties of the soil.
Representative soil samples
should be obtained and their Plas-
ticity Index and gradation deter-
mined (ASTM designation: D 422—
D 424). If a high proportion of
organic matter is suspected, its con-
tent should be determined (ASTM
C 40).
The bearing capacity of the soil
should be determined before and
after laboratory stabilization to de-
termine the optimum amount of
lime acceptable for the job. The
Standard or Modified Proctor test
can be used for this purpose. (ASTM
designation: D 698 or D 1557).
Several techniques have been de-
veloped for lime stabilization.
Conventional large-area stabiliza-
tion calls for these steps:
a. Grade area
b. Scarify and pulverize
c. Spread lime
d. Add water during preliminary
mixing
e. Rough grade with light com-
paction
f. Preliminary cure
g. Final rotary mix and pulverize
h. Compact
i. Final cure
Lime should not be spread dry
during windy weather because it
will create dusting problems. A
sprinkling with water will reduce
dusting. Lime applied as a slurry will
eliminate the dusting problem en-
tirely.
Bag-dumped lime should be lev-
eled with a rake before mixing. To
minimize carbonation and wind
losses, all lime should be mixed into
the base within 6 hours of spread-
ing.
Heavy watering (to at least 5 per-
cent above optimum moisture con-
tent) is recommended. Preliminary
mixing should distribute the lime to
the correct depth and pulverize the
soil. Rotary mixing is desirable.
Preliminary curing from 0 to 48
hours permits the lime and water to
break up the clay clods. Rough grad-
ing and light compaction before
curing minimizes evaporation and
carbonation losses. Longer curing
periods may be necessary for very
heavy clays.
Final mixing should continue un-
til all clods are pulverized to pass a
1-inch screen with at least 60 per-
cent passing a No. 4 sieve.
Compaction should be done to
at least 95 percent of maximum
density. If necessary, more water
should be added before compaction
begins to reach optimum moisture
content.
Final curing for from 3 to 7 days
is necessary to allow the soil to
harden. Moist curing involves sprin-
kling and light rolling. Membrane
curing uses a bituminous coating.
Highly expansive clays are some-
times “ponded” for 30 days. This
helps the soil attain its maximum
volume before stabilizing the upper
layer.
 Lime modification: where com-
plete stabilization is not required
(i.e., where lime is used to dry up a
wet area), lesser quantities of lime
may be used, and the construction
procedure is simpler. Steps include
spreading, mixing, and compaction.
Pulverization requirements can be
waived, so two-stage mixing may
not be necessary.
In place or post-treatment: In this
procedure, the lime is introduced to
the soil to be stabilized without the
need for mixing and compaction.
The procedure is most suited to
smaller areas such as building sites.
The lime can be introduced by
drilling, trench irrigation or pres-
sure-injection. The stabilizing effect
naturally diminishes as the distance
from the lime source increases.
Trench irrigation consists of dig-
ging a network of interconnected
trenches over the site. The trenches
are filled with lime topped with a
layer of clean gravel. Sufficient wa-
ter is passed through the trenches to
keep them thoroughly wet without
overflowing. An industrial detergent
can be added as a wetting agent to
speed dispersion of the lime. The
spacing of the trenches and the
length of exposure depends on the
nature of the soil.
Drilling is inexpensive, but allows
only very limited lime exposure (less
than 1 percent) unless a very close
pattern of hole spacing is used.
Pressure injection greatly increases
the exposure possibility (up to 3
percent). A slurry of from 20 to 30
percent solids is forced into the drill
holes at pressures from 150 to 600
psi. Pressure injection forces the
lime over an area of several feet.
Conventional earth-moving
equipment is used for mixing, pul-
verizing and compaction. Special
vehicles have been developed to as-
sist the bulk spreading of lime.
The cost of lime stabilization is
primarily governed by:
a. The procedure chosen, which
depends on the nature of the
site, the performance charac-
teristics desired, and the time
available for treatment.
b. The type of soil. Heavier clays
require longer and more exten-
sive treatment. Low plasticity
soils may need a pozzolan.
c. The cost of spreading.
d. The quantity of water to be
added.
Lime stabilization decreases PI
and volume change, and increases
the compressive strength of a soil
considerably—up to 250 psi. for
clays and to 600 psi. for clay-grav-
els. Bearing capacity is improved
from 5- to 20-fold.
Information available from:
National Lime Association
4000 Brandywine St. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20016
stabilizing soils with salt
Salt stabilization applies to treat-
ing base aggregates for road work or
parking lot areas. It has not yet been
tried for improving foundation soil.
Common salt (sodium chloride)
of any type and from any source is
suitable. A pure grade of salt is not
necessary and up to 5 percent
chemical impurities is not detri-
mental. Coarse, crushed rock salt
that will pass a 3/8-inch sieve is nor-
mally used.
Successful stabilization requires a
well-graded soil. Clay, loam or lime-
stone fines must be present to serve
as a binder. Silt and sand are not
suitable binders.
Economic considerations nor-
mally restrict the thickness of the
stabilized section to a 12-inch layer.
During compaction, salt and wa-
ter exert a flocculating action which
creates a colloidal binder. This
changes the structural arrangement
of the particles to provide a mass of
maximum stability. After curing, no
salt crystals can normally be found.
The grading of the soil is an im-
portant factor governing salt stabi-
lization. It is also believed that at
least 7 to 8 percent clay, and some
limestone, must be present to make
salt stabilization function.
Particles larger than 1 inch maxi-
mum size should be removed. Grav-
els should contain 8 to 12 percent
binder clay; limestones should con-
tain 5 to 15 percent dust. Sands
must have 35 to 40 percent clay
loam added before they can be sta-
bilized. Best results are obtained if
the overall grading condition of the
soil meets ASTM designation:
D1241.
Quantities depend on the nature
of the soil and the bearing strength
desired. The optimum amount
ranges between 0.5 and 1 percent by
dry weight of the soil. Excessive
quantities may have a detrimental
effect on strength and lead to sur-
face slipperiness.
Representative samples of the soil
should be obtained and inspected
to make sure they meet the qualifi-
cations. A sieve analysis should be
conducted to ensure that adequate
binder material in the form of fines
is present. If desirable, bearing ca-
pacity values should be determined
for test areas in the compacted state
before and after stabilization (ASTM
designations: D 1195, D 1196, D
1194 or similar).
Sodium chloride can be added to
the soil either dry or as a brine. Mix-
ing can be done in place or with a
stationary plant. The site to be sta-
bilized must be adequately drained
to remove excess and surface water
before work begins. Subgrade weak
spots must be removed and firmly
compacted; otherwise they will af-
fect the bearing ability of the stabi-
lized surface layer.
The proper procedure to follow
for in-place stabilization with salt is
as follows:
a. Scarify to desired depth
b. Apply salt
c. Apply water
d. Mix
e. Compact
f. Grade
g. Water and roll
h. Cure
Salt must be spread evenly. Salt
can also be applied as a brine and by
doing this, a separate watering stage
can be avoided.
Adequate water must be present
to dissolve the salt. The content
should be 1 or 2 percent in excess of
optimum.
Thorough mixing is essential to
prevent the formation of non-stabi-
lized pockets.
 Salt actually facilitates com-
paction. Particles are coated with a
film of moisture that remains intact
under pressure, and is unaffected by
temperature changes. During the
early stages of compaction, the
mass interlocks to provide maxi-
mum density. Further compaction
forces a salt-soil mortar to the sur-
face and this gives a very smooth
finish.
The curing period depends on the
weather. Maximum strength is usu-
ally achieved in from 10 to 14 days.
Plant mixing should be done with
a pugmill type mixer. The method is
more expensive but gives maximum
assurance of uniform distribution of
the salt. It is most practicable when
imported fill must be added to the
site soil. Pre-mixed soils should be
spread to a depth not greater than 5
inches before in-place wetting.
Chief factor governing the cost of
salt stabilization is the type of soil.
The need for imported material,
with consequent extra handling,
will greatly increase costs. Material
and compaction costs are relatively
low.
Salt stabilization ensures maxi-
mum compaction. Bearing capacity
is increased from 3- to 5-fold. Frost
damage is minimized because salt
lowers the freezing point of the soil.
Information available from:
Salt Institute
206 North Washington Street
Alexandria, Virginia 22314
PUBLICATION#C680371
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