UNIT 2

PROPELLER
Thrust is the force that move the aircraft through the air. Thrust is generated by the
propulsion system of the aircraft. There are different types of propulsion systems
develop thrust in different ways, although it usually generated through some application
of Newton's Third Law.
Propeller is one of the propulsion system. The purpose of the propeller is to move
the aircraft through the air. The propeller consist of two or more blades connected
together by a hub. The hub serves to attach the blades to the engine shaft.
The blades are made in the shape of an airfoil like wing of an aircraft. When the
engine rotates the propeller blades, the blades produce lift. This lift is called thrust and
moves the aircraft forward. most aircraft have propellers that pull the aircraft through the
air. These are called tractor propellers. Some aircraft have propellers that push the
aircraft. These are called pusher propellers.
Propeller Description
Leading Edge of the airfoil is the cutting edge that slices into the air. As the
leading edge cuts the air, air flows over the blade face and the camber side.

Blade Face is the surface of the propeller blade that corresponds to the lower
surface of an airfoil or flat side, we called Blade Face.
 Blade Back / Thrust Face is the curved surface of the airfoil.
Blade Shank (Root) is the section of the blade nearest the hub. Blade Tip is the
outer end of the blade far test from the hub. Plane of Rotation is an imaginary plane
perpendicular to the shaft. It is the plane that contains the circle in which the blades
rotate. Blade Angle is formed between the face of an element and the plane of rotation.
The blade angle throughout the length of the blade is not the same. The reason
for placing the blade element sections at different angles is because the various sections
of the blade travel at different speed. Each element must be designed as part of the blade
to operate at its own best angle of attack to create thrust when revolving at its best
design speed.

Blade Element are the airfoil sections joined side by side to form the blade airfoil.
These elements are placed at different angles in rotation of the plane of rotation. The
reason for placing the blade element sections at different angles is because the various
sections of the blade travel at different speeds.
The inner part of the blade section travels slower than the outer part near the
tip of the blade. If all the elements along a blade is at the same blade angle, the relative
wind will not strike the elements at the same angle of attack. This is because of the
different in velocity of the blade element due to distance from the center of rotation.
The blade has a small twist (due to different angle in each section) in it for a very
important reason. When the propeller is spinning round, each section of the blade travel
at different speed, The twist in the propeller blade means that each section advance
forward at the same rate so stopping the propeller from bending.
Thrust is produced by the propeller attached to the engine driveshaft. While
the propeller is rotating in flight, each section of the blade has a motion that combines the
forward motion of the aircraft with circular movement of the propeller. The slower the
speed, the steeper the angle of attack must be to generate lift. Therefore, the shape of the
propeller's airfoil (cross section) must chang from the center to the tips. The
changing shape of the airfoil (cross section) across the blade results in the twisting shape
of the propeller.

Relative Wind is the air that strikes and pass over the airfoil as the airfoil is driven
through the air.
Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord of the element and the relative
wind. The best efficiency of the propeller is obtained at an angle of attack around 2 to 4
degrees.
Blade Path is the path of the direction of the blade element moves.
Pitch refers to the distance a spiral threaded object moves forward in one
revolution.
As a wood screw moves forward when turned in wood, same with the propeller
move forward when turn in the air.
 Geometric Pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller would advance in one
revolution.
Effective Pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution in the
air. The effective pitch is always shorter than geometric pitch due to the air is a fluid and
always slip.

Forces and stresses acting on a propeller in flight.

The forces acting on a propeller in flight are :
1.Thrust is the air force on the propeller which is parallel to the direction of
advance and induce bending stress in the propeller.
2. Centrifugal force is caused by rotation of the propeller and tends to throw the
blade out from the center.
3. Torsion or Twisting forces in the blade itself, caused by the resultant of air
forces which tend to twist the blades toward a lower blade angle.
The stress acting on a propeller in flight are :
1. Bending stresses are induced by the trust forces. These stresses tend to bend the
blade forward as the airplane is moved through the air by the propeller.
2. Tensile stresses are caused by centrifugal force.
3. Torsion stresses are produced in rotating propeller blades by two twisting
moments. one of these stresses is caused by the air reaction on the blades and is called the
aerodynamic twisting moment. The another stress is caused by centrifugal force and is
called the centrifugal twisting moment.
Type of propellers
In designing propellers, the maximum performance of the airplane for all
condition of operation from takeoff, climb, cruising, and high speed. The propellers may
be classified under eight general types as follows:
1.Fixed pitch: The propeller is made in one piece. Only one pitch setting is
possible and is usually two blades propeller and is often made of wood or metal.
Wooden Propellers: Wooden propellers were used almost exclusively on
personal and business aircraft prior to World War II .A wood propeller is not cut from a
solid block but is built up of a number of separate layers of carefully selected .any types
of wood have been used in making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch,
sugar mable, black cherry, and black walnut. The use of lamination of wood will reduce
the tendency for propeller to warp. For standard one-piece wood propellers, from five to
nine separate wood laminations about 3/4 in. thick are used.

Metal Propellers : During 1940 , solid steel propellers were made for military
use. Modern propellers are fabricated from high-strength, heat-treated, aluminum alloy
by forging a single bar of aluminum alloy to the required shape. Metal propellers is now
extensively used in the construction of propellers for all type of aircraft. The general
appearance of the metal propeller is similar to the wood propeller, except
that the sections are generally thinner.
 2.Ground adjustable pitch:
The pitch setting can be adjusted only with tools on the ground before the
engine is running. This type of propellers usually has a split hub. The blade angle is
specified by the aircraft specifications. The adjustable – pitch feature permits
compensation for the location of the flying field at various altitudes and also for
variations in the characteristics of airplanes using the same engine. Setting the blade
angles by loosened the clamps and the blade is rotated to the desired angle and then
tighten the clamps.

3.Two-position :A propeller which can have its pitch changed from one position
to one other angle by the pilot while in flight.
4.Controllable pitch: The pilot can change the pitch of the propeller in flight or
while operating the engine by mean of a pitch changing mechanism that may be operated
by hydraulically.
5.Constant speed :The constant speed propeller utilizes a hydraulically or
electrically operated pitch changing mechanism which is controlled by governor. The
setting of the governor is adjusted by the pilot with the rpm lever in the cockpit. During
operation, the constant speed propeller will automatically changes its blade angle to
maintain a constant engine speed. If engine power is increase, the blade angle is increased
to make the propeller absorb the additional power while the rpm remain constant. At the
other position, if the engine power is decreased, the blade angle will decrease to make the
blades take less bite of air to keep engine rpm remain constant. The pilot select the engine
speed required for any particular type of operation.
6.Full Feathering :A constant speed propeller which has the ability to turn edge to
the wind and thereby eliminate drag and wind milling in the event of engine failure.
The term Feathering refers to the operation of rotating the blades of the propeller to the
wind position for the purpose of stopping the rotation of the propeller to reduce drag.
Therefore , a Feathered blade is in an approximate in-line-of-flight
position ,streamlined with the line of flight (turned the blades to a very high pitch).
Feathering is necessary when the engine fails or when it is desirable to shutoff an engine
in flight.
 7.Reversing :A constant speed propeller which has the ability to assume a
negative blade angle and produce a reversing thrust. When propellers are reversed, their
blades are rotated below their positive angle , that is, through flat pitch, until a negative
blade angle is obtained in order to produce a thrust acting in the opposite direction to the
forward thrust . Reverse propeller thrust is used where a large aircraft is landed, in
reducing the length of landing run.
8.Beta Control :A propeller which allows the manual repositioning of
the propeller blade angle beyond the normal low pitch stop. Used most often in
taxiing, where thrust is manually controlled by adjusting blade angle with the power
lever.
Propeller Balancing
Propeller unbalance, which is a source of vibration in an aircraft, may be either
static or dynamic. Propeller static imbalance occurs when the center of gravity (CG) of
the propeller does not coincide with the axis of rotation. Dynamic unbalance results when
the CG of similar propeller elements, such as blades or counterweights, does not follow
in the same plane of rotation. Since the length of the propeller assembly along the engine
crankshaft is short in comparison to its diameter, and since the blades are secured to the
hub so they lie in the same plane perpendicular to the running axis, the dynamic
unbalance resulting from improper mass distribution is negligible, provided
the track tolerance requirements are met.
Another type of propeller unbalance, aerodynamic unbalance, results when the
thrust (or pull) of the blades is unequal. This type of unbalance can be largely eliminated
by checking blade contour and blade angle setting.
i)Static Balancing The knife-edge test stand has two hardened steel edges
mounted to allow the free rotation of an assembled propeller between them. The knife-
edge test stand must be located in a room or area that is free from any air motion, and
preferably removed from any source of heavy vibration. The standard method of
checking propeller assembly balance involves the following sequence of
operations:
1. Insert a bushing in the engine shaft hole of the propeller.
 2. Insert a mandrel or arbor through the bushing.
3. Place the propeller assembly so that the ends of the arbor are supported upon the
balance stand knife edges. The propeller must be free to rotate. If the propeller is properly
balanced statically, it remains at any position in which it is placed.

Check two-bladed propeller assemblies for balance: first with the blades in a
vertical position and then with the blades in a horizontal position. Repeat the vertical
position check with the blade positions reversed; that is, with the blade that was checked
in the downward position placed in the upward position.
Check a three-bladed propeller assembly with each blade placed in a downward
vertical position. During a propeller static balance check, all blades must be at the same
blade angle. Before conducting the balance check, inspect to see that each blade has been
set at the same blade angle. Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, an
acceptable balance check requires that the propeller assembly have no tendency to rotate
in any of the positions previously described. If the propeller balances perfectly in all
described positions, it should also balance perfectly in all intermediate
positions. When necessary, check for balance in intermediate positions to verify the
check in the originally described positions. When a propeller assembly is checked for
static balance and there is a definite tendency of the assembly to rotate, certain
corrections to remove the unbalance are allowed.
1. The addition of permanent fixed weights at acceptable locations when the total
weight of the propeller assembly or parts is under the allowable limit.
 2. The removal of weight at acceptable locations when the total weight of the
propeller assembly or parts is equal to the allowable limit. The location for removal or
addition of weight for propeller unbalance correction has been determined by the
propeller manufacturer. The method and point of application of unbalance corrections
must be checked to see that they are according to applicable drawings.
ii)Dynamic Balancing
Propellers can also be dynamically balanced (spin balanced) with an analyzer kit
to reduce the vibration levels of the propeller and spinner assembly. Some aircraft have
the system hardwired in the aircraft and on other aircraft the sensors and cables need to
be installed before the balancing run. Balancing the propulsion assembly can provide
substantial reductions in transmitted vibration and noise to the cabin and also reduces
excessive damage to other aircraft and engine components. The dynamic imbalance could
be caused by mass imbalance or any aerodynamic imbalance. Dynamic balancing only
improves the vibration caused by mass unbalance of the externally rotating
components of the propulsion system. Balancing does not reduce the vibration level if the
engine or aircraft is in poor mechanical condition. Defective, worn, or loose
parts will make balancing impossible. Several manufacturers make dynamic
propeller balancing equipment, and their equipment operation could differ. The
typical dynamic balancing system consists of a vibration sensor that is attached to
the engine close to the propeller, and an analyzer unit that calculates the weight and
location of balancing weights.
Balancing Procedure Face the aircraft directly into the wind (maximum 20 knots)
and place chocks at the wheels. When you have installed the analyzing equipment, run
the engine up at low cruise rpm; the dynamic analyzer calculates the balancing weight
required at each blade position. After installing the balancing weights, run the engine up
again to check if the vibration levels have diminished. This process may have to be
repeated several times before satisfactory results are achieved. A dynamic balancing
example procedure is listed here, but always refer to the aircraft and propeller manuals
when performing any balancing procedure. Dynamic balance is accomplished by using an
accurate means of measuring the amount and location of the dynamic imbalance. The
number of balance weights installed must not exceed the limits specified by the propeller
manufacturer. Follow the dynamic balance equipment manufacturer’s instructions for
dynamic balance in addition to the specifications of the propeller. Most equipment
use an optical pickup that senses reflective tape for rpm reading. Also, there is an
accelerometer mounted to the engine that senses vibration in inches per second (ips).
Visually inspect the propeller assembly before dynamic balancing. The first run up of a
new or overhauled propeller assembly may leave a small amount of grease on the blades
and inner surface of the spinner dome. Use Stoddard solvent (or equivalent) to
completely remove any grease on the blades or inner surface of the spinner dome.
Visually examine each propeller blade assembly for evidence of grease leakage. Visually
examine the inner surface of the spinner dome for evidence of grease leakage. If there is
no evidence of grease leakage, lubricate the propeller in accordance with the maintenance
manual. If grease leakage is evident, determine the location of the leak and correct before
re lubricating the propeller and dynamic balancing. Before dynamic balance, record the
number and location of all balance weights. Static balance is accomplished
at a propeller overhaul facility when an overhaul or major repair is performed. Twelve
equally spaced locations are recommended for weight attachment. Install the balancing
weights using aircraft quality 10-32 orAN-3 type screws or bolts. Balance weight screws
attached to the spinner bulkhead must protrude through the self-locking nuts or nut plates
a minimum of one thread and a maximum of four threads. Unless otherwise specified by
the engine or airframe manufacturer, Hartzell recommends that the propeller be
dynamically balanced to a reading of 0.2 ips, or less. If reflective tape is used for
dynamic balancing, remove the tape immediately after balancing is completed. Make a
record in the propeller logbook of the number and location of dynamic balance
weights, and static balance weights if they have been reconfigured.
Blade cuffs
A metallic, wooden or plastic structure designed for attachment to the shank end
of the blade, with an outer surface that will transform the round shank into an airfoil
section. The cuff is designed primarily to increase the flow of cooling air to engine
nacelle.

The cuff is used to change the pitch of the blades (or to create an airfoil when there
is none) near the spinner. The cuff increases the airflow near the engine cooling intakes.
The cuff is large, and larger at the blade root because the linear speed in this area is very
small compared to the tip.
PROPELLER GOVERNOR
BASIC PROPELLER FUNCTIONS
The controllable pitch propeller is designed to maintain constant engine speed by
adjusting propeller blade angle to vary the load on the engine in response to the changing
conditions of flight. In the most common type of hydraulic propeller, a piston and
cylinder are linked to the propeller blades so that when oil under pressure is pumped to
this cylinder, the piston and the blades are forced to move. Movement of the propeller
piston rotates the propeller blades of a counter weighted propeller in the increase pitch
direction and the blades of a counterweighted propeller in the decrease pitch direction.
The single acting propeller thus uses oil pressure to change pitch in one direction and the
centrifugal force of propeller counterweights, air charge or the natural twisting movement
of the blades to change the pitch in the other direction.
At the feathering type propellers, a spring load is composed to complete the
feathering cycle as rotation speed and counterweight force diminishes.
METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL
On most governed engines, the governor maintains constant engine rpm by
moving the throttle to control fuel supply to the engine and match power output to the
load. In the case of the aircraft engine, the propeller is the load and power developed is
determined by the pilot. The function of the propeller governor is to adjust the propeller
blade angle so the load on the engine will maintain the desired engine rpm at the
horsepower setting selected. For example, the propeller will absorb full take-off power
and give maximum thrust during the take-off run and will not Overspeed as the airspeed
increases because of increased blade angle.
The advantages in performance, safety and convenience are obvious. The increase
in aircraft horsepower and speed has made a constant speed control necessary in order to
derive full advantage from improved engine and aircraft performance over a wide range
of operating conditions. The propeller control lever determines the governor speed
setting. The propeller pitch is controlled by the governor. Thus if the governor speed
setting is increased, the governor decreases the propeller pitch until the engine speed
increases to the new rpm setting. The actual blade angle required for given rpm depends
on the horsepower being developed and the airspeed of the aircraft. However, the
governor senses only RPM.

LIMITS OF GOVERNOR CONTROL

 Given rpm can be maintained by the governor providing there is power enough to
turn the engine at the governor speed setting. Whether this engine power or propeller
power matters not to the governor, whether the engine drives the propeller or the
propeller drives the engine – the governor operation is the same.
With the governor set for 2300rpm, propeller pitch is adjusted by the governor to
maintain this speed, regardless of throttle position or airspeed, within the pitch range of
the propeller. Near cruising airspeed, the propeller on most constant speed installations
can develop sufficient torque to drive the engine at cruise rpm even if the engine is
completely inoperative. This of course is the reason it is necessary to feather the propeller
of inoperative engine on multi-engine aircraft because of the high drag of a wind milling
propeller turning an inoperative engine.
As the throttle is slowly closed in flight, the propeller pitch will decrease and 2300
rpm will be maintained until the propeller blades reach their low pitch position. Any
further reduction in power or airspeed will cause a decrease in engine rpm.
Whenever the actual engine rpm drops below the governor speed setting, the
propeller is in the low pitch position and the rpm can be controlled with the throttle.
During an approach, as the airspeed is decreased at low power setting, the
propeller will be in it´s extreme low pitch position and rpm can be controlled with the
throttle. Under this condition, rapid throttle burst will cause a momentary Overspeed
above the governor speed setting. The amount of Overspeed in any installation depends
upon the rate of throttle movement, and the increase in propeller pitch necessary must be
increased to maintain the desired rpm. The more rapid the throttle movement, the higher
the speed and the lower the governor setting, the larger the overspeed will be. The
amount of Overspeed is determined by the governor flow rate, i.e., the volume of oil the
governor with port for a given Overspeed, and the force available from the propeller
counterweights, to increase the propeller pitch.
Rapid rate of pitch change is especially noticeable if the throttle is closed at high
airspeed as there will be very little engine speed change.
GOVERNOR OPERATION
The sensing element of the governor is a set of pivoted flyweights mounted on a
rotating flyweight head and linked mechanically to the engine gears, through a hollow
drive gear shaft. The flyweights, actuated by the centrifugal force developed by the speed
of the rotation, position a pilot valve so as to cover or uncover ports in the drive gear
shaft and regulate the flow of oil to and from the pitch changing mechanism of the
propeller. The centrifugal force exerted by the flyweights is opposed by the force of an
adjustable speeder spring. The load exerted by the speeder spring determines the engine
RPM required to develop sufficient centrifugal force in the flyweights to center the pilot
valve. Oil to operate the propeller’s pitch changing mechanism is supplied by a gear-type
oil pump at a pressure value limited by a relief valve.

Governor operation represents basically three conditions – on speed, overspeed and

underspeed.
ON SPEED
In this condition the forces action on the engine-governor-propeller combination
are in a state of balance. The speed adjusting control lever has been set by the pilot to
obtain the desired engine RPM. The propeller blades are at the correct pitch to absorb the
power developed by the engine. The centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights exactly
balances the force of the speeder spring with the flyweights in the vertical position. The
pilot valve is positioned in the drive gear shaft, so that the control ports between the oil
pump and the propeller pitch changing servo are covered. Pressure oil from the gear
pump is circulated through open governor relief valve back to the inlet channel of the
pump.
OVERSPEED
This condition occurs when airspeed or horsepower is increased and engine RPM
increases above the rate called for by the setting of the speed adjusting control lever. The
rotating flyweights pivot outward as their increased centrifugal force overcomes force
exerted by the speeder spring.
Counterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Decrease Pitch (see Fig. 2)
The flyweight toes raise the pilot valve plunger, uncovering ports in the driver
gear shaft that permit pressure oil to flow from the propeller pitch changing mechanism.
This allows propeller counterweights to take the propeller blades towards a higher pitch.
The load on the engine is increased and engine speed is reduced.
Uncounter weighted Propeller using Pressure to Increase Pitch (see Fig. 3)
The flyweight toes raise the pilot valve plunger, uncovering ports in the driver
gear shaft that permit pressure oil to flow to the propeller pitch changing mechanism.
This moves the propeller blades to a higher pitch and load on the engine is increase and
engine speed is reduced.
This, in turn, lessens centrifugal force exerted by the flyweights in opposition to
the force of the speeder spring. The flyweights return to a vertical position and the pilot
valve plunger once more covers ports in the drive gear shaft, blocking flow of pressure
oil to or from the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller.
UNDERSPEED
An underspeed condition occur when the airspeed or horsepower is decreased and
engine RPM falls below the rate established by the setting of the speed adjusting control
lever. The decrease in the centrifugal force of the rotating flyweights causes them to pivot
inward under the force exerted by the speeder spring.
Counterweighted Propeller using Pressure to Decrease Pitch (see Fig. 2)
The pilot valve plunger is forced down uncovering the ports in the drive gear shaft
that allow pressure oil to flow to the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller. This
overcomes the force of the propeller counterweights and decreases the pitch of the
propeller blade. Uncounter weighted Propeller using Pressure to Increase Pitch (see Fig.
3)The pilot valve plunger is forced downward, uncovering the ports in the driver gear
shaft, thus allowing oil to flow from the pitch changing mechanism of the propeller to
sump. This permits the centrifugal twisting moment of the blades to decrease propeller
pitch. This reduce the load on the engine, thereby increasing engine speed and the
centrifugal force developed by the rotating flyweights. The flyweight toes lift the pilot
valve plunger to cover the control ports. At this point the forces acting on the engine-
governor-propeller combination are again balanced and the engine is back to the speed
called for by the governor setting.