University of Basra

College of engineering
Petroleum department

Prepared by
Sajad Falah Radha

July 4, 2020
ABSTRACT
The objective of this analysis is to assess the accuracy of the sweep efficiency
formula, which is used in order to predict secondary recovery. The formula is
defined as the product of the sweep efficiencies. The assessment was carried out
by comparing theoretical predictions of reservoir performance with numerical
simulation results. In order to investigate some of the parameters affecting
reservoir performance, a significant number of conceptually modelled reservoirs
with various rock and fluid properties were analyzed for the purpose of the study.
The project has identified numerous contributions developed by researchers such
as Stiles (1949), Dykstra & Parsons (1950) and many others over the years. The
correlations developed for prediction of reservoir performance have shown that
a reservoir production profile is affected by a large number of parameters, some
of which are easily identified. Such parameters include: the oil water viscosity
ratio, the oil-water density difference, the geographical locations of the wells, the
geology of the reservoir and many other rock and fluid properties, whose
influences are recognized, but hardly quantified. At the end of the analysis, the
following conclusion was established: the actual performance of a waterflood
rarely matches the theoretically predicted results. The main reason for the
inconsistencies is the fact that it is virtually impossible and impractical to
incorporate all the variables affecting the performance of a waterflood into a
theoretical prediction technique. Some of the parameters causing the
inconsistencies are: heterogeneity across the reservoir, gravitational cross flow
between layers, well pattern across the reservoir. The analysis contained in this
paper showed that the recovery factor for a waterflooded reservoir, can
reasonably be predicted using Stiles’ and Dykstra-Parsons’ methods, assuming
that the reservoir is very simple, in terms of geology, geometry and fluid
properties. Although in the case of a model with complex heterogeneity, the
waterflood performance is more difficult to predict theoretically. In this situation
the use of numerical simulators can help in predicting future reservoir
performances.

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 page number
Content

Abstract 1
Table of content 11
Table of figure 111

Introduction 1

Water flooding performance 3

Stiles method 5

Reference 12

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 Name of figure page number

Figure 4: The Process of Water flooding 2

Figure 2: Permeability variation (V or 𝐕𝐤 ) plotted 5

against mobility ratio (M or 𝜶) showing lines of constant
[𝐑(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝐒𝐖 )]for a producing water/oil ratio of 25.

Figure 3: Permeability variation (V or 𝐕𝐤 ) plotted 6

against mobility ratio (M or 𝜶) showing lines of constant
[𝐑(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝐒𝐖 )]for a producing water/oil ratio of 100.

111
Introduction
Water flooding is the most successful and widely used enhanced oil recovery
process. This is because water is widely available and inexpensive relative to
other fluids, easy to inject, and highly efficient in displacing oil.
A key factor in the design of a water flood is estimation of the oil recovery. This
in turn is dependent on reservoir characteristics and the manner of project
implementation and operation. The performance of a waterflood project in
terms of oil recovery depends on many factors, such as rock wettability, rock
and fluid properties, formation heterogeneities, flood patterns, composition of
injection water, water injection rates, fluid production rates, etc. These factors
should be considered in the design and installation of a waterflood project.
Waterflooding of hydrocarbon reservoirs is generally an immiscible
displacement process since water is virtually immiscible with hydrocarbons
even at high pressures. The water flooding Limitations is High oil viscosities
result in higher mobility ratios and Some heterogeneity is acceptable but avoid
extensive fractures. The water flooding Challenges is Poor compatibility
between the injected water and reservoir may cause formation damage.
The principal reason for waterflooding an oil reservoir is to increase the oil-
production rate and, ultimately, the oil recovery. This is accomplished by
"voidage replacement"—injection of water to increase the reservoir pressure
to its initial level and maintain it near that pressure. The water displaces oil
from the pore spaces.

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Figure 4: The Process of Water flooding

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Water flooding performance
Prediction of the performance of water floods is subject to many
qualifications. A number of prediction methods ranging from strictly
empirical estimates to complex mathematical calculations and electrical
model simulators have been proposed. Data comparing actual
performance with calculated results for carbonate reservoirs have been
submitted on only one or two calculation techniques; consequently, the
practicing reservoir engineer has a minimum of actual case histories to
assist his selection of the proper technique. As a great number of water
floods are being placed in operation in West Texas carbonate reservoirs,
this paper should assist the engineers responsible for predicting their
performance. It is also hoped that this paper will stimulate interest in
presenting additional comparative data on other calculation techniques.
In this paper, actual performance of pilot water floods in three carbonate
reservoirs is compared to performance calculated by two or more
prediction methods.

The use of water as a flooding medium in both depleted and "flush" oil
reservoirs is gaining greater recognition and acceptance. Many of the
shallower fields, depleted by primary production, have been and are being
subjected to water injection in order to obtain some part of the large
volume of oil remaining after primary production. Some of the earlier
water flood installation proved highly discouraging and the value of water
flooding was often questioned. Many of these earlier floods were
haphazardly selected and developed as little was known of the physical

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characteristics and contents of the producing formations. The prior
evaluation of the flood performance was impossible. During the past
decade the development of the required reservoir engineering tools-core
analysis, reservoir fluid analysis, electric logs, fluid flow formulae, etc.-has
allowed the engineer to construct and apply the methods which are
presently being used to evaluate the economic and mechanical
susceptibility of a reservoir to flooding. This discussion will present a
method for taking into account the effect of permeability variations in
predicting the performance of water floods in depleted reservoir.

Effect of Key Parameters on Waterflood Performance

• It is impossible to account for the effects of all key parameters on
waterflood performance using one prediction method
• All prediction methods are associated with certain assumptions and
limitations of applicability
• Reservoir simulation provides the most reliable and flexible method to
account for the effects of most key parameters on waterflood
performance
• Even with modern reservoir simulation techniques (including
geostatistics) and very large computing capabilities, reservoir engineers
and geologists still face some limitations in representing all parameters
• It is important for engineers and geologists to understand the role and
expected effect from key parameters that influence waterflood process
design and performance

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Stiles method
In the Stiles (1949) method, an oil reservoir is visualized as a layered
reservoir with each layer having a different permeability. Table 8-10
presents the steps in the Stiles method. The procedure steps presented
here are based.

𝛍𝐫𝐰 𝛍𝐨
𝛂=
𝛍𝐫𝐨 𝛍𝐰

Fig. 2. Permeability variation (V or 𝐕𝐤 ) plotted against mobility ratio

(M or 𝜶) showing lines of constant [𝐑(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝐒𝐖 )]for a producing
water/oil ratio of 25.
+

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 ➢ Recommended steps in using the stiles (1949) waterflooding
predictive technique
Cumulative thickness 𝒉
Fractional thickness 𝒉𝒇
permeability 𝒌𝒋
Dimensionless permeability 𝒌𝒊
Fractional permeability 𝑭𝒑
Capacity 𝐂𝐂
(𝟏 − 𝐂𝐂 ) -
Coverage 𝐂𝒆
WOR -
Oil recovery 𝑵𝑷
Water injected 𝑾𝑰

𝛍𝐫𝐰 𝛍𝐨
𝛂=
𝛍𝐫𝐨 𝛍𝐰

Fig. 3. Permeability variation (V or 𝐕𝐤 ) plotted against mobility ratio

(M or 𝜶) showing lines of constant [𝐑(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝐒𝐖 )]for a producing 6
water/oil ratio of 100.
Assumptions for Stiles method
1) Linear and steady-state flow occurs.
2) The reservoir is composed of isolated homogeneous layers of equal
thickness with varying permeabilities; there is no crossflow
between layers.
3) Except for absolute permeability, the rock and fluid properties are
the same for all layers.
4) The rates of oil or water production are proportional to the
quantity of water injected. All fluid movement is pistonlike.
5) Fluids are immiscible and incompressible; the pressure drop across
each layer is the same.
6) The distance of flood-front penetration for each layer is
proportional to its permeability.
7) Oil saturation in an unswept portion of a reservoir is unaffected by
the flood front.
8) Fill up occurs in all layers prior to flood response. The flood life
should be increased to allow for the fill-up period.

Procedure for Stiles method

1) Prepare a profile of the absolute permeabilities versus depth.
2) Divide the permeability profile into layers of equal thicknesses and
select a representative permeability for each layer.
3) Arrange the representative permeabilities in descending order with
the highest value first and the lowest last.

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4) Calculate the cumulative thickness, h, and fractional thickness, hg, for
the layers.
5) Determine the dimensionless permeability, 𝐊 𝐢 , for each layer and sum
of all dimensionless permeabilities, 𝐊 𝐬 ;
𝐊𝐢
𝑲𝒊 =
𝐊 𝐚𝐯
𝒏

𝐊𝐬 = ∑ 𝐊𝐢
𝟏

where 𝐊 𝐢 = permeability to water for a layer, md; and 𝐡𝐚𝐯 = avaverage

water permeability of all layers, md.

6) Determine the incremental permeability or capacity, 𝐅𝐩𝐢 of each layer:

𝐊𝐢
𝑭𝒑𝒊 =
𝐊𝐬

7) determine the cumulative capacity, 𝑪𝒆 :

𝒏

𝐂𝐂 = ∑ 𝐅𝐩𝐢
𝟏

8) calculate the covarage, 𝑪𝒆 :

𝐊 𝐢 𝐡𝐟 + 𝟏 − 𝐂𝐜
𝐂𝐞 =
𝐊𝐢

9) calculate water /oil ratio,WOR :

𝐂𝐂
𝐖𝐎𝐑 = 𝐌𝐁𝐎
(𝟏 − 𝐂𝐂 )

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WHERE M=mobility ratio, and 𝑩𝑶 = Oil formation volume factor,
(bbl/STB)

10) calculate the recovery 𝑵𝑷

𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝐀𝐡∅𝐂𝐞 (𝐒𝐨𝐢 − 𝐒𝐨𝐫 )

𝐍𝐏 =
𝐁𝐎

Where 𝐒𝐨𝐢 = initial oil saturation, fraction,and 𝐒𝐨𝐫 = residual oil

saturation (flood pot tests),fraction.

11) Pilot water/oil ratio versus net oil recovery, decide upon an
acceptable WOR cutoff point, and read the anticipated oil recovery
from the graph.

12) Calculate the amount of cumulative water injected, 𝑾𝒊 and life, t.

a) Integrate 𝑵𝑷 − 𝑾𝑶𝑹 curve graphically to get the volume of
produced water 𝑾𝑷
b) Calculate the water injected, 𝑾𝑰 𝐖𝐈 = 𝐍𝐏 𝐁𝐎 + 𝐖𝐏

c) Life,t in years is given by ; 𝐖𝐢

𝐭=
𝐢𝐰 × 𝟑𝟔𝟓

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Calculation of Vertical Sweep Efficiency by stiles method
Stiles (1949) proposed an approach that takes into account the effect of
permeability variations in predicting the performance of waterfloods. Stiles
assumes that in a layered system, the water breakthrough occurs in a sequence
that starts in the layer with the highest permeability. Assuming that the
reservoir is divided into n layers that are arranged in a descending permeability
order with breakthrough occurring in a layer i, all layers from 1 to i have
already been swept by water. The remaining layers obviously have not reached
breakthrough. The method assumes that there is piston-like displacement of
oil, so that after water breakthrough in a layer, only water is produced from this
layer. Based on Stiles’ proposed concept, Stiles suggested that the vertical
sweep efficiency can be calculated from the following expression:
𝐤 𝐢 ∑𝐢𝐣=𝟏 𝐡𝐣 + ∑𝐧𝐣=𝐢+𝟏(𝐤𝐡)𝐣
𝐄𝐯 = … … . … … (𝟏)
𝐊 𝐢 𝐡𝐭
where
𝐢 = 𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡 𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫 𝐢. 𝐞. , 𝐢 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … 𝐧
𝐧 = 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐬
𝐄𝐯 = 𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐩 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐲
𝐡𝐭 = 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝐟𝐭
𝐡𝐢 = 𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝐟𝐭

If the value of porosity vary between layers, equation (1) can be written

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 Stiles also developed the following expression for determining the surface water-
oil ratio as breakthrough occurs subsequently on layer by layer:

Where
𝐖𝐎𝐑 𝐬 = 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 − 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨, 𝐒𝐓𝐁/𝐒𝐓𝐁
𝐊 𝐫𝐰 = 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐨𝐫
𝐊 𝐫𝐨 = 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐭𝐨 𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐚𝐭 𝐒𝐰𝐢

Both the vertical sweep efficiency and surface WOR equation are used
simultaneously to describe the sequential breakthrough as it occurs in layer 1 through
layer. It usually convenient to represent the result of these calculations graphically in
terms of log(WOR) as a function of 𝑬𝑽 .

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Reference
❖Enhanced oil recovery I (fundemental and analysis)
,ELSEVIER.
❖The reserviorv engineeringbaspect of waterflooding,
Forrest F. Craig Jr.
❖Waterflooding Performance, Noaman A.F. El-
Khatib, SPE, University Teknologi PETRONAS,
Malaysia
❖ Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Tarek
Ahmed, Fifth Edition
❖Petrowiki ans SPE paper

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