India is home to over a billion people, accommodating incredible cultural diversity

between languages, geographic regions, religious traditions and social stratifications. In

recognition of this large demographic diversity, the following descriptions are not
intended to represent every Indian person. However, there are common themes and
principles that contribute to the values, attitudes, beliefs and norms of the dominant
society. Generally speaking, Indians tend to have a strong sense of pride in the
distinctiveness and diversity of their culture. For example, the country’s agricultural
expansions and technological advancements in infrastructure, science and engineering
are sources of pride. Moreover, a considerable amount of pride stems from India's rich
artistic cultural exports of music, fine arts, literature and spirituality (especially the
practice of yoga).

Geography and Space

India’s geography and climate is incredibly diverse. Northern India is characterised by
the snowy mountain range of the Himalayas and the Great Indian (Thar) Desert.
Meanwhile, tropical jungles, rainforests, coastal plains, islands and beaches distinguish
the south. Nature plays a vital role in India – especially rivers such as the  Ganga (or
‘Ganges’) in the north and Godavari in the central and southeast. Both provide irrigation
for farmlands, a method of transportation and are considered sacred to many followers
of Hinduism.

As India has one of the largest populations in the world, public and private spaces are
often densely populated. This influences how the idea of privacy is understood, as it is
rarely available, sought after or indulged in. Generally, there is a very large cultural
tolerance for crowding. For example, several generations often live under one roof, and
it is not uncommon to find animals such as cows or dogs freely roaming public streets
and villages.

The buzzing cities of Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi contain a melting pot of rapid
economic development and technological innovation, with a notable example being the
continually expanding telecommunications sector. Such cities demonstrate India's rise
as an economic and political powerhouse on the world stage. This is also represented
by the diaspora of Indian people throughout the globe. The large metropolitan cities
stand in contrast to the hundreds of thousands of villages and small towns, each
containing distinctive microsocieties. Indians can often determine where someone is
from based on their accent, language, style of dress and mannerisms. Indeed, it is
common to find people having a sense of regional pride and identity towards their place
of origin.

Ethnic and Linguistic Composition

Although India does not officially recognise racial or ethnic categories in the national
census, it continues to be one of the most ethnically diverse populations in the world.
Broadly, the ethnicities of India can be broken down into main groups on the basis of
their linguistic backgrounds, the two largest being Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. For
example, most people belonging to Indo-Aryan ethnicities live in the northern half of the
country and speak Hindi (India’s most widely spoken language). Meanwhile, people
belonging to Dravidian ethnicities generally live in the southern half of the country and
account for most of the country’s Tamil and Telugu speakers. These labels usually
serve as a helpful way to categorise the origins of Indian ethnic diversity, although they
don’t necessarily reflect people’s personal identity. For example, people are unlikely to
describe themselves as ‘Dravidian’ or ‘Indo-Aryan’.

Within these broad language groups, there is vast linguistic diversity accounting for 22
major languages and hundreds of regional dialects. Most Indians tend to be bilingual or
multilingual, speaking a national language (such as Hindi) along with their regional
language(s). English is considered to be a subsidiary official language that is often
reserved for governmental and commercial purposes. People who do not share a
common first or native language will generally communicate in either Hindi or English. It
is important to be considerate of the linguistic diversity of India as many Indians
consider their language (particularly their regional dialects) to be a source of identity.

National Identity
The ‘Indian identity’ has evolved continuously over the country’s history as political and
religious institutions have changed within and outside of India. For example, the British
Raj (1858-1947) brought about vast changes in the country’s economic, political and
cultural spheres. India’s independence from the British in 1947 was accompanied by the
partition of India and Pakistan into the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan respectively. This led to mass violence that continues to be a source of trauma
and sadness for many Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus that reside in the Punjab region in
northwestern India.

Partition reflects the complexities in Indian identity with respect to religion. One
temptation is to correlate Hindu identity and values with the Indian national identity. This
correlation has been made since British colonisation. However, such a view tends to
misrepresent the religious and cultural diversity of India. While it may seem like a useful
device for describing a unified national identity, such generalisations perpetuate
significant tensions among various groups in Indian society.

Earnest efforts have been made throughout the 20th and 21st century to instil a sense
of nationhood and move beyond deep tensions and inequalities. Although tensions
occasionally surface and at times have resulted in violence, social legislation has
sought to empower traditionally disadvantaged segments of society such as
‘Untouchable' castes (see ‘Social Structure and Stratification' below), tribal populations,
women and people with disabilities through affirmative action programs.

Social Structure and Stratification

India has a highly stratified traditional social structure, often referred to as the ‘caste’
system. The term ‘caste’ comes from the word ‘casta’, which was used by Portuguese
observers to describe the social stratification of Indian society. The caste system is an
ancient institution that is generally believed to be unique to the Indian subcontinent.
Although often classified under one term, the caste system actually represents two
different overlapping systems of stratification.

The large-scale caste system is known as the ‘varna’ system. This classifies society into
four broad categories; brahmin (priestly caste), kshatriya (nobility
caste), vaishya (merchant caste) and shudra (artisan or labourer caste).1 The varna
system was viewed by some members of society as the ideal social structure. Over
time, particular castes in the bottom tier became stigmatised as ‘less pure’ compared to
higher castes, and interactions between them were limited. The idea of the ‘dalits’
(‘untouchables’) was a modern addition. This category, thought to be outside of
the caste system, was understood as the lowest rank and ‘least pure’ members of
Indian society.

The small-scale caste system, known as the ‘jati' system, comprises over

2,000 jati categories that determine one’s occupation or vocation based on their family
of birth. These occupations or jatis are ranked, with some considered to be caste-
neutral (such as agriculture or non-traditional civil service). The jati system is particularly
noticeable in the daily social organisation of Indian culture. For example, it explains why
it is common to find people following the professions of their parents, grandparents and
so on.

Intercaste Interactions
The caste system(s) is no longer legally enforced, and discrimination based on caste is
outlawed. In the latter half of the 20th century, Indian governments have assigned jati
categories into one of four general classes based on economic, social and historical
criteria. To address inequalities among jatis, the government has established affirmative
action programs, which reserve jobs, education scholarships and other benefits for
historically disadvantaged or persecuted castes.

Many people do not explicitly adhere to the caste system, particularly in urban areas
and large cities. However, social assumptions of the caste remain influential on certain
aspects of Indian life. For example, the caste system continues to inform marriage
through the practice of arranged marriages, which are usually carried out through
existing (often caste-based) networks (see ‘Marriage and Dating’ in Family). The caste
system is more strictly adhered to in rural areas.

Although upward mobility within the caste system remains difficult, efforts have been
made by various jatis to alter the social order and challenge the system itself. The social
order is continuously under negotiation, and people from ‘lower' jatis have been known
to challenge the social structure by adopting certain elements of the lifestyles of those in
more ‘pure' castes. Some examples include abstaining from ‘polluting' or ‘demeaning'
occupations, following vegetarianism and avoiding alcohol. Meanwhile, some jatis have
been known to emphasise that caste position should be determined by other factors
such as economic status, land ownership and political power.

Although open discrimination based on caste is extremely uncommon, everyone

maintains a subtle awareness of the social structure. People continue to be conscious
of the social position of themselves and those around them. Questioning or deviating
from one’s expected role is still relatively rare. Thus, when interacting with someone
from India, it is worth bearing in mind that the caste structure often systematically
determines one's occupation and social standing from birth. While it may be
inappropriate to inquire into a person’s caste (in the sense of the large-scale varna
system), it is socially acceptable to ask about one’s occupation or vocation. 

Collectivism and Harmony

Indians generally place a high value on harmony and unity with others, keeping a strong
nexus with their community and relatives. A unified and interdependent community or
family provides a support system that an individual can rely on daily. Community groups
are often informed by one’s jati. Many community groups, especially in rural areas in the
north, have their own regulating system of self-imposed rules to help maintain order
and harmony. Such systems are often seen as necessary due to economic hardship or
the unreliability of official services. The regulation of rules does not necessarily come
from the upper caste; in some cases, lower caste members may lead the community
depending on the area.

Indians can almost always trust in their social ties for assistance in virtually any activity.
Isolation or seclusion can seem daunting, as group loyalty and assurance of
inseparability provides security and confidence. Indians tend to be conscious of how
their behaviour may reflect on their family or community. Many tend to emphasise
humility and the preservation of their own and collective reputation, dignity and honour.
For example, Indians may speak indirectly to avoid conflict and maintain
social harmony. People are also expected to uphold their duties, responsibilities and
obligations. Indeed, it is common to find Indians abroad sending remittances back to
their family in India to provide financial support.

Karma, Acceptance and Personal Choice

Many Indians tend to have a sense of acceptance towards one’s life position or a belief
that, due to actions in one’s past life, good or bad personal circumstances are deserved.
This attitude partly stems from religious ideas such as ‘karma’ (the idea that one’s
actions will affect their current or future life) and ‘samsara’ (the cycle of rebirth).

The interplay of these social, cultural and religious factors allows people to be accepting
of life events and trajectories. However, this is not to be interpreted as Indians being
unwilling to take responsibility for life circumstances. Many often contemplate how their
actions may impact their future and make decisions accordingly. Some of India's youth
are challenging a fatalistic perspective by asserting their free will to choose their
vocation, spouse and other life factors. Indeed, as social mobility becomes more
common, there is a growing belief that one can change their circumstances.

Modesty and Conservativeness

Indians tend to be quite conservative in most aspects of life, particularly in rural areas.
This is especially noticeable in people’s behaviour and dress. Many will avoid speaking
loudly or using excessive hand gestures, and it is not uncommon for strangers, friends
and some family members of opposite genders to avoid physical contact. It is also
preferable to wear clothing that covers the arms and legs; very few people wear
revealing clothing. Clothing is usually traditional, but it is common to see Western-style
clothing throughout the country for men and in urban areas for women.

Adaptability and Light-Heartedness

The large population size of India has not led average Indians to think of themselves as
‘one among many’ and certainly has not diminished their aspirations. Instead, diversity
is celebrated alongside an inventive and entrepreneurial spirit. In this sense, many
Indians are very adaptive and creative, often visualising big possibilities for themselves,
their people and country. Problems are usually managed in a cheerful, cooperative and
innovative manner, along with a light-heartedness towards situations that might
otherwise be understood as frustrating. For example, strangers readily help others
during mundane tasks such as looking for directions or parking a vehicle.

SIX INSTITUTIONS OF THE SOCIETY

1. Family
The family is an important institution that plays a central role in the lives of most
Indians. As a collectivistic society, Indians often emphasise loyalty
and interdependence. The interests of the family usually take priority over those
of the individual, and decisions affecting one’s personal life – such as marriage
and career paths – are generally made in consultation with one’s family. People
tend to act in the best interest of their family’s reputation, as the act of an
individual may impact the perception of the entire family by their community.

Although most family members are within geographical proximity or part of the
same occupational groups, the growth of urbanisation and migration has seen
younger generations challenging these perceptions of family. Today, many
people have extensive family networks that are spread across many different
regions and hold different occupations. The links an Indian person maintains with
their extended family overseas are often much closer than those of most people
in English-speaking Western societies. Indians living abroad also maintain close
connections to their family remaining in India through regular phone calls,
sending remittances or visiting if circumstances allow.

Household Structure
The concept of family extends beyond the typical nuclear unit to encompass the
wider family circle. These large multigenerational families can also be essential
to providing economic security to an individual. They often provide a source of
work in a family agricultural business or lead to opportunities in cities
where kinship ties and third-party introductions are crucial for employment.

People may be encouraged to have relationships with their aunts and uncles that
are just as strong as parental relationships. In many parts of India, it is common
to find three or four generations living together. The father (or eldest son, if the
father is not present) is usually the patriarch while his wife may supervise any
daughters or daughters-in-law that have moved into the household. Extended
families tend to defer to the elderly and observe a clear hierarchy among family
members. In more urban areas, people will usually live in smaller nuclear families
yet maintain strong ties to their extended family.

Gender Roles
The inequality between the status of men and women is quite pronounced in
India. There are varying customs surrounding a practice known as ‘pardah’ that
calls for the seclusion of women in certain situations. It is practised mostly in
northern India and among conservative Hindu or Muslim families. In accordance
with pardah, females are generally expected to leave the domestic realm only
when veiled and accompanied by a man. Nuances in the custom vary
between ethnicities, religions and social backgrounds. For example, married
Hindu women in particular parts of northern India may wear a ‘ghoonghat’ (a
 specific kind of veil or headscarf) in the presence of older male relatives on their
husband's side.

The degree to which gender inequalities persist is undergoing continuous

change. For example, a brother and sister in India are now likely to receive equal
schooling and treatment in the educational system. Although still bound by many
constraining societal expectations, educated women in society are becoming
more empowered through employment opportunities and political representation.
There are also affirmative action programs for women to help address structural
inequalities. 

Relationships and Marriage

Arranged marriages are common throughout India, though expectations and
practices of marital arrangements vary depending on the region and religion.
Marriages are typically arranged through a matchmaker, the couple’s parents or
some other trusted third party. Unlike in the past where individuals would not be
informed about their future partner, it is now more common for the family to
consult the couple for consent before the wedding.

Arranged marriages are nearly always influenced by caste considerations.

Therefore, endogamous marriages remain a common practice (limited to
members of the same caste or, in some cases, religion). This is in part because
arranging marriages is a family activity that is carried out through pre-existing
networks of a broader community. Although people will marry within the same
caste, families avoid marriage within the same subcaste. The institutions of
arranged marriage and caste endogamy enable parents to influence the futures
of their children as well as sustain the local and social structure. Intercaste
marriages are almost never arranged. Such marriages are known as ‘love
marriages’ and are becoming more common. Regardless of how one finds a
spouse, the family is nearly always consulted in the marriage process.

Usually, weddings are conducted in the villages of the families, regardless of

whether the family resides in their village or in a major city. Indeed, it is common
for families to keep their village home for the purpose of weddings or other major
family events. Weddings may span over a number of days and specific practices
vary depending on the region and the religion of the families. 

2. Education
In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education in which anyone who
wished to study went to a teacher's (Guru) house and requested to be taught. If
accepted as a student by the guru, he would then stay at the guru's place and help in
all activities at home. This not only created a strong tie between the teacher and the
student, but also taught the student everything about running a house. The guru
taught everything the child wanted to learn, from Sanskrit to the holy scriptures and
from Mathematics to Metaphysics. The student stayed as long as she wished or until
the guru felt that he had taught everything he could teach. All learning was closely
linked to nature and to life, and not confined to memorizing some information.

Universal and compulsory education for all children in the age group of 6-14 was a
cherished dream of the new government of the Republic of India. This is evident from
the fact that it is incorporated as a directive policy in article 45 of the constitution. But
this objective remains far away even more than half a century later. However, in the
recent past, the government appears to have taken a serious note of this lapse and
has made primary education a Fundamental Right of every Indian citizen. The
pressures of economic growth and the acute scarcity of skilled and trained manpower
must certainly have played a role to make the government take such a step. The
expenditure by the Government of India on school education in recent years comes
to around 3% of the GDP, which is recognized to be very low.

The school system in India has four levels: lower primary (age 6 to 10), upper
primary (11 and 12), high (13 to 15) and higher secondary (17 and 18). The lower
primary school is divided into five “standards”, upper primary school into two, high
school into three and higher secondary into two. Students have to learn a common
curriculum largely (except for regional changes in mother tongue) till the end of high
school. There is some amount of specialization possible at the higher secondary
level. Students throughout the country have to learn three languages (namely,
English, Hindi and their mother tongue) except in regions where Hindi is the mother
tongue and in some streams as discussed below.

There are mainly three streams in school education in India. Two of these are
coordinated at the national level, of which one is under the Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE) and was originally meant for children of central
government employees who are periodically transferred and may have to move to
any place in the country. A number of “central schools” (named Kendriya Vidyalayas)
have been established for the purpose in all main urban areas in the country, and
they follow a common schedule so that a student going from one school to another
on a particular day will hardly see any difference in what is being taught. One subject
(Social Studies, consisting of History, Geography and Civics) is always taught in
Hindi, and other subjects in English, in these schools. Kendriya Vidyalayas admit
other children also if seats are available. All of them follow textbooks written and
published by the NCERT. In addition to these government-run schools, a number of
private schools in the country follow the CBSE syllabus though they may use
 different text books and follow different teaching schedules. They have a certain
amount of freedom in what they teach in lower classes. The CBSE also has 141
affiliated schools in 21 other countries mainly catering to the needs of the Indian
population there.

The second central scheme is the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE).
It seems that this was started as a replacement for the Cambridge School Certificate.
The idea was mooted in a conference held in 1952 under the Chairmanship of
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Minister for Education. The main purpose of the
conference was to consider the replacement of the overseas Cambridge School
Certificate Examination by an All India Examination. In October 1956 at the meeting
of the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education, a proposal was adopted for the
setting up of an Indian Council to administer the University of Cambridge, Local
Examinations Syndicate's Examination in India and to advise the Syndicate on the
best way to adapt its examination to the needs of the country. The inaugural meeting
of the Council was held on 3rd November, 1958. In December 1967, the Council was
registered as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The Council was
listed in the Delhi School Education Act 1973, as a body conducting public
examinations. Now a large number of schools across the country are affiliated to this
Council. All these are private schools and generally cater to children from wealthy
families.

Both the CBSE and the ICSE council conduct their own examinations in schools
across the country that are affiliated to them at the end of 10 years of schooling (after
high school) and again at the end of 12 years (after higher secondary). Admission to
the 11th class is normally based on the performance in this all-India examination.
Since this puts a lot of pressure on the child to perform well, there have been
suggestions to remove the examination at the end of 10 years.
3. Religion
Religion has historically influenced Indian society on a political, cultural and
economic level. There is a sense of pride associated with the country’s rich
religious history as the traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism all
emerged out of India. Moreover, while a majority of people in India identify as
Hindu (79.8%), the medley of religions that exist within the country continually
impact contemporary society.

In India, religion is more publicly visible than it is in most English-speaking

Western countries. This becomes evident when considering the numerous
spaces that are thought to be sacred and holy. Examples include ‘ashrams’
(monasteries or congregation sites) consisting of large communities of scholars
or monastics, temples (mandir), shrines and specific landscapes such as the
Ganges river. There is a rich religious history visible in architecture, and it is not
uncommon to find various places of worship, such as a Hindu temple, Muslim
mosque and Christian church, all next to each other.

The 2011 Indian census indicated that 79.8% of Indians identified as Hindu,
14.2% identified as Muslim and 2.3% identified as Christian. A further 1.7% of the
population identified as Sikh, 0.7% identified as Buddhist and 0.37% identified as
Jain. Due to the massive population size of  India, religious minorities still
represent a significant number of people. For example, although only 0.37% of
India may identify with Jainism, that still equates to over 4 million people. While
not all religions in India can be discussed in detail, the following provides an
overview of the major religions in the country as well as sizable religions that
originated in India.

Hinduism in India
Hinduism – the most widely followed religion in India – can be interpreted
diversely. Pinpointing what constitutes Hinduism is difficult, with some suggesting
that it is an umbrella term that encompasses various religions and traditions
within it. Nonetheless, Hinduism in all its forms has been particularly influential in
Indian society.

Daily Life
Hinduism continues to thrive in modern-day India. The religion affects everyday
life and social interactions among people through the many Hindu-inspired
festivities, artistic works and temples. There is also a continuing revival of the
classical ‘epic' narratives of the Ramayana (Rama’s Journey) and
the Mahabharata (The Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty) through the medium of
film and television. The Krishna Lila (The Playful Activities of Krishna) is another
popular tale among many villages.

It is common to find images of gods and goddesses in public and private spaces
at all times of the year. The elephant-headed god, known as Ganesh, is
particularly popular due to his believed ability to remove obstacles. Natural
landscapes are also venerated, such as particular trees or rivers. The Hindu
pantheon of deities extends into the hundreds of thousands due to the localised
and regional incarnations of gods and goddesses. There are also many festivals
celebrated throughout the country dedicated to the many Hindu narratives and
deities.

Social Structure
One influential component of Hinduism impacting India is the large-scale caste
system, known as the ‘varna’ system. The varna caste system represented the
Hindu ideal of how society ought to be structured. This form of organisation
classified society into four ideal categories: brahmin (priestly
caste), kshatriya (warrior, royalty or nobility caste), vaishya (commoner or
merchant caste) and shudra (artisan or labourer caste).

It is a hereditary system in that people are believed to be born into a family of a

specific caste. Each caste has specific duties (sometimes known as ‘dharma’)
they are expected to uphold as part of their social standing. For instance, a
member of the Brahmin caste may be expected to attend to religious affairs
(such as learning religious texts and performing rituals) while avoiding duties
outside of their caste, such as cleaning. In contemporary times, Brahmin men
who have been trained as priests often tend to temples and perform ritual
activities on behalf of other members of Hindu society.

Islam in India
Islam is the second most followed religion in India, influencing the country's
society, culture, architecture and artistry. The partition of the subcontinent in
1947 led to mass emigration of roughly 10 million Muslims to Pakistan and nearly
as many Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan into India. This event changed the
demographics of both countries significantly and is continually felt throughout
India.

Nonetheless, the Islamic community in India continues to play a considerable

role in the development of the country. For example, the Muslim community in
India has contributed to theological research and the establishment of religious
facilities, institutes and universities. The mystical strain of Islam (Sufism) is also
popular, with people gathering to watch Sufi dance performances. The majority of
Muslims are Sunni, but there are also influential Shi'ite minorities in Gujarat. Most
Sunnis reside in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Kerala as
well as major cities.

Sikhism in India
Originating in India, Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that promotes devotion to
a formless God. The religion is centred on a tenet of service, humility and
equality, encouraging its followers to seek to help those less fortunate or in need.
For example, it is common for Sikhs to offer food to those visiting a gurdwara (the
primary place of worship for Sikhs). One of the most recognised symbols of the
Sikh community is a Sikh turban (known as a ‘dastar’ or a ‘dumalla’) worn by
 many men and some women. Since the partition of India and Pakistan, most
Sikhs in India have resided in the Punjab region.

Buddhism in India
Buddhism originated as a countermovement to early Hinduism by presenting a
universal ethic rather than basing ethical codes on an individual’s caste. The core
doctrine of Buddhism, known as the ‘Four Noble Truths’, teaches that one can be
liberated from the suffering that underpins the cycle of death and rebirth by
practising the ‘Noble Eightfold Path’. Buddhism has become more widely
practised in India over the last 30 years. This is partially due to the increased
migration of exiled Buddhist monks from Tibet. However, its popularity has also
increased as many from the 'untouchables' caste view it as a viable alternative to
Hinduism in contemporary Indian society. Many Buddhists reside in the states of
Maharashtra, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir.

Jainism in India
Jainism also originated as a countermovement that opposed some of the
teachings and doctrines of early Hinduism. In modern-day India, layperson Jains
usually uphold the ethical principle of ‘ahimsa’ (‘non-harm’ or ‘non-violence’). As
such, Jains tend to promote vegetarianism and animal welfare. Another common
practice in the Jain lay community is samayika, a meditative ritual intended to
strengthen one's spiritual discipline. Samayika is often practised in a religious
setting, such as a temple, before a monk, or in one's home. Most Jains reside in
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Christianity in India
Christianity is the third most followed religion in India, mostly concentrated in the
far south and Mumbai. The most prominent denomination of Christianity in India
is Roman Catholicism, but there are also localised Christian churches (such as
the Church of North India and the Church of South India). Converts to Christianity
have come mainly from traditionally disadvantaged minorities such as lower
castes and tribal groups.

4. Economy
India’s GDP was growing at between 7% and 8% for the past few years, the fastest
rate in the world. But in the last year it has been decelerating markedly: the growth
rate slumped to 4.5% in the third quarter of 2019, the slowest in six years.
A host of factors have contributed to India’s economic malaise. When Prime Minister
Narendra Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) party was originally elected to run the
country in 2014, it inherited a weak banking and finance sector saddled with too much
bad debt and serious problems with fraud. This had made lending more difficult and
triggered declines in consumer spending, business investment and exports.
The government has made reforms such as providing the banks with extra capital,
introducing new bankruptcy rules to give extra protection to lenders,
and consolidating the state-owned institutions that dominate the sector. Nonetheless,
the banks remain fragile, amid a perception that the reforms have not been aggressive
enough.

India’s lacklustre performance has also been aggravated by the global economic
downturn and ongoing international trade disputes between the US, China and the EU.
In a climate of growing protectionism, India’s exports have declined. The country’s
current account deficit, which is the measure of imports vs exports, widened from 1.8%
in 2017-18 to 2.1% in the most recent year, the highest in six years.
Meanwhile, unemployment has soared. It hit an all-time high of 8.5% in October 2019,
with the labour participation rate falling to barely half of adults. There are mounting
concerns that this could lead to political instability.
https://theconversation.com/indias-economy-how-the-worlds-fastest-growing-nation-went-off-the-
rails-129714
5. Government
Status: Republic
Legislature: Parliament of India
Independence: 15 August 1947
India is a federal republic with 29 states and six union territories. It has a parliamentary
democracy which operates under the constitution of 1950. There is a bicameral federal
parliament: the Rajya Sabha or council of states (upper house) and the Lok Sabha or
house of the people (lower house).
The Lok Sabha has 545 members, 543 representing the states and union territories –
79 seats are reserved for scheduled castes and 40 for scheduled tribes – and two
additional seats reserved for the Anglo-Indian community. Members are elected, on a
first-past-the- post system in single-member constituencies, every five years or less,
based on universal suffrage.
The Rajya Sabha has 245 members, 12 of which are presidential appointments and 233
are elected indirectly by the assemblies of the states and union territories for a six-year
term, with one-third retiring every two years. Legislation may be introduced in either
house, but the Lok Sabha has final say in financial matters.
The Prime Minister is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha and appoints and
heads the Council of Ministers. The President is elected for five years by an electoral
college consisting of members of the federal parliament and state assemblies.
Responsibility for enacting laws is set out in three lists: the Union List (for legislation by
national parliament), the State List and the Concurrent List (either national or state
legislatures). State legislatures make their own laws on such matters as education,
health, taxation, public order, lands and forests. Constitutional amendments must be
passed by both houses and ratified by at least half the state legislatures.
On proclamation of a state of emergency by the President, the federal government may
assume temporary executive and financial control of a state and the President may rule
it in place of the governor. The President appoints an Administrator to govern the union
territories. The 1950 constitution set out a number of individual freedoms and abolished
discrimination on the basis of caste.
Basic structure:
Modelled after the Westminster system for governing the state,[1] the Union government
is mainly composed of the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary, in which all
powers are vested by the constitution in the prime minister, parliament and the supreme
court. The president of India is the head of state and the commander-in-chief of
the Indian Armed Forces whilst the elected prime minister acts as the head of the
executive, and is responsible for running the Union government. [2] The parliament
is bicameral in nature, with the Lok Sabha being the lower house, and the Rajya
Sabha the upper house. The judiciary systematically contains an apex supreme court,
24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the supreme court.[3]
The basic civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major
parliamentary legislation, such as the civil procedure code, the penal code, and
the criminal procedure code.[4] Similar to the Union government, individual State
governments each consists of executive, legislative and judiciary. The legal system as
applicable to the Union and individual State governments is based on the English
Common and Statutory Law.[5] The full name of the country is the Republic of
India. India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India in the
Constitution,[6] and both names appears on legal banknotes, in treaties and in legal
cases. The terms "Union government", "Central government" and "Bhārat Sarkār" are
often used officially and unofficially to refer to the Government of India. The term New
Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Union government, as the seat of the
government is in New Delhi.
The Rashtrapati Bhavan ("rásh-tra-pa-ti bha-vun"; "Presidential Palace",
formerly Viceroy's House) is the official residence of the President of India located at
the Western end of Rajpath in New Delhi, India. Rashtrapati Bhavan may refer to only
the 340-room main building that has the president's official residence, including
reception halls, guest rooms and offices, also called the mansion; it may also refer to
the entire 130-hectare (320 acre) Presidential Estate that additionally includes huge
presidential gardens (Mughal Gardens), large open spaces, residences of bodyguards
and staff, stables, other offices and utilities within its perimeter walls. In terms of area, it
is the largest residence of any head of state in the world.
Head of state: President Ramnath Kovind
Head of government: Prime Minister Narendra Modi

Head of civil services Cabinet secretary (Rajiv Gauba, IAS)

Legislature Parliament

Upper house Rajya Sabha

Leader Chairman (Venkaiah Naidu)

Lower house Lok Sabha

Leader Speaker (Om Birla)

Meeting place Sansad Bhavan

6. Mass media
Indian Media consist of several different types of communications: television, radio,
cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites/portals. Indian
media was active since the late 18th century with print media started in 1780, radio
broadcasting initiated in 1927, and the screening of Auguste and Louis Lumière
moving pictures in Bombay initiated during the July of 1895. It is among the oldest
and largest media of the world. Media in India has been free and independent
throughout most of its history, even before establishment of Indian empire by
Ashoka the Great on the foundation of righteousness, openness, morality and
spirituality. The period of emergency (1975–1977), declared by Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi, was the brief period when India's media was faced with potential
government retribution.
The country consumed 99 million newspaper copies as of 2007 - making it the
second largest market in the world for newspapers. By 2009, India had a total of
81,000,000 Internet users - comprising 7.0% of the country's population, and
7,570,000 people in India also had access to broadband Internet as of 2010 -
making it the 11th largest country in the world in terms of broadband Internet users.
As of 2009, India is among the 4th largest television broadcast stations in the world
with nearly 1,400 stations. Snapshot of evolution of media in India is as below:
Mass media in India - Bengal: The Bengal Gazette was started by James Augustus
Hicky in 1780. The Gazette, a two-sheet newspaper, specialised in writing on the
private lives of the Sahibs of the Company. He dared even to mount scurrillious
attacks on the Governor-General, Warren Hastings', wife, which soon landed "the
late printer to the Honourable Company" in trouble.
Hicky was sentenced to a 4 months jail term and Rs.500 fine, which did not deter
him. After a bitter attack on the Governor-General and the Chief Justice, Hicky was
sentenced to one year in prison and fined Rs.5,000, which finally drove him to
penury. These were the first tentative steps of journalism in India. Mass media in
India - Calcutta: B.Messink and Peter Reed were pliant publishers of the India
Gazette, unlike their infamous predecessor. The colonial establishment started the
Calcutta Gazette. It was followed by another private initiative the Bengal Journal.
The Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusement, a monthly magazine made it four
weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta, now
Kolkata.
Mass media in India - Madras Chennai: The Madras Courier was started in 1785 in
the southern stronghold of Madras, which is now called Chennai. Richard Johnson,
its founder, was a government printer. Madras got its second newspaper when, in
1791, Hugh Boyd, who was the editor of the Courier quit and founded the Hurkaru.
Tragically for the paper, it ceased publication when Boyd passed away within a year
of its founding.
It was only in 1795 that competitors to the Courier emerged with the founding of the
Madras Gazette followed by the India Herald. The latter was an "unauthorised"
publication, which led to the deportation of its founder Humphreys. The Madras
Courier was designated the purveyor of official information in the Presidency. In
1878, The Hindu was founded, and played a vital role in promoting the cause of
Indian independence from the colonial yoke. It's founder, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar,
was a lawyer, and his son, K Srinivasan assumed editorship of this pioneering
newspaper during for the first half of the 20th century. Today this paper enjoys the
highest circulation in South India, and is among the top five nationally.
Mass media in India - Bombay: Bombay, now Mumbai, surprisingly was a late
starter - The Bombay Herald came into existence in 1789. Significantly, a year later
a paper called the Courier started carrying advertisements in Gujarati.
The first media merger of sorts: The Bombay Gazette, which was started in 1791,
merged with the Bombay Herald the following year. Like the Madras Courier, this
new entity was recognised as the publication to carry "official notifications and
advertisements". 'A Chronicle of Media and the State', by Jeebesh Bagchi in the
Sarai Reader 2001 is a handy timeline on the role of the state in the development of
media in India for more than a century.
Bagchi divides the timeline into three 'ages'. The Age of Formulation, which starts
with the Indian Telegraph Act in 1885 and ends with the Report of the Sub-
Committee on Communication, National Planning Committee in 1948.
State of Modern Mass Media: After Independence, the Indian media had evolved,
realigned and reinvented itself to a large extent, and now-a-days you can see a
clear division between commercial and aesthetic expressions of our Media Giants,
sometimes arbitrary. Modern mass communication media is poles apart relative to
any aesthetic feeling: vulgarity and arrogance nullify any hypothesis of meaning.
Aesthetics is the more powerful answer to violence of modern mass communication.
Today’s mass communication media seems to elude every determination, exposing
its message to all possible variants, it finishes to abolish it. Goal of mass
communication is always the unbiased dissipation of any content, and the world
wide web is no exception, and surely is the most efficient media tool.
It’s also very interesting to observe how the old media are becoming more and more
permeable to blogs and D.I.Y. information. This phenomenon is not due to a
fascination in more democratic information sources. On the contrary - the pressure
is rising due to the growth of the eyes’ (cameras and new digital devices) that are
watching the same events that mainstream media are reporting to us: the possibility
of being uncovered are too many and broadcast journalists are forced to tell the
truth (or at least a plausible version of it). As a consequence, blogs have become
the major source of news and information about many global affairs. We also have
to consider that bloggers are often the only real journalists, as they (at their own
risk) provide independent news in countries where the mainstream media is
censored, biased or under control.

India’s free press has played a crucial role in protecting this country’s democracy
since its independence from Britain in 1947. But journalists here now feel under
attack.
Since Mr. Modi came to power in 2014, they say, his government has tried to
control the country’s news media, especially the airwaves, like no other prime
minister in decades. Mr. Modi has shrewdly cultivated the media to build a cult of
personality that portrays him as the nation’s selfless savior.
At the same time, senior government officials have pressed news outlets —
berating editors, cutting off advertising, ordering tax investigations — to ignore the
 uglier side of his party’s campaign to transform India from a tolerant, religiously
diverse country into an assertively Hindu one.
With the coronavirus pandemic, Mr. Modi has gotten more blatant in his attempt to
control coverage and, as with other difficult stories, some Indian news executives
seem willing to go along.

CULTURE
1. Greetings
 In many parts of India and during formal occasions, it is common for people to
greet with the traditional Hindu greeting of “Namaste” (‘I greet the divine within
you’). This is accompanied with a nod of the head or a bow depending on the
status of the person you are greeting.
 A common gesture when greeting is pressing the palms together with the
fingertips facing upwards (i.e. in a prayer position). This greeting is sometimes
accompanied with a slight bow.
 Verbal greetings vary between regions and also differ depending on people’s
relationships. For example, a common Gujarati greeting is “Kem cho”, (‘How are
you?’).
 Muslims may greet by shaking the hand of their counterpart accompanied by the
phrase, “Salaam”. 
 It is generally appropriate for men and women to shake hands. However, it is
advisable to wait for a woman to extend her hand first. Some Muslim or Hindu
men and women may not wish to touch a person of the opposite gender.
 Avoid greeting someone with a hug or a kiss unless you know the person well.
 Indians expect people to greet the eldest or most senior person first. When
greeting elders, some Indians may reach down and touch the ground or the
elder’s feet as a sign of respect.
 It is advisable to address people by their title (Mr, Mrs, etc.) and last name until
they have indicated that you may move on to a first-name basis.
 It is common to add the gender-neutral honorific suffix ‘-ji’ onto a first name to
show respect towards a person, a group or inanimate objects (for example,
‘Madhavji’).
2. Naming
Naming Conventions
 Naming conventions vary based upon an individual’s religion and region of origin
within India.
 The use of surnames is a relatively new convention, introduced during British
colonisation. Typically, parts of northern India follow English-speaking Western
naming conventions by having a given name followed by a surname. This is not
 necessarily the case in southern India, where people may adopt a surname out
of necessity when migrating or travelling abroad.
 It is common for an individual's surname to reflect their community, family, caste
or village of origin.
 A name with the suffix ‘-walla’ loosely means ‘the trade one’s ancestors
practised’. For example, ‘Chaiwalla’ roughly means ‘someone who
makes chai (spiced tea)’.
 There are various honorific titles based on formal or informal social and religious
relationships. These titles are usually in the form of prefixes, suffixes or
replacements. Some examples include ‘Guru’ (‘teacher’ or ‘expert’), ‘Baba’ (a
mark of respect towards Hindu and Sikh ascetics but can also mean ‘father’),
‘Raj’ (‘king’ or ‘royalty’), ‘Sri’ (can mean ‘Mr’ or ‘Ms’ followed by first name, but
also used as a title of veneration for deities) and ‘Sahab’ (same meaning as ‘Sri’
but comes after one’s last name). 
 It is common to add the gender-neutral honorific suffix ‘-ji’ onto a first name to
show respect towards a person, a group or inanimate objects (for example,
‘Madhavji’).
 Those with a Hindu background usually have a given name, middle name and a
family name (e.g. Sanjay Lal VASANI). Sometimes, a Hindu family name may
indicate caste, and a person may drop this name as a way to reject the caste
system (e.g. Sanjay Lal).
 A married woman may omit her father’s initial and adopt her husband’s first name
as a surname (e.g. Nita SANJAY). However, it is also common for women to
adopt their husband’s family name (e.g. Nita VASANI).
 The initial of the father’s name is sometimes placed before their first name
(e.g. N. Kumar).

Names
 Most given names in India are intentionally chosen with a specific meaning, and
many are acutely aware of the meaning of their name. It is common for people
(particularly Hindus) to be given names on the basis of horoscopes, usually
provided by an astrologer. The astrologer determines the sound a name should
begin with and the family will choose a name based on that sound.
 It is common for people to have nicknames among close friends and family.
Nicknames may be designated from a young age and follow someone through
adulthood.
 Some people may have a religious name. For example, people who formally
become part of the Sikh community may adopt a ‘Khalsa’ name, usually ‘Singh’
(‘Lion’) for men and ‘Kaur’ (‘Princess’) for women
3. Business Culture
 Meetings
 People enter a meeting in order of importance, with the highest-ranking person
arriving first and so on. The same goes for introductions.
 When receiving a business card, use both hands (or the right hand only). Do not
put the card away immediately, but instead take a moment to examine it carefully
and then place it before you on the table when you are seated. Do not put it in
the back pocket of your pants as this could be taken as you sitting on the other
person's face. Similarly, do not write on someone's card unless directed to do so.
 When presenting a business card, use both hands (or the right hand only),
making sure that the writing is facing the other person. If you have a university
degree, include that information on the card.
 Take time to get to know your business partner, allowing for a casual
conversation to begin a meeting.
 Expect some meetings or discussions to be conducted over dinner or drinks.
 In India, the highest-ranking person makes the final decisions. Therefore, if the
owner or director of the company is not present, it is likely that you are still
engaged in early negotiations and will not reach a final agreement at this
meeting.

Relationship Oriented
Personal relationships play a significant role in Indian business culture. Third-
party introductions are almost a necessity as Indians prefer to work with those
whom they know and trust. For them, trust is the key to good business, and they
will be looking for an honest commitment to the relationship from you. Their
business networks are often comprised of relatives and peers
as nepotism guarantees trust.

They only want to expand their networks with partners they can rely on. Hence,
they tend to want to know a great deal about their partners to build the loyalty
and trust needed to support business in the future. You may consider some of
the questions asked to be irrelevant or too personal, but try to be patient and
answer their questions for the sake of the business relationship.

If you lose your temper, you may lose their trust in doing business with you. All
matters of disagreement or conflict should be dealt with in the most diplomatic
manner possible. If you offend your business partner, do not ignore the fact that
you did so as this will likely jeopardise your relationship with them. If you are
unsure of what to do, it is a good idea to have your supervisor apologise on your
behalf.
 Negotiations
 Be patient with negotiations as they can progress much slower than what
Australians are used to. 
 Your Indian partner may be more flexible to negotiate and compromise between
meetings when they are in a position to check with their superior.
 They often try to reach a price or figure indirectly after elaborating all the benefits
of the deal.
 When proposing negotiations of a deal, Indians will often remain polite
throughout, and then enthusiastically repackage the deal to reach an agreement
before it escapes them.
 Considerations
 Workplaces in India are hierarchical, based on age and position. 
 Most Indians do not feel comfortable speaking in a direct, frank manner with
those they do not have a strong relationship with. Therefore, expect indirect,
circuitous communication to occur to reach an agreement or deal.
 They dislike rejecting business but will do so if it means future gain.
 In India, the polite way to say no is to say, "I'll see what I can do", or something to
that effect, no matter how impossible the task may be. After they have been
queried several times concerning their success, an answer of "I'm still checking"
or something similar means "no". Such an indirect response also means "I am
still your friend/ally, I tried". Therefore, be as transparent as possible with the
questions in order to receive a clear yes or no answer (but, be cautious in doing
this, or you will harm the relationship).
 It is common for senior members of a meeting to take phone calls. However, it is
considered rude for juniors to follow this practice.
 If you would like to contact your Indian counterpart through a phone call, it is
usually best to call 10am onwards but no later than 9pm in the evening.
 Everything is subject to change in India, so Indians can regard contracts more as
agreements of willingness to do business. The actual specifications of limitations
and regulations of a deal are negotiable depending on the business relationship.
Try to be flexible – as they are – and be aware that a request for a more
comprehensive document could jeopardise trust.
 On the Corruption Perception Index (2017), India ranks 81st out of 180 countries,
receiving a score of 40 (on a scale from 0 to 100). This perception suggests that
the country’s public sector is somewhat corrupt
4. Communication
Verbal
 Indirect Communication: The communication style of Indians tends to be polite
and indirect. They may try to speak appeasingly to those they are not close to in
order to avoid conflict or confrontation. People often exchange opinions or
 viewpoints through negotiation rather than arguing that their perspective is
definitively correct. This communication style can come across as ambiguous.
Direct communication is reserved for relationships with a high level of trust or
crucial situations. 
 Refusals: Direct refusals, such as ‘no’, may be considered to be too harsh and
open disagreement is likely to be interpreted as hostile or aggressive. Therefore,
Indians tend to give evasive refusals and indirectly express disagreement.
Indians may use phrases such as ‘maybe’ or ‘I'll do my best’ as a way to express
‘no'. Moreover, ‘yes' has various connotations that differ from the word's usage in
English-speaking Western cultures. For example, an Indian may say ‘yes’ to
indicate that they are listening to the speaker, whilst indicating disagreement or
refusal through their body language.
 Silence: Sometimes people will remain silent rather than provide a direct ‘no’.
Thus, it is advisable to pay attention to what is not said, as the absence of
agreement may be an expression of disagreement. 
 Questioning: The cultural preoccupation with politeness and modesty can
sometimes mean that some Indians automatically answer ‘yes' to direct
questions that require a yes or no answer. For an Indian, a flat ‘no' may indicate
that you wish to end the relationship. One way of navigating around ambiguity is
to check for clarification several times using open-ended questions. For example,
rather than asking “Is the shop this way?”, it is better to ask “Which way is the
shop?”.
 Hierarchy: The social hierarchy of Indian society often influences communication
patterns in many scenarios. Respect and deference to authority figures in and
outside the home are prevalent in various ways, such as being sensitive about
how one refuses requests and disagrees with a senior’s opinion.

Non-Verbal
 Physical Contact: Indians prefer not to touch people when it can be avoided,
but they may touch someone's arm or hand when speaking so long as they are
the same gender. Body contact between the genders is kept minimal throughout
most of India. For example, hugging, kissing and holding hands are not
customary.
 Personal Space: Indians generally respect each other's personal space and an
arm's length of distance is common during interactions. This is usually similar
proximity to what Westerners are familiar with. They may stand further away from
those who are of the opposite gender.
 Eye Contact: In general, Indians prefer to keep eye contact minimal or avert
their eyes from the opposite gender rather than sustaining eye contact. Some
 women may avoid eye contact altogether. Direct eye contact is generally
appropriate so long as you divert your gaze every so often. 
 Whistling and Winking: Both these actions are considered sexually suggestive
in India.
 Head Tilt: People may tilt their head to the side or shake it to both sides to
indicate agreement and understanding. This head movement is similar to the
Western gesture indicating “I don’t know” with a shrug of the shoulders and tilting
one’s head to the side.
 Nodding: Indians will often nod to acknowledge what is said out of politeness.
However, this does not always mean they understand or agree. 
 Gestures: Pointing the index finger towards someone is considered to be
accusatory. A more polite way to beckon or refer to someone is to use your
whole palm facing down. Standing with your hands on your hips suggests that
you are angry or ready to argue. Holding or pulling on one's ears is a gesture that
indicates sincerity or repentance.
 Head: The head is considered to be the holiest part of one's body. Touching
someone on the top of the head is deemed to be insensitive and offensive. 
 Feet: Feet are thought to be the dirtiest part of the body, and displaying the soles
of one’s feet or touching people with one’s feet is considered rude.

TRADITIONS
It is important to be aware of the diversity of traditions and practices regarding
etiquette in India. Given the different social norms among regions, linguistic
groups and religions, each community has their own understanding of what
constitutes respectful or normal behaviour. If unsure of the correct etiquette in
certain circumstances, do not hesitate to ask your Indian counterpart or at least
observe the people around you for guidance.

Basic Etiquette
 Feet are thought to be the ‘dirtiest’ part of the body. The soles of one’s feet
should never be pointed at another person, towards a temple or towards a deity.
Sit in a way that avoids this.
 The top of the head is considered to be the most important part of the human
body. To touch someone on the top of their head is considered rude and
insensitive. This is especially the case with babies, children, elderly, religious
leaders or statues of deities.
 To show the utmost respect towards a religious leader, statue of a deity or an
elder, one will touch the feet of the person or the statue.
 Never sit higher than an elder. If they are seated on the floor, you should also sit
on the floor to avoid being higher than them.
 Objects are generally passed with one’s right hand or both hands. The left hand
is thought to be reserved for cleaning, and the left hand alone should never be
used to pass an object.
 Indians typically have a relaxed approach towards timekeeping and punctuality. It
is common for people to arrive at events 30 minutes to an hour after the
designated time. However, Indians will usually observe punctuality in a formal
context such as important business meetings, appointments or when visiting a
doctor.

Visiting
 Indians are generally exceptionally hospitable and take great pride in this
characteristic. Complements on the hospitality of your Indian counterpart are
generally very appreciated.
 People may not be strictly punctual when visiting someone’s home. Arriving 15 to
30 minutes after the designated time is appropriate.
 Remove your shoes before entering someone’s home.
 It is common to be offered a cup of chai (spiced tea) when visiting someone’s
home or occasionally when visiting a shop. 
 There is often an expectation that the guest will accept what is offered (especially
chai). If you refuse something, it may be seen as a token protest made out of
politeness. Thus, instead of accepting your refusal, an Indian may insist that you
receive what has been offered. This can lead to awkward situations in which a
guest can feel that the offer is being forced upon them.
 While a gift for the host is not expected, it is generally appreciated. A small token
gift, such as chocolates or a gift for the host's children, is usually adequate.
 There are various norms practised when visiting a place of worship. Specific
practices vary among religions. Generally, one is required to remove their shoes.
In some places, such as Jain or Hindu temples, leather articles are not permitted
to enter the premises. Some sites may also require either females (Muslim
mosques) or both genders (Sikh gurdwaras) to cover their head.
 If you wish to leave someone’s home, it is considered polite and respectful to ask
permission to leave (e.g. ‘It’s probably time for me to go’). This is especially
important if you are visiting the house of an elder.

Eating
 Indian food often does not require utensils to eat. Therefore, there are various
forms of eating etiquette relating to the use of one’s hands.
 Wash your hands before eating or serving food to an Indian.
 Everyone normally uses their right hand to serve themselves, scooping with the
fingers or with a serving spoon.
 Avoid using your left hand if you are encouraged to eat with your hands. The left
hand is considered ‘unclean' since it is the hand people generally use for
washing themselves.
 An Indian may fill your plate for you, or they may expect you to serve yourself.
 There is a general distinction between northern and southern Indian food. The
latter is usually much spicier.
 Some Indians may have dietary restrictions based on their religious faith. For
example, practising Muslim Indians do not consume pork. For many Hindus,
cows have sacred religious connotations, and the consumption of beef will be
avoided.
 It is common for many Indians to abstain from drinking alcohol for reasons such
as religion (e.g. Islam, Buddhism) or their upbringing. Only serve or provide
alcohol if you are certain that your Indian counterpart drinks it.

Gift Giving
 Yellow, green and red are considered to be lucky colours and are often used to
wrap gifts.
 It is advisable for men to say a gift is from both himself and his wife/mother/sister
or some other female relative if offering it to a woman. This is to avoid the gift-
giving act being interpreted as flirtatious.
 Different flowers have different connotations. Therefore, make sure to be aware
of the connotations certain flowers have if you give them as gifts. Importantly,
avoid giving frangipanis or white flowers. These are typically reserved for
funerals and times of mourning.
 Some gifts will be inappropriate depending on one’s religious affiliation. For
example, gifts made from leather may offend someone who identifies as Hindu.
Gifts relating to pigs, such as pork or pigskin, would be inappropriate to give to
someone who identifies as Muslim.
Do’s
 Good conversation starters include the region your counterpart is from, their
profession, the well-being of their family and the meaning of their given name.
 Treat Indian elders with visible respect. For example, address them first and
defer to their opinion. Always sit lower than them, and avoid speaking directly or
harshly.
 Be patient when making decisions or negotiating with your Indian counterpart.
Indians tend to take their time when deliberating decisions, regardless of the
urgency or importance of the decision.
 Try to dress conservatively and speak respectfully out of respect for your Indian
counterpart. 
  Enjoy a playful and light-hearted sense of humour. Indians tend to enjoy friendly
banter and light teasing.
 Over 93% of Indians in Australia are fluent in English, and it is common for them
to have an extensive and impressive vocabulary. If you communicate in a way
that doesn't acknowledge this, your Indian counterpart will likely interpret this as
patronising.
 Try to be conscious of how gender and relationships may impact interactions. For
example, some conservative Indians may find it inappropriate to include a
married woman in a conversation if her husband is present.

Don'ts
 Avoid crude humour or swearing. Indians may take offence to this manner of
speech quite easily.
 Do not directly criticise India as a country. This form of criticism from a foreigner
is usually unwelcome and may be interpreted as an insult.
 Avoid negative comments or criticisms about a person’s ability, appearance or
attributes. Such comments are often taken to heart and will give your Indian
counterpart the impression that you are insensitive.
 Do not assume that the work ethic of Indians is more laid-back than that of
Australians. On the contrary, many Indians are very hard-working and a
significant portion of the country is highly educated.
 Do not directly ask someone what caste they belong to. It is more appropriate to
ask about their occupation. For more information, see ‘Social Structure and
Stratification’ in Core Concepts.
 Do not criticise or patronise someone for their profession or vocation. Someone’s
occupation is usually an important part of one’s personal identity.
 Try not to be intimidated by the process of haggling (persistent bargaining over
the cost of something). For many people in India, haggling is part of daily life and
often an enjoyable process.
 Avoid making judgements in absolute terms of right or wrong until you have a
clear understanding of the circumstance. For many Indians, the context and
situation are important in understanding whether something is moral and just.
 Drawing parallels between India and other countries on the Indian subcontinent
such as Pakistan or Bangladesh may offend your Indian counterpart.
 Avoiding discussing tensions between Pakistan and India. This is a sensitive or
heated topic for some Indians and can evoke a strong emotional response.

WEIRD PRACTICES
1. Kill or get killed - Bani Festival, Andhra Pradesh
Celebrations are a way of human life. But some are so strange, it questions the
very definition of the concept. The Bani Festival celebrated at the Devaragattu
Temple in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh illustrates the point. Every
Dusshera, hundreds of lathi -wielding devotees from Andhra and Karnataka
gather at this temple to hit each each other on the heads at midnight! Drenched
in blood, these men go on with the celebration till the beak of dawn, to
commemorate the killing of a demon by Mala-Malleshwara (Shiva). According to
the temple priest, this festival has been celebrated for over a 100 years, and
earlier axes and spears were used instead of lathis ! This year, 56 people were
injured during Bani. Medical attendants and policemen are deployed during this
festival but they mostly remain spectators, in the face of the the extreme frenzy.
2. Festival of the Snake - Nag Panchami
India shares a very old bond with snakes. These frightening beings have played
a prominent role throughout Indian mythology and folklore. India is known to
many still, as the Land Of Snake Charmers. Till date, the fifth day of the lunar
month of Shravan is celebrated as Nag Panchami across India and Nepal. Live
Cobras, without their venomous fangs removed, are worshipped! Priests
sprinkle haldi-kumkum and flower petals on their raised hoods. Devotees feed
them milk and even rats. It is popularly believed that snakes do not bite on Nag
Panchami .
3. Play of the Tiger - Puli Kali, Kerala
Puli Kali, celebrated mainly in Thrissur dictrict of Kerala is one colourful spectacle
bursting with energy. Performed by trained artists, Puli Kali is celebrated on the
fourth day of Onam. Painted in bright yellow, red and black, performers take to
the street, dancing to traditional folk beats. Every year, thousands of people
gather to watch this unbelievable sight.
4. Pushkar Camel Fair - Pushkar, Rajasthan
Held every November at the time of the Kartik Purnima full moon, the Pushkar
Camel Fair is a particularly spectacular sight to behold. For five days, over
50,000 camels are shaved, dressed up, paraded, entered into beauty contests
and races, and traded. Add to that an array of musicians, dancers, acrobats,
magicians and snake charmers to entertain the crowd!
5. Fire-Walking - Theemithi, Tamil Nadu
Fact, they say, is stranger than fiction. The ritual of walking on fire proves it.
Originating in Tamil Nadu, the practice of Theemithi has spread to Sri Lanka,
Singapore and South Africa as well. Theemithi is part of a larger ceremony
stretching over a two-and-a-half month period where parts of the Mahabharata is
re-enacted, totalling up to 18 distinguishable rites. The festival of Theemithi is a
celebration of Draupadi, wife of the Pandavas. After the Battle of Kurukshetra,
Draupadi walked across a bed of fire and emerged as fresh as a flower.
Theemithi is a re-enactment of the same, and is believed to grant a wish or
blessing by the goddess.
6. Tossing infants from the roof for good luck - Maharashtra and Karnataka
At times, faith takes over our reasoning and makes us do things without ever
questioning them. The bizarre practice of baby tossing has been practised in
India for years by both, Hindus and Muslims. At Baba Umer Dargah near
Sholapur, Maharashtra, babies are dropped from a height of 50 feet, and caught
in a sheet held by waiting men. A similar custom is observed at the Sri
Santeswar temple near Indi, in the state of Karnataka. This ritual has been
followed for over 700 years and is believed to bring prosperity to the family. The
National Commission For Protection Of Child Rights is investigating these cases.
According to organizers, no injuries have been reported so far.
7. Hooking the flesh and piercing the body: Thaipoosam, Tamil Nadu
Faith is a precious ray of light that pulls us out of our inner darkness. The same
faith, at times, takes on frightening proportions. Celebrated in Tamil Nadu and
parts of southern India during the Tamil month of Thai, Thaipoosam is a festival
that honours Lord Murugan (or Kartikeya, the son of Shiva and Parvati) receiving
a lance to destroy the evil army of Tarakasura. Following a 48 day fast, many
devotees pierce their bodies with hooks, skewers and lances called vel. Some
even try pulling tractors or other heavy objects with the hooks in their skin;
o thers pierce their tongue and cheek to impede speech and thereby attain full
concentration on the Lord. They enter into a trance during such piercing due to
the incessant drumming and chanting. The horrifying sight is definitely not for the
faint of heart.
8. Facing the raging bull unarmed - Jallikattu, Tamil Nadu
If Bull-Fighting reminds you of Spanish matadors, think again. A more rustic and
dangerous form of the sport has been played in India for over a century now.
Jallikattu is a part of Pongal celebrations. Jallikattu bulls are raised wild and
special care is taken to feed and exercise them, so they develop into sturdy
beasts fit for fighting. Hundreds of men chase the bull, trying to snatch the prize
from its horns. Unlike Spanish bull-fighting, the bull isn't killed in Jallikattu. It is
the matador who is left vulnerable, because he cannot carry weapons and the
bulls' horns are sharpened. In the past two decades, over 200 people have died
indulging in this dangerous sport. In May 2014, the Supreme Court of India
banned Jallikattu.
9. Rolling over food leftovers - Madey Snana , Karnataka
Casteism has been one of India's oldest problems. While the society has
changed and condemns such unwarranted discrimination, many still hold on to it.
The Kukke Subramania Temple has a strange centuries old tradition called
Madey Snana or Spit Bath. Those from lower castes roll on the floor over food
leftovers of Brahmins on banana leaves, to rid themselves of various ailments.
This practice was banned in 2010, but it had to be lifted in 2011 after protests by
the Malekudiya tribe. The ritual has been categorised as a blind belief in the
proposed Karnataka Prevention of Superstitious Practices Bill (2013) after
progressive leaders and liberals in the state upped their ante against the
controversial practice.
10. Cannibalism and Necromancy - The Aghori way of life, Banaras
The formidable Aghori Sadhus of Banaras are easily recognisable in their long
matted hair and bodies smeared in ash. Their way of connecting to God is, very
subtly put, off-beat. These monistic saints believe in renouncing the world by
finding ' purity in the filthiest.' This leads them to eat human remains after
cremation and have intercourse with corpses. They are believed to be
posses tantrik powers of healing.
11. Animal Weddings - Appeasing the Rain God
Just as they had shown in Lagaan, rains are a big deal in India. A lot of lives
depend on it. No wonder no stone is left unturned to please the rain god into
sending his showers of blessings. Frog weddings have been reported in villages
across Assam and Maharashtra, while in Karnataka, donkeys are married. Some
places have even reported dog weddings. These weddings are a big celebration
where all Hindu marriage rituals are observed and the marriage is conducted by
a priest.
12. Cow Trampling Ritual - Govardhan Puja, Madhya Pradesh
Cows are sacred to the Hindus. This devotion is taken to a whole new level at
Bhiwdawad village, in Maharashtra. The Govardhan festival is celebrated on the
occasion of Enadakshi, a day after Diwali. Villagers decorate their cattle with
flowers, colours and henna, and lay down on the ground letting allowing cows to
trample over them! This ritual takes place after a five day fast. The whole village
fathers to witness this spectacle, which they believe will move the gods into
answering their prayers.
13. Hanging by hooks - Garudan Thookam, Kerala
This ritual art form performed in Kerala's Kali temples is as fascinating as it as
shocking. Dancers dress up as Garuda, the vehicle of Lord Vishnu who
quenched the goddess Kali's thirst with blood after slaying Darika the demon.
After the dance performance, they hang like eagles (Garudan Thookam) from a
shaft, by hooking the flesh on the backs! These hanging ' Garudas ' are taken
around the city in a colourful procession. This ritual is carried out on Makara
Bharani Day and Kumbha Bharani Day.
14. Plucking hair out by the hand - Kesh Lochan of Jain saints
Most religions consider Moksha or redemption as the ultimate end of all human
endeavours. Ignorance, according to Jains and Buddhists is what stands in the
way. In many texts, hair is often read as a metaphor for human illusion,
attachment and vanity. Upon their initiation, Jain monks and nuns renounce their
worldly attachments by painfully pulling out each strand of hair from their heads.
The wounds are then covered in dried cow dung ash to heal.
15. Fun by deception - Dhinga Gavar, Jodhpur
At first, the Dhinga Gavar festival may strike you as strange. But then you'll
realize how much fun it might actually be. A part of the Rajasthani Gangaur
festival, Dhinga Gavar is only celebrated in Jodhpur. Shiva's consort, Parvati
(Gangaur), had once playfully teased him by dressing up as a tribal woman.
Gavar is considered to be the playful side of Gangaur. After sunset, statues of
Dhinga Gavar are put up at 11 locations, all decorated with up to 30 kgs of
gold! And that isn't all. Offerings of cannabis are made to the diety! Wait, there's
more. Women take out processions, dressed in all sorts of costumes - Hindu
gods and goddesses, police, saints, dacoits and what not - carrying lathis
to hit people with and protect the statues! It is a popular belief that any unmarried
man who comes near these women and is stricken by the stick gets married
soon.
16. Fighting fire with fire - Agni Keli, Mangalore
Every year in the month of April, the Festival of Kateel Durga Parameswari
Temple is celebrated over 8 days. Of the many themed performances during this
time, the centuries-old tradition of Agni Keli is the most intriguing. Hundreds of
bare-bodied devotees hurl flaming palm fronds at each other. Spectators watch
as these men attempt to set one another ablaze! Those who suffer burns are
then sprayed with water of the kumkumarchana.
17. Smashing coconuts on the head – Aadi Festival, Tamil Nadu
Every year, on the 18 th day of the Tamil month of Aadi, thousands of devotees
flock the Mahalakshmi Temple, Mettu Mahadhanapuram, in the Karur District of
Tamil Nadu, to willingly allow the priest to smash coconuts on their heads for
good luck and health. As the story goes, 187 coconut shaped stones were dug
out at the location of the temple. During the Raj, the Britishers wanted to build a
railway track across the temple and villagers were against it. To test their
devotion, the British struck a deal: if they could break these stones on their
heads, the course of the railway line would be changed. The villagers succeeded
and the temple was saved. The tradition has been followed till date, despite
warnings by medical practitioners.
18. Immersing in barrels of water - Varuna Yajna
The rains bring forth new life. And when it turns its back on us, many turn to the
Rain God. Varun is the Hindu God of water. The Varuna Yajna has been
performed across Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to appease him into
bestowing rains upon his people. The yajna is performed by temple priests
immersing themselves in barrels of water and incanting Lord Varun's name one
lakh times.
19. Self-flagellation - The Mourning of Muharram
This will make you very, very uneasy. Muharram translates into 'forbidden.' It is
the holy month of remembrance and mourning. Mourning begins on the first day
of the month with a 10 day fast and culminates into The Day of Ashura (tenth
day), when Shia Muslims carry out the ritual of mass self-flogging to
commemorate the martyrdom of Hussein, the grandson of Prophet Muhammad.
In a terrifying display of devotion, men mercilessly whip their bodies with blades
attached to chains till they are are soaked in their own blood. In their state of
religious trance, they claim they do not feel the pain.
20. Worshipping weapons - Ajudh/Astra Puja
It happens only in India, right? A part of the Navratra celebrations, Ajudh or Astra
Puja is an occasion to pay one's respect to all tools, machinery, gadgets,
implements and especially weapons. The rituals vary but this puja is observed
across India.
21. Exorcism by marriage - Human-Animal Weddings
If you've watched the Exorcist, you know how frightening it is to get rid of spirits
that haunt you. But in India, we have a jugaad for it: marriage. In many parts of
the country, girls born with a tooth, or those born with facial deformation are
believed to be possessed by ghosts. Marrying an animal, typically a dog or a
goat, is believed to rid one of spirits and bad omens, and at times, mangal dosh.
22. A celebration of menstruation - Ambubachi Mela, Guwahati
At the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, the object of reverence is the vagina of
the Mother Goddess. According to legend, when Sati, the wife of Lord Shiva,
jumped into the fire, unable to bear her father's insult to her husband, Shiva went
into a terrible rage and did the terrible Tandav Nritya, carrying her corpse. Parts
of her body fell to the earth, forming Shakti Peeths. The Kamakhya Temple was
formed where the Yoni (vagina) fell. Every year around June, the Goddess goes
through her menstrual cycle. The temple remains shut for three days, and is
believed to turn red. This is the time when the Ambubachi Mela is celebrated.
This tantrik fertility mela attracts thousands of tantriks , aghoris and sadhus from
across the world, displaying their formidable psychic powers. The colour red - red
flowers, vermillion, red cloth - stands out during the rituals. The maddening
display of magic and mysticism makes for an extraordinary spectacle.
23. When the Gods dance amongst men - Theyyam, Kerala
We've often been told that God lies in each of us. But how many times have you
seen God possess a human body? Those who have witnessed North Malabar's
Theyyam ritual worship will know how intimidating it can be. Dressed in elaborate
make up and headdresses, dancers perform to drumbeats and incantations
reciting myths and legends, of the deity of the shrine. As the beats become more
intense, the metaphysical combines with this realm and the
dancer metamorphoses into the deity or the Theyyam. In their 'possessed' state,
they dance on fire, bless devotees and perform miracles. Sometimes, a cock
 sacrifice is made and an offering of blood is made to Theyyam. Once dancers
are out of the fervent trance, they have no recollection of what transpired during
the possession.
24. Wedding without a bridegroom - Puberty ceremonies
Marriage is a big deal in India. Especially if you happen to be a girl. And that's
how a girl attaining puberty becomes a social occasion celebrated with great
pride and enthusiasm across many Indian states. In a bid to announce the sexual
maturity and readiness for marriage, the girl's family dresses her up like a bride
and conducts a 'marriage' ceremony sans the groom and vidaai . Friends and
relatives are invited to bless the 'bride' and shower her with gifts. This ceremony
also includes other rituals that last for several days, during which she is kept in a
separate room, and not allowed to meet any men, including her father or
brothers.

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 You may find some questions Indians ask to be quite forward or frank by
Western expectations (e.g. ‘How much do you earn?’). However, these kinds of
questions are commonplace in India.
 Westerners may feel awkward having people clean up after them or do things for
them they can do themselves (e.g. open car doors for them). In India, however,
offering to help a cleaner or insisting you can do something yourself can
seriously offend a person of service.
 India has the world’s largest democracy, which is an impressive feat. Indians are
often proud that their population of over a billion people have the freedom to
participate in electing their government.
 India’s acquiring of independence from the British Raj in 1947 is deeply
associated with the partition of India and Pakistan. This was a traumatic event for
many people who resided in the Punjab region. When interacting with someone
from this part of India, it is important to be extremely sensitive to the pains
associated with Partition.