Construction of Materials

Subject Code: 02634

Subject time: 3:30 – 5:30

Submitted to: Engineer Showna Lee T. Sales

Sumbitted by: Bayer, Klein J.
Bongar, Miel Jason
Francia, Dorothy
Gagarino, Chellan Ray
Rivas, Francis Ian
METALS
 are opaque, lustrous elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Most metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, denser than the other
elemental substances.
Two Types of Metals
 Ferrous
 Ferrous metals are based on iron: the group includes steel and cast iron. Pure iron
has limited commercial use, but when alloyed with carbon iron, it has more uses
and greater commercial value than any other metal.

 Non-Ferrous
 They include the other metallic elements and their alloys. They include metals and
alloys of aluminum, copper, gold silver and other metals.

Types of Ferrous Metals

1. Wrought Iron
2. Cast Iron
3. Steel and Alloys

Wrought Iron
 is an iron alloy with very low carbon content with respect to cast iron. It is soft,
ductile, magnetic, and has high elasticity and tensile strength. It can be heated and
reheated and worked into various shapes.
Physical Properties
 The wrought iron's density is 7.7/cm^3 (0.278 lb/in^3). While the melting point is
1540 degrees Celsius (2800 F)
Mechanical Properties

Applications of Wrought Iron are:

 In railings
 Stairs
 Nuts and Bolts
 Hand Rails

Uses of Wrought Iron

1. It is used for pipe making due to its superior corrosion and fatigue resistance and
better welding and threading qualities.
2. It is used for making bars for stay bolts, engine bolts and rivets etc. because
properties demanded in these applications are corrosion and fatigue resistance.
3. For making iron doors, railings and fences.
4. For making plates.
5. For making special chains and crane hooks due to its good weldability and high
impact strength.
6. It is also used extensively for general forging applications.
Cast Iron
 Cast iron, an alloy of iron that contains 2 to 4 percent carbon, along with varying
amounts of silicon and manganese and traces of impurities such as sulphur and
phosphorus.
 It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace. The liquid iron is cast, or poured
and hardened, into crude ingots called pigs, and the pigs are subsequently re-
melted along with scrap and alloying elements in cupola furnaces and recast into
molds for producing a variety of products.
 Cast iron can withstand compression while brittle in tension
Advantages of Cast Iron
 It has Good casting properties
 It is available in large quantities, hence produced in mass scale. Tools required for
casting process are relatively cheap and inexpensive. This results into low cost of
its products.
 It can be given any complex shape and size without using costly machining
operations
 It has three to five times more compression strength compared to steel
 It has Good machinability (gray cast iron)
  It has excellent anti-vibration (or damping) properties hence it is used to make
machine frames
 It has good Sensibility
 It has excellent resistance to wear
 It has constant Mechanical properties between 20 to 350 degree Celsius
 It has very low notch sensitivity
 It has Low stress concentration
 It bears Low cost
 It has Durability
 It has Resistance to deformation
Disadvantages of Cast Iron
 It is Prone to rusting
 It has poor tensile strength
 Its parts are section sensitive, this is due to slow cooling of thick sections.
 Failure of its parts is sudden and total, it does not exhibit yield point.
 It has poor impact resistance
 Compared to steel it has poor machinability
 It has High weight to strength ratio
 It has High brittleness
 It is Non machinable
Uses of Cast Iron
1. It is used in making pipes, to carry suitable fluids
2. It is used in making different machines
3. It is used in making automotive parts
4. It is used in making pots pans and utensils
5. It is used in making anchor for ships.

Types of Cast Iron

 Grey Iron
 White Iron
 Ductile
 Malleable
 Nodular

Grey Iron
 Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite, and is inexpensive.
Its properties are
 It has Good machinability
  It has Good resistance to galling and wear
 It has high compressive strength
 It is brittle
White Iron
 Carbon is present here in the form of Iron carbide (Fe3C).
Its properties are
 It has High compressive strength
 It is difficult to machine
 It has Good hardness
 It has Resistance to wear
Ductile Iron
Its properties are
 It has High ductility
 It has High strength

Malleable Iron
 They are made malleable with the help of annealing. They are used to make parts
where forging is expensive like, brake supports, hubs of wagon wheels etc. They
are in expensive.
Its properties are
 They have High ductility
 They are tougher than grey cast iron
 They can be twisted or bent without fracture
 They have excellent machining capabilities
Nodular or Spheroidal Iron
- In here graphite is present in a form of spheres or nodules
Its properties are
 They have high tensile strength
 They have good elongation properties
STEEL and ALLOY
- An alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C). It consists of up to 1.0 per cent carbon in
iron. Such steels are often referred to as plain carbon steels, which can be
subdivided into three categories.
Alloy
- Alloys are metallic compounds composed of one metal and one or more metal or
non-metal element.
Carbon Steel
- is one alloy that is prized in the construction industry for its hardness and strength.
It is typically used to make beams for structural framework, plates for highway
construction, and rectangular tubing for welded frames trailer beds, and bridges.
Plain Carbon Steel
- This group of steel can be sub-categorised into low-, medium- and high-carbon
steels, dependent on their carbon content
Types of Plain Carbon Steel
1. Low-Carbon Steel
2. Medium-Carbon Steel
3. High-Carbon Steel
Low-Carbon Steel

- This type of steel are the highest produced in quantity. This steel only contains 0.25 wt%
of Carbon. Generally this type of steel are very weak and soft in comparison to the others.
- This steel is the highest produce because of its ductility.
- This type of steel is also used in making i-beams, sheetforms in buildings, bridges and
pipelines
- They have a yield strength of about 280 MPa, tensile strengths of around 400–550 MPa
and a ductility of 25 per cent elongation
Medium-Carbon Steel

- These types of alloys have higher strength than low-carbon steels but lower ductility and
toughness. However, they have good compromise and balance between strength and
ductility.
- The main application in civil engineering is in high-strength structural components where
a combination of high strength, ductility and toughness are critical.
- Are also extensively used in the railway industry.
- They have a yield strength of about 450 MPa, tensile strengths of around 600–800 MPa
and a ductility of about 15–20 per cent elongation (at failure they stretch up to one-fifth of
their original length, i.e. a 100 mm sample will stretch to 115–120 mm at failure).
High-Carbon Steel

- High-carbon steels usually have carbon content of 0.60–1.4 wt%. These alloys are the
strongest and hardest of the plain carbon steels.
- The disadvantage is that they have the lowest ductility. As ductility and toughness are
such important properties required for structural steels.
- High-carbon steels have limited application or usage in construction. They are mainly
used as cutting tools, as well as high-strength wire.
- High-carbon steels can have yield strengths of up to 1,700 MPa, tensile strengths of up to
1,800 MPa and ductilities as low as 5 percent.
 Quality tests for Bending
Bending Test
 is a method for measuring stiffness and yield properties of certain materials.
 deform the test material at the midpoint causing a concave surface or a bend to form
without the occurrence of fracture and are typically performed to determine the
ductility or resistance to fracture of that material.
Purpose of Bending test
 allows for the determination of that materials ductility, bend strength, fracture
strength and resistance to fracture.
 These characteristics can be used to determine whether a material will fail under
pressure and are especially important in any construction process involving ductile
materials loaded with bending forces.
Types of Bending tests
1. Guided-bend test
- the sample is placed horizontally across two supports and then a force applied to
the top of the midpoint deforming the sample into a “U” shape.
- to determine the soundness of the quality welds as specified in procedure
qualification and performance qualification

2. Semi-guided bend test

- the specimen’s midpoint is bent to a specific angle or inside radius.
3. Free bend test
- the ends of the sample are pushed together, but no force is applied to the bend
itself.
- the sample is placed into a large, strong vise and struck with hammer until it bends
to a 90 degrees angle. It is then hammered in the opposite direction to a 90
degrees angle.

4. Bend and flatten test

- which a transverse force is applied to the bend such that the legs make contact
with each other over the length of the specimen.
 5. Common fracture toughness test (ASTM E399)
- consists of a sample with a pre-cracked starter crack on the bottom side of the
midpoint which is loaded into a 3-point bend fixture so that the midpoint force is
applied on the opposite face from the fracture.

Quality Test for Metals: Chemical Analysis

What is Chemical Analysis?

 It is done to check the chemical content level in some steel materials used for construction
such as apartment, bridge, fly over, and much more.
 A chemical analyst conducts a test to check the chemical contents of a sample and learn the
composition, structures, and material properties from the atomic scale up to molecule scale.

The Purpose of Chemical Test / Analysis

It is really important to conduct a test on a steel quality or product to know the level of
chemical contents and find out whether there is a dangerous chemical substance in the sample. As it is
mentioned, this chemical analysis or test is usually done to check some steel materials used for
construction projects to know the strength of the material used so it does not endanger people life. If
the number of chemical content is too excessive, the analyst will reduce the quantity according to the
standard or when it is less, then the analyst will add more according to the standard determined.

Most of the commercial products have to pass the chemical test. This chemical test is also
done to check the level of chemical substances in other products for construction purposes such as
cement and others. In this case, chemical test only has a purpose to make sure that the product used is
safe for use in the construction of a building. If an earthquake happens, the standard steel and cement
will be durable to hold the shake so the construction will not be damaged.

Two Types of Chemical Test

1. Quantitative analysis

 Quantitative Chemical Analysis or quantitative chemistry is performed to

accurately determine the concentration, amount or percentage of one or more
elements in a test sample.
 Quantitative analysis, in conjunction with a technique for qualitative analysis,
provides information on the type and amount of each element present in a
sample for complete element analysis.

2. Qualitative analysis

 Qualitative chemistry or qualitative analysis deals with the determination of

the chemical composition of a sample. Although this method does reveal the
components of a substance, it does not provide numerical or quantitative
information.
 Various qualitative test methods are available for identifying individual
elements or groupings of elements present in a sample, detecting impurities
or contaminants and even identifying the sample material.

Chemical Analysis Methods / Procedures

 ICP Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES)

 ICP Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS)
 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (SEM/EDS)
 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES)
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
 Carbon/Sulfur/Nitrogen/Oxygen/Hydrogen Determination
 Positive Material Identification (PMI)
 Soxhlet Extraction
 Plating Identification
 Density, Porosity & Oil Content
 Classical Wet Chemistry
  Moisture Analysis

(Philippine National Standard) PNS 49:2002

a) Test methods for determination of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen in steel and in iron,
nickel, and cobalt alloys – ASTM E 1019
b) Chromium by the atomic absorption method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
c) Copper by the sulfide precipitation – Electrodeposition gravimetric method – PNS 882/ASTM
E 350
d) Manganese by the spectrophotometric method – PNS 557/ISO 629
e) Molybdenum by the photometric method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
f) Nickel by the Ion exchange-atomic absorption method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
g) Phosphorus by the alkalimetric method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
h) Silicon by the gravimetric method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
i) Sulfur by combustion-iodate titration method – PNS 882/ASTM E 350
j) Vanadium by reduction with ferrous sulfate and titration with permanganate – PNS
815/ASTM E 30

Chemical analysis for all the elements involved may be performed by Optical emission vacuum
spectrometric method – PNS 823/ASTM E 415

Chemical elements involved in chemical testing

The chemical elements involved in the chemical test may depend on the sample that will be
analyzed. Each sample has its own way to test the quality and the quantity of the chemical substance.
In this case, when dealing with steel material test, analysts need to use some of kinds of chemical
substances to know the quality of a certain steel material for construction.

For example, a corrosion test may be needed to know whether the iron or steel used is easy to
rust or not. Iron and steel are two kinds of material that are mostly used in construction. A contractor
needs to use steel material that cannot be rusty. The analysts can use some chemical elements like
kerosene, H2O or water, boiled water, NaCL liquid, mineral water, oil, NaCl without liquid, open
space with O2, CO2, Nitrogen, liquid soap, and lemon liquid.

Usually, the best solution to avoid corrosion is by coating. The iron will be coated with a
chemical substance which is not easily penetrated by oxygen. It can be metal or non-metal which is
not easily oxidized such as silver, gold, tin, nickel, platinum, and copper. When it uses non-metal
substances, it may use paint, glass, plastic, and much more.
REINFORCING STEEL- known when massed as reinforcing steel or reinforcement
steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and
reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension. Concrete is
strong under compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the
tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often deformed to promote a better bond
with the concrete.

ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER MATERIAL

1. ABILITY TO BENT- Reinforcing steel can be bent after being manufactured. This
simplifies the construction and provides for rapid delivery of fabricated materials.
2. ROBUSTNESS - Reinforcing steel is robust and able to withstand rigors of
construction.
3. RECYCLABLE - Reinforcing steel is able to be readily recycled at the end of the
structure design life.
4. COMPATIBILITY WITH CONCRETE - Reinforcing steel does not need to be
tied directly to the formwork and does not float in concrete.
5. AVAILABILITY - Reinforcing steel is available in every region of the country. Due
to the number and distribution of plants, LEED and other sustainability credits are
available.

REINFORCING STEEL BARS MARKINGS

1. The first letter or symbol means producing mill and deformation pattern.
2. The second marking means the bar size, in this picture, " 11 " means the diameter of this
rebar is #3.
3. The third letter represents the type of steel as follow:
o S: Carbon-steel (A615).
o W: Low-alloy steel (A706).
o R: Rail-steel (A996).
o I: Axle-steel (A996).
o A: Rail-steel (A996).
4. The last marking shows the grade of reinforcing bar.
o 40: grade 40.
o 60: grade 60.
o 75: grade 75.
o 4: grade 420, also grade 60.
o 5: grade 520, also grade 75.
U.S. rebar size chart
Metric Linear Mass Nominal
Nominal area
Imperialba Density diameter
barsize
r size
(soft) lb
⁄ft (kg/m) (in) (mm) (in²) (mm²)
0.250
#2 [a] No.6 0.167 0.249 6.35 0.05 32
= 1⁄4
0.375
#3 No.10 0.376 0.561 9.525 0.11 71
= 3⁄8
0.500
#4 No.13 0.668 0.996 12.7 0.20 129
= 1⁄2
0.625
#5 No.16 1.043 1.556 15.875 0.31 200
= 5⁄8
0.750
#6 No.19 1.502 2.24 19.05 0.44 284
= 3⁄4
0.875
#7 No.22 2.044 3.049 22.225 0.60 387
= 7⁄8
1.000
#8 No.25 2.670 3.982 25.4 0.79 509
= 8⁄8
1.128
#9 No.29 3.400 5.071 28.65 1.00 645
≈ 9⁄8
1.270
#10 No.32 4.303 6.418 32.26 1.27 819
≈ 10⁄8
1.410
#11 No.36 5.313 7.924 35.81 1.56 1006
≈ 11⁄8
1.693
#14 No.43 7.650 11.41 43 2.25 1452
≈ 14⁄8
 2.257
#18 No.57 13.60 20.284 57.3 4.00 2581
≈ 18⁄8

REINFORCING BAR BASIV PROPERTIES

Tensile Testing
-  Uses an UTM to apply measured force to a test specimen. The amount of extension can be measured and
graphed.

-Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity, tensile strength, ductility and shear strength can be gauged.

-Test specimens can be round or flat.

Why are METALS needs to be tested?

-Ensure Quality
-Test Properties
-Prevent failure in use
-Make informed choices in using materials

The Following Material Properties Can Be Determined By

Tensile Testing
-Strength
-Ductility
-Elasticity
-Stiffness
-Malleability
-Modulus of Toughness
-Modulus of Resilience

The Tensile Tester

-A machine which applies a tensile force (a force applied in opposite directions) to the
specimen, and then measures that force and also the elongation: This machine usually uses a
hydraulic cylinder to create the force. The applied force is determined by system pressure,
which can be accurately measured.

Modulus of Elasticity
-A measure of a materials ability to regain its original dimensions after the removal of a load
or force. The modulus is the slope of the straight line portion of the stress-strain diagram up
to the proportional limit.

Breaking/Rupture Stress
-The maximum amount of stress that can be applied before rupture occurs. The material
fractures in the necking region where the material reduces in diameter as the material
elongates.

Benefits of Tensile Testing

-To determine batch quality
-To determine consistency of manufacture
-To aid in design process
-To reduce material costs and achieve lean manufacturing goals

REFERENCES:
Ahmed, A. and Sturges, J. (2015). Materials science in construction: an introduction. Abing
https://www.reliance-foundry.com/blog/cast-iron#gref
https://clubtechnical.com/cast-iron
https://extrudesign.com/wrought-iron-properties-applications/
https://www.thebalance.com/metal-alloys-2340254
https://continentalsteel.com/blog/common-metals-in-the-construction-industry/
https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Metals/metals.htm
(n.d.). Retrieved July 14, 2019, from http://www.intertek.com/non-destructive-testing/materials-
testing/chemical-analysis-metals/
Mades, N. (2018, January 02). Steel Reinforcement Test. Retrieved July 14, 2019, from
https://www.qualityengineersguide.com/4-steel-bar-reinforcement-tests-that-you-should-know
Test for TMT Reinforcement bars. (2018, November 01). Retrieved July 14, 2019, from
http://rightsteel.in/test-for-tmt-reinforcement-bars/
Whiting, D. (2019, March 02). What Is a Spectrometer? Retrieved July 15, 2019, from
https://sciencing.com/spectrometer-5372347.html