Think

 53:  Food  Talks

Dan  Jurafsky  &  Yoshiko  Matsumoto

Bourdieu’s  Distinction

Tuesday,  May  1,  2017

Pierre  Bourdieu  (1930-­‐2002)
French  sociologist
Public  intellectual
Josée Johnston  
Professor  of  Sociology,  
University  of  Toronto

Johnston,  J.,  &  Baumann,  S.  (2007).  

Democracy  versus  Distinction:  A  Study  of  
Omnivorousness in  Gourmet  Food  
Writing.  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  
113(1),  165-­‐204
Bourdieu  on  Kinds  of  Capital

Economic  capital  (what  you  have)

Cultural  capital  (what  you  know)
Social  capital  (who  you  know)
Economical  capital
 Cultural  Capital
Bourdieu  (1977):  “Instruments  for  the  appropriation  of  
symbolic  wealth  socially  designated  as  worthy  of  being  
sought  and  possessed”
My  translation:  Knowledge,  education,  and  skills  which  
give  social  advantages/higher  status  in  society,  passed  
down  by  parents/schools/social  groups
• Educational  capital:  educational  credentials  and  experiences
• Social  background:  socialization  (including  knowledge  or  
skills)  from  parents  or  group
• Cultural  tastes  themselves
◦ Food  and  our  practices  around  food  consumption
 Social  Capital
Bourdieu  (1986):  “ The  aggregate  of  the  actual  or  potential  
resources  which  are  linked  to  possession  of  a  durable  
network  of  more  or  less  institutionalized  relationships  of  
mutual  acquaintance  and  recognition  – or  in  other  words,  
to  membership  in  a  group  – which  provides  each  of  its  
members  with  the  backing  of  the  collectivity-­‐owned  
capital,  a  ‘credential’  which  entitles  them  to  credit,  in  the  
various  senses  of  the  word”
 Social  Capital
Bourdieu  (1986):  “ The  aggregate  of  the  actual  or  potential  
resources  which  are  linked  to  possession  of  a  durable  
network  of  more  or  less  institutionalized  relationships of  
mutual  acquaintance  and  recognition  – or  in  other  words,  
to  membership in  a  group  – which provides  each  of  its  
members with  the  backing  of  the  collectivity-­‐owned  
capital,  a  ‘credential’ which  entitles  them  to  credit,  in  the  
various  senses  of  the  word”
 Social  Capital

possession  of  a  network  of  relationships – memberships–

which provides  each  of  its  members with a  ‘credential’

• family,  
• class,  
• school,  
• political  party,    etc.
All  the  capitals  are  linked  
together
“The  volume  of  the  social  capital  possessed  
by  a  given  agent  thus  depends  on  the  size  of  
the  network  of  connections  he  can  
effectively  mobilize  and  on  the  volume  of  
the  capital  (economic,  cultural  or  symbolic)  
possessed  in  his  own  right  by  each  of  those  
to  whom  he  is  connected… [this  network  
thus]  exerts  a  multiplier  effect  on  the  capital  
he  possesses  in  his  own  right.”          Bourdieu  
1986
Habitus
“Habitus  is  a  system  of  dispositions,  that  is  of  permanent  
manners  of  being,  seeing,  acting  and  thinking.  Or  a  system  
of  long-­‐lasting (rather  than  permanent)  schemes  or  
schemata  or  structures  of  perception,  conception  and  
action”  (Bourdieu  2002,  27-­‐28)
“Systems  of  durable,  transposable  dispositions,  structured  
structures  predisposed  to  function  as  structuring  structures,  
that  is,  as  principles  which  generate  and  organize  practices  
and  representations  that  can  be  objectively  adapted  to  their  
outcomes  without  presupposing  a  conscious  aiming  at  ends  
or  an  express  mastery  of  the  operations  necessary  in  order  
to  attain  them”  (Bourdieu  1977,  72).
Habitus
It’s  the  built-­‐in,  subconscious  way  that  we  
perceive  and  categorize  things  in  the  world,  
because  of  how  we  were  raised,  without  
knowing  that  we’re  doing  it,  that  structures  
our  tastes  and  actions.
Bourdieu’s  question  in  Distinction
What  are  the  “economic  and  social  
determinants  of  taste?”  
(Distinction,  101)
◦a  question  “which  economists  strangely  
ignore”  (p.  101)
 Distinction
“Taste  classifies,  and  it  classifies  the  classifier.  
Social  subjects,  classified  by  their  classifications,  
distinguish  themselves  by  the  distinctions  they  
make,  between  the  beautiful  and  the  ugly,  the  
distinguished  and  the  vulgar,  in  which  their  
position  in  the  objective  classifications  is  
expressed  or  betrayed.  And  statistical  analysis  
does  indeed  show  that  oppositions  similar  in  
structure  to  those  found  in  cultural  practices  also  
appear  in  eating  habits.”  (Distinction,  Intro)
Bourdieu’s  claim:  Everyday  tastes  are  not  
arbitrary,  but  based  on  power  and  social  status
“esthetic  stances  …  in  cosmetics,  clothing  or  
home  decoration  are  opportunities  to  
experience  or  assert  ones’  position  in  social  
space,  as  a  rank  to  be  upheld,  or  a  distance  to  
be  kept”  p.  57.
Johnston  and  Baumann  (2007)  on  Bourdieu:  
“the  dominant  classes  affirm  their  high  social  
status  through  consumption  of  cultural  forms  
consecrated  by  institutions  with  cultural  
authority.  Through  family  socialization  and  
formal  education,  class-­‐bound  tastes  for  
legitimate  culture  develop  alongside  aversions  
for  unrefined,  illegitimate,  or  popular  culture.”
Bourdieu’s  Homology
Dominant/dominated  class
High/low  culture
Bourdieu  on  
Music  
preferences

“Legitimized  taste”
Bourdieu  on  1960s  food  
preferences  in  France
Working  class:
◦ “the  working  class  meal  is  characterized  by  plenty  …  and  
freedom”
◦ Impression  of  abundance,  especially  for  men
◦ Plates  are  filled  twice
◦ Abundant  dishes  brought  to  the  table
◦ Soups,  pastas,  potatoes,  served  with  a  ladle  or  spoon

Bourgeoisie:
◦ Strict  form:  sequencing  of  the  courses
◦ Fish,  meat,  cheese,  dessert
◦ Healthy,  less  fatty
Bourdieu  on  1960s  food  
preferences  in  France
Working  class:
◦ Preferences  for  charcuterie,  pork,  pot-­‐au-­‐feu,  cassoulet,

Industrial  and  Commercial  Employers,  Foreman,  Craftsman,  

Grocers
◦ Similar  tastes  as  working  class  but  more  money
◦ More  wine,  fois gras,  pastry

Professionals  and  Executives

◦ More  meat,  fresh  vegetables,  less  fat,

Clerks,  teachers,
◦ Exoticism:  Italian,  Chinese  cooking,  health  food,  curry
Bourdieu  1960s
French“food space” Executives,  doctors

teachers Foremen,  crafstmen

manual  &  
domestic
workers
Bourdieu’s  position
"Curry”  and  "light  meats"  like  beef  are  
"legitimized"
Cassoulet and  stews  and  “non-­‐light  meats”  
like  pork  are  not
This  is  an  arbitrary  distinction
◦ Designed  to  assert/confirm  status/power  
 Omnivorousness theory
Bourdieu:  homology  between  “high”  culture  and  
dominant  class
◦ high  status:  classical  music
◦ low  status:  pop  music
Peterson  &  Kern  alternative:  omnivorousness
◦ High-­‐status  cultural  consumption  is  instead  
increasingly  “diversified,  inclusive,  or  omnivorous”.  
◦ High  status  can  draw  from  many  cultural  forms
◦ Jazz
◦ Hiphop
◦ Bluegrass
◦ Cuban  music  
 Two  views  of  omnivorousness
Positive:  It’s  different,  more  inclusive,  less  centered  
on  one  culture
Negative:  It’s  still  just  another  kind  of  distinction,  
still  associated  with  power
Rise  of  omnivorousness in  US  
food
1900s:  Fancy  Menus  are  in  
French
Flounder  sur le  plat
Eggs  au  beurre noir
Fried  chicken  a  la  Maryland,  half
Green  turtle  a  l’anglaise
Sirloin  steak  aux  champignons
French  chefs  and  cuisine  in  
20 century  US
th

Ritz-­‐Carlton  and  Waldorf-­‐Astoria  

◦ run  by  French  chefs  like  Auguste Escoffier
1941  opening  of  Le  Pavillon
◦ French  cuisine  clear  sign  of  high  status
French  still  signs  of  high  class  true  
in  the  1960s  &  into  the  1970s
1970’s  menu  guides  advised  to
◦ “Continentalize your  menu”

Flaming  Coffee  Diablo,  Prepared  en  Vue of  Guest

Ravioli  parmigiana,  en  casserole
Le  Crabmeat  Cocktail
But  this  began  to  change
Not  completely  clear  why
◦ Perhaps  partly  as  a  result  of  the  early  foodie  
movement
◦ Outgrowth  of  the  natural  side  of  hippie  
movement.
◦ Alice  Waters  and  the  Berkeley  counterculture
Fancy  food  now
Doesn’t  have  to  be  French
We  saw  lots  of  signs  of  fanciness  on  menus  on  
Tuesday
◦ Minimalism  in  menus
◦ Fancy  words  on  menus
But  with  the  rise  of  omnivorousness,  what  
constitutes  “high  status”  food  now?
Authenticity  

“when  we  take  a  closer  look  at  many  

supposedly  ‘authentic’  activities,  such  as  
loft-­‐living,  ecotourism,  or  the  slow-­‐food  
movement,  we  find  a  disguised  form  of  
status-­‐seeking  .”
Andrew  Potter  
Carroll  at  Stanford:  
many  kinds  of  authenticity
Author's personal copy
Carroll,  Glenn  R.,  and  Dennis  Ray  Wheaton.  "The  organizational  construction  of  
authenticity:  An  examination  of  contemporary  food  and  dining  in  the  US."  
Research  in  Organizational  Behavior 29  (2009):  255-­‐282.

G.R. Carroll, D.R. Wheaton / Research in Organizational Behavior 29 (2009) 255–282

Fig. 3. Ideal types of authenticity.

 Craft  authenticity  in  wine
Beverland M.  The  ‘real  thing’:  Branding  authenticity  in  the  luxury  wine  
trade.  Journal  of  Business  Research.  2006  Feb  28;59(2):251-­‐8

Interviews  with  luxury  winemakers:  what  makes  

wines  authentic?
• historicity  (stories  of  the  founder,  links  to  Burgundy  
wine  auctions)
• relationship  to  place  (terroir),  
• traditional  method  of  production
• focus  on  the  ingredients
• downplaying  of  commercial  motivations
Craft  authenticity  in  beer
Michael  B  .  Beverland,  Adam  Lindgreen,  and  Michiel W  .  Vink,  “Projecting  
Authenticity  Through  Advertising,”  Journal  of  Advertising  37,  no  .  1  (2008):  5–15  .  

Consumers  considered  Trappist beer  (Belgium,  

Netherlands)  more  authentic  if  it  was:
•more  historic  or  traditional
•related  to  a  particular  place  
•small,  handcrafted  productions  by  artisans  
with  little  commercial  motivation
Josée Johnston  and  Shyon
Bauman  2007
Johnston,  J.,  &  Baumann,  S.  (2007).  Democracy  versus  Distinction:  
A  Study  of  Omnivorousness in  Gourmet  Food  Writing.  American  
Journal  of  Sociology,  113(1),  165-­‐204

They  examined  articles  in  gourmet  food  

magazines

Found  framings  of  omnivorous  food:

◦ Authenticity
◦ Exoticism  
Authenticity  in  Gourmet  Food  Magazines
Johnston  and  Baumann  2007

• creation  by  hand  rather  than  by  industrial  processes

• local  settings  and  anti-­‐commercialism
• sincere  expression,  no  calculation  or  strategy  
• honesty,  integrity,  dedication  to  core  principles
• closeness  to  nature  +  distance  from  institutionalized  
power
 Authenticity  in  Gourmet  
American Journal of Sociology

Magazines TABLE 1
Usage of Select Discursive Strategies in a Sample of Gourmet Food Articles

% Articles
with at
Total Least One Median Average
Discursive Strategies Usage Usage Usage Usage
Geographic referent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,408 100 10 13.7
Handmade/nonindustrial . . . . . . . . . . 385 89 3 3.8
Organic/naturally raised . . . . . . . . . . . 47 24 0 .5
Personal connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 92 2 3.1
Historical connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 76 1.5 2.6
Rarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 19 0 .3

Geographic referents occurred at varying levels of specificity, with greater

specificity tending to correlate with stronger assertions of food’s quality.
The most general associations were made at the geographic scale of con-
tinents, most frequently “Asian” food or “South American” flavors. Gour-
Locality
Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

highly  specific  places:

◦ Bologna,  Italy;  New  Iberia,  Louisiana;  Lucknow,  India;  Mesa,  Arizona;  
Cape  Town,  South  Africa;  Siglufjordur,  Iceland.  

“oysters  from  a  particular  spot  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  

France  are  like  no  others”
“on  Phu Quoc,  an  island  thirty  miles  off  the  coast  of  
southwest  Vietnam,  the  local  fish  sauce  is  sophisticated,  
nuanced,  delicate,  and  unlike  any  other  fish  sauce  
commercially  available"
 Simplicity  
Johnston  and  Bauman  2007
Unschooled  chefs:
◦ “‘It’s  from  my  mama’s  kitchen,’  she  said.  ‘I  cannot  tell  you  how  to  do  it  because  
she  never  taught  me  to  measure  anything.  You  just  add  seasoning  and  spice  
until  it’s  right’”  (Gourmet,  April  2004,  p.  52).

“Simple”  preparation
◦ “Top-­‐notch  tempura  all  comes  down  to  simple  things  exquisitely  done”  (Saveur,  
December  2004,  p.  84).  

Non-­‐industrial  Harvesting
◦ Farmers  who  handpick  their  potatoes:,  “…doing  things  the  old-­‐fashioned  
unmechanized way  is  what  [they]  care  about”  (Saveur,  November  2004,  p.  54).  

“Simple”  rural  life  

◦ eating  among  “a  backdrop  of  rusted  farm  machinery  and  walls  that  aren’t  
perpendicular  to  the  ground”  rather  than  at  “solemn”  Michelin-­‐starred  
restaurants  with  “stodgy”  food  (Gourmet,  January  2004,  pp.  46–48).
Authentic:  chef  as  artist
Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

Chefs cooking  in  elite  restaurant  settings:  

◦ Mostly  men
◦ Mostly  famous:  Jean-­‐Georges  Vongerichten,  Alain  
Ducasse,  Alice  Waters,  and  Thomas  Keller  
Chefs  as  culinary  artists
◦ Creating  authentic,  original  piece  of  culinary  art  
◦ As  opposed  to  artless  industrial  food
 Authentic  because  of  historical  
continuity Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

• Cabrito  al  pastor:  whole  goats  have  been  roasted  

over  hot  coals  in  Monterrey,  Mexico,  since  the  
1700s  (Saveur,  June/July  2004,  p.  44)  
• Vietnamese  rolls:  “the  Vietnamese  were  wrapping  
meat  and  seafood  in  greens  before  100  B.C.”  
(Saveur,  August/September  2004,  p.  38)  a
• Espresso  and  chocolate  in  Turino;  this  cafe  ́  has  
been  operating  since  1783  (Gourmet,  May  2004,  
p.  171)  
 
 
 
 Exoticism:  Foods Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

“chevre ‘avec  habitants’—a  cheese  so  ripe  that  little,  maggot-­‐type  

worms  had  taken  up  residence  inside”  (Gourmet,  August  2004,  p.  
93).  
mistela negra,  new  red  wine  dosed  with  brandy  “though,  we  are  
told,  it  is  not  available  in  the  United  States”  (Saveur,  March  2004,  
p.  62)
ram  horn  nut,  water  caltrop  (Gourmet,  January  2004,  p.  104);  
brocciu,  a  fluffy  sheep’s-­‐milk  cheese  from  Corsica  (Gourmet,  August  
2004,  p.  92).  
O-­‐a-­‐chian,  a  Taiwanese  dish  of  oysters  with  scrambled  eggs  
(Saveur,  March  2004,  p.  37);  
a  Spanish  chef’s  foie gras with  cotton  candy  and  avocado-­‐tomato  
sorbet  (Food  and  Wine,  May  2004,  p.  74);  
snoek,  a  hot  smoked  fish  eaten  on  doughy  bread  and  jam  in  South  
Africa  (Food  and  Wine,  May  2004,  p.  169).  
Exoticism:  People Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

Foods  framed  as  exotic,  associated  with  poor,  rural  

people  in  developing  countries.  
“pasta  made  by  women  who  measure  weeks  in  flour  
and  seasons  in  egg  yolks  and  every  fold  and  crevice  
of  noodle  can  seem  as  eloquent  as  a  sigh”  (Gourmet,  
January  2004,  p.  46).  
`food  that  is  produced  and  consumed  in  “a  medieval  
Italian  town”  that  “rises  from  oblivion  in  the  
mountains  of  Abruzzo”’  (Gourmet,  September  2004,  
p.  139).  
 Authentic  and  Exotic  as  the  
new  “high  culture” Johnston  and  Bauman  2007

Bourdieu  defines  high  versus  low  food  culture  as

◦ legitimate (endorsed  by  cultural  authority)  vs  illegitimate foods
The  omnivorous  version:
◦ Legitimate:  “authentic”  or  “exotic”  cultural  tastes
◦ illegitimate:  popular,  bland,  familiar,  accessible  foods

How  do  we  know  this  is  high-­‐culture?

Only  available  to  those  with  $$$$!!
◦ Expensive  ingredients
◦ Have  to  be  able  to  travel  around  the  world  to  find
Our  study  of  restaurant  menus:
The  Tiki Lounge  effect
Dishes  with  these  words  are  more  expensive:
exotic,  oriental,  spices,  spicy
exotic five  spices
exotic blend  of  indian spices
island  spices you  crave:  An  exotic, delicious sauce.
oriental vinaigrette
Thai  curry  herbs  and  spices
kick  of  southwestern  spice
spicy Santa  Fe  sauce
spicy garlic  &  lime  grilled  shrimp
Notice  a  class  difference  in  kinds  
of  authenticity
Krishenendu Rey  2016
Johnston  and  Baumann  2007

Poor  chefs:  Exotic,  unfamiliar  authenticity

◦ Cheap  restaurants  are  authentic  by  having  exotic  
ingredients
◦ By  being  “replicas”  of  food  in  impoverished  settings  
or  developing  countries.
Rich  chefs:  Creative  artistry  authenticity
◦ Food  in  upscale  restaurants  legitimated  as  
authentic  through  a  representation  of  the  personal  
artistry  of  an  individual  chef
What  about  Authenticity  in  
Restaurant  Menus?
Traditional  authenticity  in  $$  restaurants:
fresh  homemade guacamole  and  chip
old  fashioned  beef  stew
annie’s famous  pot  roast  homemade  just  like  mom’s  
grandma  minnie’s fried  chicken  salad
are the modern indicators of an expensive, high-class restau-
haps you’ll recognize the marketing techniques in the descrip-
heseExpensive  
three dishes fromrestaurants  
pricey places: use  natural  authenticity
HERB ROASTED ELYSIAN FIELDS FARMS LAMB
Eggplant Porridge, Cherry Peppers,
Greenmarket Cucumbers and Pine Nut Jus

GRASS FED ANGUS BEEF CARPACCIO

Pan Roasted King Trumpet Mushrooms
Dirty Girl Farm Romano Bean Tempura
Persillade, Extra Virgin Olive Oil

BISON BURGER
8 oz. blue star farms, grass fed & pasture raised,
melted gorgonzola, grilled vegetables

bably noticed the extraordinary attention the menu writers

One  final  test  of  a  Bourdieu  
claim

“the  working  class  meal  is  characterized  by  

plenty”  (Distinction)

What  about  in  restaurant  menus?

We  looked  in  our  6500  menus
Words  promising  more  food
hearty,  enormous,  plenty,  loads,  lots,  
hefty,  gigantic,  generous,  generously,  
largest,  heaping,  refills,  bottomless,  
unlimited,  huge,  big,  bigger,  biggest,  
ginormous,  mega,  largest,  and  more,  
with  more,  tons  of,  king  sized,  texas
sized
Words  for  large  portions
Summary:  

Bourdieu  in  Distinction:  Taste  is  all  about  status  

◦ especially  high  versus  low  culture  
Omnivorousness:  High  status  is  now  expressed  by  
knowing  about  lots  of  culture,  not  just  one  high  
culture.
Authenticity  and  Exoticism:  It  looks  like  high  status  
is  still  reflected  in  modern  omnivorous  culture  by  
versions  of  authenticity
Many  possible  methodologies,
all  applicable  to  final  projects!
• Bourdieu  interviewed  people  about  their  
food  preferences
• And  did  anthropological  studies  in  the  field
• Johnston  and  Baumann  coded  articles  in  
Food  and  Wine,  Saveur,  Gourmet
• We  counted  words  on  menus
• And  words  on  the  back  of  potato  chip  bags