CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering deals with soil and rock mechanics, and the
interaction between the geological environment and man-made constructions
such as foundations, earth and underground structures.

One of the first books in geotechnical engineering: Terzaghi, K., and Ralph B.
Peck, 1948, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, emphasized the
importance of both the theoretical and applied aspects of soil mechanics, and
has had an important influence in the development of geotechnical.

THE ROLE OF ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT

The uncertainties in soil characteristics and response make geotechnical

engineering analysis and design demanding and challenging.

The geotechnical engineer is frequently called to exercise ENGINEERING

JUDGEMENT in making decisions related to his/her work.

One‘s engineering judgement can be honed:

 By having a strong background in the fundamental theories of

continuum mechanics, fluid mechanics, and soil mechanics
(remember that the fundamental laws of physics cannot be
violated even by special materials like soils);
~ mnmar 06 ~ 1
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

 By having a good exposure in engineering geology;

 By having a —feel“ for how soils and rocks behave, and how fluids
move in soils from performing laboratory and field tests on soils;
 From several years of experience in working on geotechnical
problems; and
 From studying previous case histories.

THE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER‘S .TOOL BOX“ MIGHT CONSIST OF:

 Geological studies

 Laboratory tests

 In situ field tests, geophysical surveys and remote sensing

 Field instrumentation and monitoring

 Soil classification systems

 Geotechnical design procedures

 Design standards and codes, and quality control procedures

 Soil databases and correlations

 Analytical and computer models

 Case histories

THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

The observational method pioneered and advocated by Prof. R. B. Peck

called for continuous monitoring and observation of the foundation behavior
during and after construction. The geotechnical engineer must be able to
modify his/her design and come up with an updated or revised design
depending on his/her observations during the construction. Post-
construction observations are important in case remedial measures (or
retrofits) might be required in the future, and as basis for case histories.
~ mnmar 06 ~ 2
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

EARLY GEOTECHNICAL SUCCESSES

The Pyramids in Egypt

Ancient Roman Roads and

Aqueducts

The Great Wall of China

The Erie Canal

The Panama Canal

Druid Lake Dam

Brooklyn Bridge

AND SOME FAILURES

The Malpasset Dam
Saint Francis Dam
Bearing Capacity Failure,
Niigata Earthquake

Soil Description

It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification

in order to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such
a system must be comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits),
meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to
understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to
distinguish between description and classification:

Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of

the soil. It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at
using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions,
geological history, etc.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 3
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each

having similar characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A
classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on
mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to
which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

Basic characteristics of soils

Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock

fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids
between grains. The water and air contents
are readily changed by changes in conditions
and location: soils can be perfectly dry (have
no water content) or be fully saturated (have
no air content) or be partly saturated (with
both air and water present). Although the size
and shape of the solid (granular) content
rarely changes at a given point, they can vary
considerably from point to point.
 
First of all, consider soil as a engineering
material - it is not a coherent solid material like
steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. It is important to understand
the significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's
internal structure or fabric.

Soil as an engineering material

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it

represents the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it
represents currently occurring physical and chemical processes. To an
engineer it is a material that can be:

 built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.

 built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
 built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
 supported: retaining walls, quays.

Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different
~ mnmar 06 ~ 4
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey

some sense of a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future
changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level).

Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength,

stiffness, permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil
grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

Soil as a civil engineering material

 Soils are NOT: Continuous, Homogenous, Isotropic, Linear and Elastic

materials.
 Soil masses consist of multiphase components (i.e., they consist of a
solid phase and voids which may be filled by air, water or other types of
fluids)
 Soil response is inherently time-dependent (i.e., soils continue to
deform with time under constant loading conditions).
 We only know the nature of a soil deposit via a relatively few samples
(which can be subjected to sampling disturbance), via proving (using in
situ field tests), via geophysical surveys, and from the geology of an
area.

UNCERTAINTIES due to the heterogeneous and multiphase nature, and

the time-dependent response of soils make soils more challenging
materials to deal with than other materials which could be manufactured
and quality controlled.

Some constructions where soils can be —quality controlled“:

• Earth dams
• Subgrade materials for pavements

~ mnmar 06 ~ 5
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Some Important Person In Soil Mechanics.

C. A. Coulomb W. J. M. Rankine

 Added cohesion to the friction  Lateral earth pressures

concept.  Civil engineer and
 Passive and active earth educator
pressures
K. Terzaghi

Other important persons:

1) Arthur Casagrande

2) Ralph B. Peck

3) A. W. Skempton

4) Laurrits B jerum

 Father of theoretical and 5) Nilmar Janbu

applied soil mechanics
 Effective stress law
 Consolidation theory

Pictures taken from: The Internet GeotechnicalEngineering Magazine

~ mnmar 06 ~ 6
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.1 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.0 : Components of a soil

 Soils contain three components, which may be characterized as solid,

liquid, and gas.
 The solid components of soils are weathered rock and (sometimes)
decayed vegetation.
 The liquid component of soils is almost always water (often with
dissolved matter), arid the gas component is air.
 The volume of water and air combined is referred to as the void.
 Figure 1.0 gives a block diagram showing the components of a soil.
 These components may be considered in terms of both their volumes
and their weights/masses.
 In Figure 1.0, terms V, Va, Vw, Vs, and Vv represent total volume and
volume of air, water, solid matter, and voids, respectively.
 Terms W, Wa, Ww, and Ws stand for total weight and weight of air, water,
and solid matter, respectively.
 Similarly, terms M, Ma, Mw, and Ms denote total mass and mass of air,
water, and solid matter, respectively.
 The weight and mass of air (Wa and Ma) are both virtually zero.
~ mnmar 06 ~ 7
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

~ mnmar 06 ~ 8
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.1.1 PHASE DIAGRAM OF SOIL

Fig. 1.1 : Three phase system of soil

 A soil mass, consists of solid soil particles, containing void spaces

between them. These voids may be filled either with air, or water, or
both.
 The soil will behave as a two phase system, when its void space is filled
with either water or air alone.
 In other words, the soil mass will consists of only two phases, i.e. solid
and water (liquid), or solid and air (gas), respectively.
 Such a condition is possible when either the soil is fully saturated (i.e.
the voids are totally filled with water, and there is no air); or when the soil
is fully dry (i.e. the voids are totally filled with air, and there is no water).
 But, as and when the soil mass is partially saturated ; its void space will
be filled up by water as well as air, and hence it will behave as a three
phase system.
 This three phase system can be easily represented by the block diagram
given in Fig. 1.2 ; with the help of which, various relationships can be
defined.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 9
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

3 PHASE SYSTEM 2 PHASE SYSTEM 2 PHASE SYSTEM

Fig. 1.2 : Block diagram of three phase system

~ mnmar 06 ~ 10
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.2 SOIL PARTICLES SIZE AND SHAPE

 The size of particles may range from gravel to the finest size
possible. Their characteristics vary with the size.
 Soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to the naked eye or
may be examined by means of a hand lens.
 They constitute the coarser fractions of the soils. Grains finer than
0.075 mm constitute the finer fractions of soils.
 It is possible to distinguish the grains lying between 0.075 mm and 2
μ, (1μ, = 1 micron = 0.001 mm) under a microscope.
 Grains having a size between 2 μ and 0.1 μ can be observed under a
microscope but their shapes cannot be made out.
 The shape of grains smaller than 1 μ can be determined by means of
an electron microscope.
 The molecular structure of particles can be investigated by means of
X-ray analysis.
 The coarser fractions of soils consist of gravel and sand.
 The individual particles of gravel, which are nothing but fragments of
rock, are composed of one or more minerals, whereas sand grains
contain mostly one mineral which is quartz.
 The individual grains of gravel and sand may be angular, subangular,
sub-rounded, rounded or well-rounded as shown in Table 1.3.1.
 Gravel may contain grains which may be flat.
 Some sands contain a fairly high percentage of mica flakes that give
them the property of elasticity.
 Silt and clay constitute the finer fractions of the soil.
 Any one grain of this fraction generally consists of only one mineral.
 The particles may be angular, flake-shaped or sometimes needle-
like.
 Table 1.3.2 gives the particle size classification systems as adopted
by some of the organizations in the USA.
 The Unified Soil Classification System is now almost universally
accepted and has been adopted by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM).

Table 1.3.1: Shape of courser fraction of soil

Shape Description
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Rounded: Water- or air-worn;

transported sediments

Irregular: Irregular shape with round

edges; glacial sediments
(sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-
rounded' and 'sub-angular')

Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges;

residual soils, grits

Flaky: Thickness small compared to

length/breadth; clays

~ mnmar 06 ~ 12
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Elongated: Length larger than

breadth/thickness; scree, broken
flagstone

Flaky & Elongated:

Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken
schists and slates

Table 1.3.2 Particle size classification by various systems

1.2.1 Specific Surface

 The surface area of clay particles per unit mass

 Soil is essentially a particulate system, that is, a system in which the
particles are in a fine state of subdivision or dispersion.
 In soils, the dispersed or the solid phase predominates and the
dispersion medium, soil water, only helps to fill the pores between
the solid particles.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 13
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

 The significance of the concept of dispersion becomes more

apparent when the relationship of surface to particle size is
considered.
 In the case of silt, sand and larger size particles the ratio of the area
of surface of the particles to the volume of the sample is relatively
small.
 This ratio becomes increasingly large as size decreases from 2 μ
which is the upper limit for clay-sized particles.
 A useful index of relative importance of surface effects is the specific
surface of grain.
 The specific surface is defined as the total area of the surface of the
grains expressed in square centimeters per gram or per cubic
centimeter of the dispersed phase.
 The shape of the clay particles is an important property from a
physical point of view.
 The amount of surface per unit mass or volume varies with the shape
of the particles.
 Moreover, the amount of contact area per unit surface changes with
shape.
 It is a fact that a sphere has the smallest surface area per unit
volume whereas a plate exhibits the maximum.
 Ostwald (1919) has emphasized the importance of shape in
determining the specific surface of colloidal systems.
 Since disc-shaped particles can be brought more in intimate contact
with each other, this shape has a pronounced effect upon the
mechanical properties of the system.
 The interparticle forces between the surfaces of particles have a
significant effect on the properties of the soil mass if the particles in
the media belong to the clay fraction.
 The surface activity depends not only on the specific surface but also
on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the solid particles.
 Since clay particles are the active portions of a soil because of their
high specific surface and their chemical constitution, a discussion on
the chemical composition and structure of minerals is essential.

1.2.2 Composition of Clay Minerals

 The word clay is generally understood to refer to a material

composed of a mass of small mineral particles which, in association
with certain quantities of water, exhibits the property of plasticity.
 According to the clay mineral concept, clay materials are essentially
composed of extremely small crystalline particles of one or more
members of a small group of minerals that are commonly known as
clay minerals.
~ mnmar 06 ~ 14
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

 These minerals are essentially hydrous aluminum silicates, with

magnesium or iron replacing wholly or in part for the aluminum, in
some minerals.
 Many clay materials may contain organic material and water-soluble
salts.
 Organic materials occur either as discrete particles of wood, leaf
matter, spores, etc., or they may be present as organic molecules
adsorbed on the surface of the clay mineral particles.
 The water-soluble salts that are present in clay materials must have
been entrapped in the clay at the time of accumulation or may have
developed subsequently as a consequence of ground water
movement and weathering or alteration processes.
 Clays can be divided into three general groups on the basis of their
crystalline arrangement and it is observed that roughly similar
engineering properties are connected with all the clay minerals
belonging to the same group.
 An initial study of the crystal structure of clay minerals leads to a
better understanding of the behavior of clays under different
conditions of loading.
 Table 1.3.3 gives the groups of minerals and some of the important
minerals under each group.

Table 1.3.3 Clay minerals

1.2.3 Structure of Clay Minerals

 Clay minerals are essentially crystalline in nature though some clay

minerals do contain material which is non-crystalline (for example
allophane).
 Two fundamental building blocks are involved in the formation of clay
mineral structures. They are:
~ mnmar 06 ~ 15
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1. Tetrahedral unit.
2. Octahedral unit.
 The tetrahedral unit consists of four oxygen atoms (or hydroxyls, if
needed to balance the structure) placed at the apices of a
tetrahedron enclosing a silicon atom which combines together to
form a shell-like structure with all the tips pointing in the same
direction.
 The oxygen at the bases of all the units lies in a common plane.
 Each of the oxygen ions at the base is common to two units. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
 The oxygen atoms are negatively charged with two negative charges
each and the silicon with four positive charges.
 Each of the three oxygen ions at the base shares its charges with the
adjacent tetrahedral unit.
 The sharing of charges leaves three negative charges at the base
per tetrahedral unit and this along with two negative charges at the
apex makes a total of 5 negative charges to balance the 4 positive
charges of the silicon ion.

Figure 1.3.1 : Basic structural units in silicon sheet (Grim, 1959)

 The process of sharing the oxygen ions at the base with neighboring
units leaves a net charge of -1 per unit.
 The second building block is an octahedral unit with six hydroxyl ions
at apices of an octahedral enclosing an aluminum ion at the center.
 Iron or magnesium ions may replace aluminum ions in some units.
These octahedral units are bound together in a sheet structure with
each hydroxyl ion common to three octahedral units.
 This sheet is sometimes called as gibbsite sheet.
 The Al ion has 3 positive charges and each hydroxyl ion divides its -1
charge with two other neighboring units.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 16
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

 This sharing of negative charge with other units leaves a total of 2

negative charges per unit [(1/3) x 6].
 The net charge of a unit with an aluminum ion at the center is +1.
Fig, 1.3.2 gives the structural arrangements of the units.
 Sometimes, magnesium replaces the aluminum atoms in the
octahedral units in this case, the octahedral sheet is called a brucite
sheet.

Figure 1.3.2 : Basic structural units in octahedral sheet (Grim, 1959)

1.2.3.1 Formation of Minerals

 The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite in different

arrangements and conditions lead to the formation of different clay
minerals as given in Table 1.3.4 .
 In the actual formation of the sheet silicate minerals, the
phenomenon of isomorphous substitution frequently occurs.
 Isomorphous (meaning same form) substitution consists of the
substitution of one kind of atom for another.

Table 1.3.4 Clay minerals

~ mnmar 06 ~ 17
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

(i) Kaolinite Mineral

 This is the most common mineral of the kaolin group.

 The building blocks of gibbsite and silica sheets are arranged as
shown in Fig. 1.3.3 to give the structure of the kaolinite layer.

Figure 1.3.3 Structure of kaolinite layer

 The structure is composed of a single tetrahedral sheet and a single

alumina octahedral sheet combined in units so that the tips of the
silica tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet form
a common layer.
 All the tips of the silica tetrahedrons point in the same direction and
towards the center of the unit made of the silica and octahedral
sheets.
 This gives rise to strong ionic bonds between the silica and gibbsite
sheets. The thickness of the layer is about 7 A (one angstrom = 10-8
cm) thick.
 The kaolinite mineral is formed by stacking the layers one above the
other with the base of the silica sheet bonding to hydroxyls of the
gibbsite sheet by hydrogen bonding.
 Since hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong, the kaolinite
crystals consist of many sheet stackings that are difficult to dislodge.
 The mineral is therefore, stable, and water cannot enter between the
sheets to expand the unit cells. The lateral dimensions of kaolinite
particles range from 1000 to 20,000 A and the thickness varies from
100 to 1000 A.
 In the kaolinite mineral there is a very small amount of isomorphous
substitution.

Halloysite Mineral

~ mnmar 06 ~ 18
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

 Halloysite minerals are made up of successive layers with the same

structural composition as those composing kaolinite.
 In this case, however, the successive units are randomly packed and
may be separated by a single molecular layer of water.
 The dehydration of the interlayers by the removal of the water
molecules leads to changes in the properties of the mineral.
 An important structural feature of halloysite is that the particles
appear to take tubular forms as opposed to the platy shape of
kaolinite.

(ii) Montmorillonite Mineral

 Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the montmorillonite

group.
 The structural arrangement of this mineral is composed of two silica
tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina octahedral sheet.
 All the tips of the tetrahedra point in the same direction and toward
the center of the unit.
 The silica and gibbsite sheets are combined in such a way that the
tips of the tetrahedrons of each silica sheet and one of the hydroxyl
layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer.
 The atoms common to both the silica and gibbsite layer become
oxygen instead of hydroxyls. The thickness of the silica-gibbsite-silica
unit is about 10 A (Fig. 1.3.4).
 In stacking these combined units one above the other, oxygen layers
of each unit are adjacent to oxygen of the neighboring units with a
consequence that there is a very weak bond and an excellent
cleavage between them.
 Water can enter between the sheets, causing them to expand
significantly and thus the structure can break into 10 A thick
structural units.
 Soils containing a considerable amount of montmorillonite minerals
will exhibit high swelling and shrinkage characteristics. The lateral
dimensions of montmorillonite particles range from 1000 to 5000 A
with thickness varying from 10 to 50 A.
 Bentonite clay belongs to the montmorillonite group.
 In montmorillonite, there is isomorphous substitution of magnesium
and iron for aluminum.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 19
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.3.4 Structure of Montmorillonite layer

(iii) Illite

 The basic structural unit of illite is similar to that of montmorillonite

except that some of the silicons are always replaced by aluminum
atoms and the resultant charge deficiency is balanced by potassium
ions.
 The potassium ions occur between unit layers.
 The bonds with the nonexchangeable K+ ions are weaker than the
hydrogen bonds, but stronger than the water bond of montmorillonite.
Illite, therefore, does not swell as much in the presence of water as
does montmorillonite.
 The lateral dimensions of illite clay particles are about the same as
those of montmorillonite, 1000 to 5000 A, but the thickness of illite
particles is greater than that of montmorillonite particles, 50 to 500 A.
 The arrangement of silica and gibbsite sheets are as shown in Fig.
1.3.5

~ mnmar 06 ~ 20
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.3.5 Structure of illite layer

Soil Mass Structure

 The orientation of particles in a mass depends on the size and shape

of the grains as well as upon the minerals of which the grains are
formed.
 The structure of soils that is formed by natural deposition can be
altered by external forces.
 Figure 1.3.6 gives the various types of structures of soil.
 Fig. 1.3.6 (a) is a single grained structure which is formed by the
settlement of coarse grained soils in suspension in water.
 Fig. 1.3.6 (b) is a flocculent structure formed by the deposition of the
fine soil fraction in water.
 Fig. 1.3.6 (c) is a honeycomb structure which is formed by the
disintegration of a flocculent structure under a superimposed load.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 21
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.3.6 (a-c) Schematic diagrams of single grain, flocculent and

honeycomb structures (Lambe, 1958)

 The particles oriented in a flocculent structure will have edge-to-face

contact as shown in Fig. 1.3.6 (d) whereas in a honeycomb structure,
the particles will have face-to-face contact as shown in Fig. 1.3.6 (e).

Figure 1.3.6 (d-e) Schematic diagrams of edge-to-face contact and face-

to-face contact structures (Lambe, 1958)

 Natural clay sediments will have more or less flocculated particle

orientations. Marine clays generally have a more open structure than
fresh water clays. Figs. 1.3.6 (f) and (g) show the schematic views of
salt water and fresh water deposits.

Figure 1.3.6 (f-g) Schematic diagrams of salt water and fresh water
deposits structures (Lambe, 1958)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 22
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.3.6 : Structure of an undisturbed marine clay

(from Casagrande)

1.3 Particles Size Distribution

Particle sizes vary considerably from those measures in microns,

example clay and to those measures in meter, example boulders. Most
natural soil is composite soil; a mixture of different particles size and the
distribution. Natural soil may be assigned names such as silty clay, clayey
sand and sandy gravel if the amounts of various constituent sizes are
known.
Two methods are generally used to find particles size distribution of

~ mnmar 06 ~ 23
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

soil:
a) Sieve analysis – for particles sizes larger than 0.075mm in
diameter
b) Hydrometer analysis – for particles sizes smaller than
0.075mm in diameter.

 Grain-size analysis:

Mechanical or sieve analysis (for grain sizes >#200 sieve)

Sedimentation or hydrometer tests (for grain sizes <#200 sieve), based on

Stoke.s law:

 Uses of grain size analysis

1) For soil classification,

2) For designing inverted filters for dams, levees, etc.
3) For estimating permeability of granular soils, and
4) For establishing the susceptibility to frost damage of soils.

 Soil classification based on grain size:

~ mnmar 06 ~ 24
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.3.1 Sieve analysis

Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of

sieve that have progressively smaller opening. To conduct a sieve
analysis, one must first oven-dry the soil and then break all lumps into
small particles. The soil is then shaken through a stack of sieves with
openings of decreasing size from top to bottom and the pan is placed
below the stack. After the soil is shaken, the mass of soil retained on each
sieve is determined. When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking the
lumps into individual particles may be difficult. In this case, the soil may be
mixed with water to make slurry and then washed through the sieves.
Portions retained on each sieve are collected separately and oven dried
before the mass retained on each sieve is measured.
Calculation procedure for sieve analysis as below:

1. Determine mass of soil retained on each sieve (i.e., M 1, M2,…..Mn)

and also in the pan (Mp)
2. Determine the total mass of the soil: M1 + M2 + ….. Mn + Mp = M
3. Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above each sieve.
For the ith sieve, it is M1 + M2 + ….. Mi
~ mnmar 06 ~ 25
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is M – (M1 + M2 +…..+Mi)

5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is

M  ( M 1  M 2  ........M i
F  x100
M

6. Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated as in step 5, the
calculation are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper with percent
finer as ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening as absicca
(logarithmic scale).

fig 1.0 : Semilogarithmic graph for grain size distribution

7. This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution curve

~ mnmar 06 ~ 26
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure 1.1: Particle-size Distribution Curve

Sieve analysis example

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve.
Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted on special
semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet.

Sieve mesh Mass Percentage Percentage

size (mm) retained (g) retained finer (passing)
14.0 0 0 100.0
10.0 3.5 1.2 98.8
6.3 7.6 2.6 86.2
5.0 7.0 2.4 93.8
3.35 14.3 4.9 88.9
2.0 21.1 7.2 81.7
1.18 56.7 19.4 62.3
0.600 73.4 25.1 37.2
0.425 22.2 7.6 29.6
0.300 26.9 9.2 20.4
0.212 18.4 6.3 14.1
0.150 15.2 5.2 8.9
0.063 17.5 6.0 2.9
Pan 8.5 2.9
TOTAL 292.3 100.0

~ mnmar 06 ~ 27
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand,
10% fine sand, 3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded
Gravelly Sand

1.3.2 Hydrometer analysis

If a soil contains appreciable quantities of fine fractions in wet analysis is

done. One form of the analysis is hydrometer analysis. It is very much
helpful to classify the soil as per ISI classification. The properties of the soil
are very much influenced by the amount of clay and other fractions.
Volume of water displaced: Approximately 800 ml of water shall be
poured in the 1000 ml measuring cylinder. The reading of the water level
shall be observed and recorded. The hydrometer shall be immersed in the
water and the level shall again be observed and recorded as the volume of
the hydrometer bulb in ml plus volume of that part of the stem that is
submerged. For practical purposes the error to the inclusion of this stem
volume may be neglected.
From the weight of the hydrometer: The hydrometer shall be weighed
to the nearest 0.1 gm. The weight in gm shall be recorded as the volume of
the bulb plus the volume of the stem below the 1000 ml graduation mark.
For practical purposes the error due to the inclusion of this stem may be
neglected.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 28
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

The sectional area of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder in which the

hydrometer is to used shall be determined by measuring the distance
between the graduations. The sectional area is equal to the volume include
between the two graduations divided by the measured distance between
them. Place the hydrometer on the paper and sketch it. On the sketch note
the lowest and highest readings which are on the hydrometer and also
mark the neck of the bulb.
Mark the center of the bulb which is half of the distance between
neck of the bulb and tip of the bulb. The distance from the lowest reading
to the center of the bulb is (Rh) shall be recorded as:
L
Rh  HL 
2

The distance from the highest hydrometer reading to the center of the bulb
shall be measured and recorded. Draw graph hydrometer readings versus
HH and RH. A straight line is obtained.
This calibration curve is used to calibrate the hydrometer readings
which are taken with in 2 minutes. From 4 minutes onwards the readings
are to be taken by immersing the hydrometer each time. This makes the
soil solution to rise, there by rising distance of free fall of the particle. So
correction is applied to the hydrometer readings. Correction applied to the
Rh and HH.

Vh= Volume of hydrometer bulb in ml.

A =Area of measuring cylinder in cm2.

From these two corrected readings draw graph (straight line)

1.3.3 Analysis of Particle-size Distribution

~ mnmar 06 ~ 29
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can
aid its identity and description. Some typical grading curves are shown
in the figure:
 A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or
flood-plain alluvium)
 B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of
gravel and sand)
 C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
 D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
 E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 30
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are

often included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can
be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading curve. These
properties are called grading characteristics

First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:

 d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample

 d30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of the sample

 d60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of the sample

From these the grading characteristics are calculated:

 Effective size
d10
 Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10

 Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30² / d60 d10

Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil

 Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
 Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
 Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
 Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil

1.4 Atterberg’s Limit and Consistency

When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be
remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling. This
cohesive nature is caused by the absorbed water surrounding the clay

~ mnmar 06 ~ 31
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

particles. In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg

developed a method to describe the consistency of fine grained soils with
varying moisture contents. At very low moisture content, soil behaves more
like solid. When moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow
like a liquid.

Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The

consistency of a soil can range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to
liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from
one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:

Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid
Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic

Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from

laboratory tests.

1.4.1 Liquid limit test

Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general

~ mnmar 06 ~ 32
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

properties of the soil met with construction. From the results of liquid limit
the compression index may be estimated. The compression index value
will help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of soil is
closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture
content is lesser than liquids limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the
moisture content is lesser than liquid limit. The soil is brittle and stiffer.

About 120 gm of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of

material passing 425   micron I.S sieve is to be obtained. Distilled water is
mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform paste. The
paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to
cause closer of standard groove for sufficient length.

A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of liquid limit device and
spread into portion with few strokes of spatula. Trim it to a depth of 1cm
at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of soil to the dish.
The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool
along the diameter through the centre line of the follower so that clean
sharp groove of proper dimension is formed.

Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions
per second until the two halves of soil cake come in contact with each
other for a length of about 1 cm by flow only. The number of blows required
to cause the groove close for about 1 cm shall be recorded. A
representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content
determination. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least
three more times for blows between   10 and 40.

Draw a graph showing the relationship between water content (on y-

axis) and number of blows (on x-axis) on semi-log graph. The curve
obtained is called flow curve. The moisture content corresponding to 25
drops (blows) as read from the represents liquid limit. It is usually
~ mnmar 06 ~ 33
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

expressed to the nearest whole number.

1.4.2 Plastic limit test

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which soil

begins to behave as a plastic material.  A plastic material can be molded
into a shape and the material will retain that shape.  If the moisture content
is below the plastic limit, it is considered to behave as a solid, or a
nonplastic material.  As the moisture content increases past the plastic
limit, the liquid limit will be approached.  The liquid limit is defined as the
moisture content at which the soil behaves like a liquid.

Take about 20gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing

through 425 micron I.S. Sieve obtained in accordance with I.S. 2720 (part
1). Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil
mass becomes plastic enough to be easily molded with fingers. Allow it to
season for sufficient time (for 24 hrs) to allow water to permeate
throughout the soil mass.

Take about 10gms of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers
and glass plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a threaded
of uniform diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be
between 60 and 90 strokes per minute. Continue rolling till you get a
threaded of 3 mm diameter. Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and
re-roll. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter
is 3 mm. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for
moisture content determination.

Repeat the test to at least 3 times and take the average of the results
calculated to the nearest whole number. Compare the diameter of thread
at intervals with the rod. When the diameter reduces to 3 mm, note the
surface of the thread for cracks.
~ mnmar 06 ~ 34
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.4.3 Plasticity Index

The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-
solid. Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of
plastic consistency. The range of water content over which a soil has a
plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI).

IP = liquid limit - plastic limit

IP = w L - w P

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their
measured plasticity index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished
from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined:

Low plasticity wL = < 35%

Intermediate plasticity wL = 35 - 50%

High plasticity wL = 50 - 70%
Very high plasticity wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%

1.4.4 Shrinkage limit

~ mnmar 06 ~ 35
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by

artificial means in laboratory it changes from liquid state to plastic state,
from plastic state to semi-solid state and then to solid state. Volume
changes also occur with changes in water content. But there is particular
limit at which any moisture change does not cause soil any volume
change. 

A shrinkage limit test should be performed on a soil are to obtain a

quantitative indication of how much change in moisture can occur before
any appreciable volume changes occurs and also to obtain an indication
of change in volume. The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils
undergo large volume changes when going through wet and dry cycles (as
in case of earth dams)

Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of

the material passing through 425-micron I.S. sieve. Place about 30 gm the
above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled water and make a creamy paste. Use water content some where
around the liquid limits. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin
layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil sticking to the dish. Fill the dish in
three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil with
the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows
over the edges and no apparent air bubbles exist.

Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is
completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the
top of the dish smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the
dish. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight. Air-
dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark

~ mnmar 06 ~ 36
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

to light. Then oven-dry the to constant weight at 105 0C to 1100C say about
12 to 16 hrs. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven.

Cool it in a desiccators. Then obtain the weight of the dish with dry
sample. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record. Determine the
volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil
as follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish
with mercury till it overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on
its top to remove excess mercury.Pour the mercury from the shrinkage
dish into a measuring jar and find the volume of the shrinkage dish directly.
Record this volume as the volume of the wet soil pat. Determine the
volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.

Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to
overflowing with mercury. Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup
with glass plate with prongs and pressing it. See that no air bubbles are
entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to remove the adhering
mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean and empty
carefully. Place the dry soil pat on the mercury.

It floats submerge it with the pronged glass plate which is again

made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills over into the larger
plate. Pour the mercury that is displayed by the soil pat into the measuring
jar and find the volume of the soil pat directly.

1.5 Soil Classification

The main purpose of soil classification systems is to provide a

uniform convention for naming different soil types (i.e., what is a clay?)
such that there is less ambiguity and confusion between practitioners on
~ mnmar 06 ~ 37
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

the usage of terminologies. Over the years, through their constant and
consistent use, the soil classification systems have provided the first
indication of the behavior of a particular soil. Soil classifications have
evolved from using general terms to empirical systems that are developed
to serve a specific need of a particular engineering work.

1.5.1 The Unified Soil Classification (USC) System

Co-developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) and the

Army Corp of Engineer in1952 following the airfield classification system
developed by Casagrande (1932). This is the most widely used soil
classification system in geotechnical engineering. The system uses grain
size as the first level of classifying soils to divide coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils. For fine-grained soils, the Atterberg limits and the
Casagrande plasticity chart are used to classify silts and clays.
 The following is a brief guideline in using the USC system:

1. The USC uses two letters to classify soils (except in borderline cases
requiring dual symbols), see Table 1 below. To learn more about this
system, use the Guide in Fig.1 below.
2. Determine the soil type using the table below, by proceeding from left
to right and by a process of elimination (work like a detective!). Make
notes along the way.
3. First decide on the prefix for the soil type depending on the grain
size: coarse grained (G,S) or fine-grained (M,C,O).
4. Work on the suffix to describe the soil. For coarse-grained soils, the
symbols W and P are for clean sands and gravels and are based on
the Cu and Cz values. The symbols M and C are for soils with >15%
fines and are based on the character of the fines (see next step).

~ mnmar 06 ~ 38
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

5. For fine-grained soils, use the Plasticity (LL vs. PI) chart. In using this
chart, note the A-line and the LL=50 % line. Soils above the A-line
are clays (C), while soils below are either silts (M) or organics (O).
Soils to the left of LL=50% line have low plasticity (suffix L) and to the
right have high plasticity (suffix H).
6. Note that inorganic silt (ML) plots in the same location as organic silt
(OL), and that inorganic silt (MH) plots in the same location as
organic clay (OH). In these two cases, additional indicators are
needed to ascertain the soil type. For instance, organic soils are
darker and, when dried, have higher shear strengths than inorganic
soils. Also, drying can reduce the LL of organic soil by as much as
30%.
7. Peat (PT) is a separate soil classification requiring visual-manual
classification.

Prefix Suffix
Coarse grained: W = well graded
G = more than 50%* retained in #4 P = poorly graded
sieve M = containing silt
S = more than 50%* pass through #4 C = containing clay
sieve

Fine grained: L = low plasticity (LL < 50%)

M = silts H = high plasticity (LL > 50
C = clays
O = organic (clay or silt)

PT = peat

Table 1 : Prefixes and suffixes used in the United Soil Classification

System

~ mnmar 06 ~ 39
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Fig. 1 : Guide to the Unified Soil Classification System

(Reprinted from Coduto, 1994)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 40
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Fig 2 : The Unified Soil Classification System (Reprinted from Cernica, 1995)
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.5.2 AASHTO Classification System

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials soil classification system is specifically suited for classifying soils
for earthwork structures (subgrades, bases, sub-bases, and
embankments). The system shown in Table 3 has seven main soils groups
(A1-A7). Similar to the USC system, data are tested by moving from left to
right, and process of elimination, data are tested into which category fit.

In addition to the group and subgroup classifications, a Group Index

(GI) is calculated and incorporated in the calculation to give an indication of
the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material. GI is calculated using
the particle size distribution and the Atterberg limits according to the
formula:

GI = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15)(PI - 10)

The following are some rules for determining GI (Das, 1985):

1. If the above equation gives a negative value, then GI is taken to be
zero.
2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number.
3. There is no upper limit to GI.
4. The GI of soils belonging to A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 is
always zero.
5. The GI of soils belonging to A-2-6 and A-2-7 is calculated as:
GI = 0.01(F-15)(PI-10)
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Table 3.1 - The AASHTO Soil Classification System (Reprinted from

Cernica, 1995)
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Table 3.1 – Discription of AASHTO Soil Group

(Reprinted from Cernica, 1995)

1.5.3 British Soil Classification System

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil

Classification System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its
essential structure is as follows:

~ mnmar 06 ~ 44
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Soil group   Symbol Recommended name

~ mnmar 06 ~ 45
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Coarse
    Fines %  
soils
G  GW 0-5 Well-graded GRAVEL
  GPu/GPg 0-5 Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15 Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
Poorly graded silty/clayey
GRAVEL   GPM/GPC 5 - 15
GRAVEL
Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-
GF GML, GMI... 15 - 35
group...]
Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols
  GCL, GCI... 15 - 35
as below]
S SW 0-5 Well-graded SAND
  SPu/SPg 0-5 Uniform/poorly-graded SAND
S-F SWM/SWC 5 - 15 Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
SAND   GPM/GPC 5 - 15 Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND
Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-
SF SML, SMI... 15 - 35
group...]
Very clayey SAND [..symbols as
  SCL, SCI... 15 - 35
below]
     
Liquid
Fine soils   >35% fines  
limit%
MG Gravelly SILT
MS Sandy SILT
SILT M
[Plasticity subdivisions as for
ML, MI...
CLAY]
CLAY C CG Gravelly CLAY
CS Sandy CLAY
CL <35 CLAY of low plasticity
CI 35 - 50 CLAY of intermediate plasticity

~ mnmar 06 ~ 46
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

CH 50 - 70 CLAY of high plasticity

CV 70 - 90 CLAY of very high plasticity
CE >90 CLAY of extremely high plasticity
Organic
O   [Add letter 'O' to group symbol]
soils
[Soil predominantly fibrous and
Peat Pt    
organic]

Example Problems:

Given the grain size distribution of three soil samples below, and the liquid
and plastic limits of the fines portions, classify the three soils according to the
UCS system.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 47
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

SOIL A:
 About 95% of the soil pass the #200, so it is fine-grained.
 The plasticity index is PI=60-45=15 and it plots below the A-line.
 Since LL>50 then the soil is either MH or OH.

SOIL B.
 About 10% is finer than the #200 sieve, hence this is a coarse-grained
soil and since the % finer than #200 is between 5 and 12%, dual
symbols will be required.
 Also, 100% of the total weight is less than the #4 sieve, therefore the
coarse grained portion is a sandy soil (prefix S).
 From the figure, D10=0.07, D30=0.3, and D60=0.5, giving Cu= D60/
D10=4.3 and Cc= (D30)2/( D10D60)=2.6, hence sandy portion is poorly
graded (suffix P).
 For the fine-grained portion, the plasticity index is PI=30-22=8 (which is
greater than 7), so it plots above the A-line (suffix C), so the final
classification is SP-SC
 (i.e., this means that the soil could have either been SP or SC).

SOIL C:
 About 20% is finer than #200 (or 80% is retained), hence soil is coarse-
grained.
 Of the coarse-grained portion (the 80% retained), about 55% is gravel
by inspection of the grain-size distribution curve (prefix S).
 Since about 20% pass #200, possible suffixes are M or C.
 The fines portion has a PI=32-12=20, which is greater than 7, and the
soil plots above the A-line, thus suffix is C and the soil classification is
SC.

1.6 Weight-Volume Relationships

Figure 1.3 (a) shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would
exist in a natural state. To develop the weight-volume relationships, we must
separate the three phases (that is, solid, water, and air) as shown in Figure
1.3 (b). Thus, the total volume of a given soil sample can be expressed as
V = Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va (1.1)
Where Vs = volume of soil solids
Vv = volume of voids

~ mnmar 06 ~ 48
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Vw = volume of water in the voids

Va = volume of air in the voids

Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can give the total weight
of the sample as
W = Ws + Ww (1.2)

where Ws = weight of soil solids

Ww = weight of water

The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil
element are void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.

Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids. Thus,
VV
e= V
S

Water

Solid

Figure 1.3 (a) :Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of the soil

Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume,
VV
or n=V (1.4)
T

The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to
~ mnmar 06 ~ 49
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

VW
the volume of voids, or Sr = V x 100 % (1.5)
V

It is commonly expressed as a percentage.

The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived from Eqs.
(1.1), (1.3), and (1.4) as follows:

(1.6)

Also, from Eq. (1.6),

e
n =1 e (1.7)

The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture content and
unit weight. Moisture content (w) is also referred to as water content and is
defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given
volume of soil:
Ww
w (1.8)
Ws

Unit weight () is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus,
W
  (1.9)
V
The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids,
the moisture content, and the total volume. From Eqs. (1.2), (1.8), and (1.9),

(1.10)

Soils engineers sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by Eq. (1.9) as the
moist unit weight.

Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit
volume of soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit
WS
weight, d. Thus, d  (1.11)
V

~ mnmar 06 ~ 50
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

From Eqs. (1.10) and (1.11), the relationship of unit weight, dry unit weight,

and moisture content can be given as d  (1-12)
1 w

Unit weight is expressed in English units (a gravitational system of measure-

ment) as pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3). In SI (Systẻm International), the unit
used is kilo Newtons per cubic meter (kN/m3). Because the Newton is a
derived unit, working with mass densities () of soil may sometimes be
convenient. The SI unit of mass density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3).
We can write the density equations [similar to Eqs. (1.9) and (1.11)] as

M Ms
 (1-13) and d  (1.14)
V V
where  = density of soil (kg/m3)
d - dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M = total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)

The unit of total volume, V, is m3.

The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as

and

where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2.

Note that unit weight of water (w is equal to 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3 or 1000
kgf/m3.

1.2.1 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity

~ mnmar 06 ~ 51
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and
moisture content, let us consider a volume of soil in which the volume of the
soil solids is one, as shown in Figure 1.4.

If the volume of the soil solids is one, then the volume of voids is numerically
equal to the void ratio, e [from Eq. (1.3)].

The weights of soil solids and water can be given as

Ws = Gsw Ww = wWs = wGsw
where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
w = moisture content
w = unit weight of water

Figure 1.4 :Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids
equal to one

Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight [Eqs. (1.9) and
(1.11)], we can write

W Ws  Ww Gs w  wGs w 1  w Gs w

     ....................(1.15)
V V 1 e 1 e

~ mnmar 06 ~ 52
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Ws Gs w Gs  w
and d   .........(1.16) or e  1 ..........(1.17)
V 1 e d

Because the weight of water for the soil elements under consideration is G sw
the volume occupied by water is

Ws wGs w
Vw    wGs .................. (1.17)
w w

Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation [Eq. (1.5)],

Vw wGs
S  or Se = wGs ................(1.18)
Vs e

This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase

relationships.

If the soil sample is saturated— that is, the void spaces are completely filled
with water (Figure 1.3) — the relationship for saturated unit weight (sat) can
be derived hi a similar manner:

W Ws  Ww Gs w  e w  Gs  e  w
 sat     ....................(1.19)
V V 1 e 1 e

Also, from Eq. (1.18) with S = 1,

e = wGs ................(1.20)

As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities in the

SI system, the following equations, similar to unit-weight relationships given
in Eqs. [1.15], [1.16], and [1.19], will be useful:

~ mnmar 06 ~ 53
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

(1.21)

(1.22)

(1.23)

where pw = density of water = 1000

kg/m3. Equation (1.21) may be derived
by referring to the soil element shown
in Figure 3.4, in which the volume of
soil solids is equal to 1 and the
volume of voids is equal to e

Hence, the mass of soil solids, Ms, is

equal to Gspw. The moisture content
has been defined in Eq. (1.8) as
where Mw = mass of water. Since the
mass of soil in the element is equal to
Gs w ,
the mass of water :
Mw = wMs - wGsw

From Eq. (3.13), density

~ mnmar 06 ~ 54
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.2.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture

Content

The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be
developed in a manner similar to that presented in the preceding section.
Consider a soil that has a total volume equal to one, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Vv
From Eq. (1.4), n
V

If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so Vs = 1 - n. The weight of soil solids

(W5) and the weight of water (Ww) can then be expressed as follows:
(1.24)
(1.25)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 55
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

(1.26)

(1.27)

Figure 3.6 shows a soil sample that is saturated and has V =1. According to
this figure,

(1.28)

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

(1.29)

Various Unit-Weight Relationships

Several other forms of relationships that can be obtained for , d, and sat are
given in Table 3.1. Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a
saturated condition, and dry unit weight for soils in a natural state are given in
Table 3.2.

Table 1.1 Various Forms of Relationships for , d, and sat

~ mnmar 06 ~ 56
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

~ mnmar 06 ~ 57
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Table(1.2):

Worked example 1
A specimen of clay was tested in the laboratory and the following data were
collected:
Mass of wet specimen M1 = 148.8 g
Mass if dry specimen M2 = 106.2 g
Volume of wet specimen V = 86.2 g
Specific gravity of particles Gs = 2.70
Determine: (a) the water content, (b) the bulk and dry densities, (c) the void
ratio and porosity, and (d) the degree of saturation.
Solution :

~ mnmar 06 ~ 58
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Worked Example 2
Given :
1. The weight of a chunk of moist soil sample is 45.6 Ib.
2. The volume of the soil chunk measured before drying is 0.40 ft 3.
3. After the sample is dried out in an oven, its weight is 37.8 Ib.
4. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65.

Required
1. Water content.
2. Unit weight of moist soil.
3. Void ratio.
4. Porosity.
5. Degree of saturation.

Solution:

See Figure E1. (Boldface data on the figure indicate given information. Other
data are calculated in the solution of the problem.)

1. Water content (w)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 59
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Figure E1: Block diagram showing components of soil example 2.

2. Unit weight of moist soil ()

3. Void ratio (e)

4. Porosity (n)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 60
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

5. Degree of saturation (s)

Worked Example 3
Given:
1. The moist mass of a soil specimen is 20.7 kg.
2. The specimen's volume measured before drying is 0.011 m 3.
3. The specimen's dried mass is 16.3 kg.
4. The specific gravity of solids is 2.68.

Required 1. Void ratio.

2. Degree of saturation.
3. Wet unit mass.
4. Dry unit mass.
5. Wet unit weight.
6. Dry unit weight.
Solution:
See Figure E2. (Boldface data on the figure indicate given information. Other
data are calculated in the solution of the problem.)

Figure E2 : Block diagram showing components of soil for Example 3.

1. Void ratio (e)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 61
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

2. Degree of saturation (s)

3. Wet unit mass ()

4. Dry unit mass (d)

5. Wet unit weight ()

6. Dry unit weight (d)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 62
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

Worked Example 4
Given:
An undisturbed soil sample has the following data:
1. Void ratio = 0.78.
2. Water content = 12%.
3. Specific gravity of solids = 2.68.
Required
1. Wet unit weight.
2. Dry unit weight.
3. Degree of saturation.
4. Porosity.

Solution:
See Figure E3:

Figure E3: Block diagram showing components of soil for Example 4.

See Figure E3. Because the void ratio (e) = 0.78,

(A volume of 1 m3 is assumed.) Substitute Eq. (A) into Eq. (B).

~ mnmar 06 ~ 63
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1. Wet unit weight ()

2. Dry unit weight (d)

3. Degree of saturation (s)

4. Porosity (n)

Worked Example 5
Given:
1. A 100% saturated soil has a wet unit weight of 120 lb/ft 3.

~ mnmar 06 ~ 64
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

2. The water content of this saturated soil was determined to be 36%.

Required

1. Void ratio.
2. Specific gravity of solids.

Solution:

See Figure E4.

Figure E4 : Block diagram showing components of soil for Example 5.

1. Void ratio (e)

~ mnmar 06 ~ 65
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

2. Specific gravity of solids (Gs)

Worked Example 6
Given:
A soil sample has the following data:
1. Void ratio = 0.94.
2. Degree of saturation = 35%.
3. Specific gravity of solids = 2.71.

Required
1. Water content.
2. Unit weight.

Solution :
See Figure E5.

Figure E5 : Block diagram showing components of soil for Example 6.

(i) From the given void ratio,

~ mnmar 06 ~ 66
 CHAPTER 1- COMPONENTS OF SOILS

(ii) Substitute Eq. (A) into Eq. (B)

(iii) From the given degree of saturation, S = VW/VV = 0.35,

1. Water content.

2. Unit weight

~ mnmar 06 ~ 67