EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

HOMEWORK #1 DUE 09/17/2019 (in class)

1. How does hysteresis affect accuracy? Discuss its effect on the measurement in terms of
systematic and random error.

Hysteresis occurs when the output of a measurement system is dependent on the previous value indicated
by the system. Such dependencies can be brought about through some realistic system limitations such
as friction or viscous damping in moving parts or residual charge in electrical components. Some hysteresis
is normal for any system and affects the repeatability of the system.

Hysteresis is usually specified for a measurement system in terms of the maximum hysteresis error as a
percentage of full-scale output range,
𝑢𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥
%𝑢𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥 100
𝑟𝑜

Figure – 1: Schematic Hysteresis error [1]

Errors are effects that cause a measured value to differ from its true value. Random error causes a random
variation in measured values found during repeated measurements of a variable. Systematic error causes
an offset between the mean value of the data set and its true value. Both random and systematic errors
affect a system’s accuracy [1]. For hysteresis, both errors effect measurement as specified above.

For random error, as measurements are repeated a random variation is generated which is similar to what
is observed in hysteresis (Figure – 1). Similarly, hysteresis is also depicted when there is offset between
mean value of data set and its true value which is systematic error.

2. Research and briefly explain how a Venturi flowmeter works. What are the dependent and
independent variables while making measurements with this device?

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a constricted
section of pipe. The fluid velocity must increase through the constriction to satisfy the equation of
continuity, while its pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in kinetic energy is
balanced by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. An equation for the drop-in pressure due to
Venturi effect may be derived from a combination of Bernoulli’s principle and the equation of continuity
[2].

The venturi flow meter, while considered an obstruction flow meter, is less of an obstruction than
the orifice type. It still does have a certain amount of pressure drop, but it is significantly less than
the orifice type meter [3].

Figure – 2: Schematic Hysteresis error [3]

As long as the incompressible fluid velocity is well below the supersonic point (< mach .3), the
Bernoulli equation can be used.
1
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉22 − 𝜌𝑉12
2

From continuity equation, we can substitute the throat velocity (V ) out of the above equation,
2
yielding the following:

1 𝐴1 2
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉12 [( ) − 1]
2 𝐴2

Solving for the upstream velocity and multiplying by the cross-sectional area gives the volumetric
flow rate Q.

2∆𝑃 𝐴1
𝑄 =√
𝜌 2
√(𝐴1 ) − 1
𝐴2
Ideal fluids would obey this equation, however small amounts of energy are converted into heat
within the viscous boundary layers, and tend to lower the actual velocity of real fluids. A discharge
coefficient C is typically introduced to account for the viscosity of the fluid.

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

2∆𝑃 𝐴1
𝑄 = 𝐶√
𝜌 2
√(𝐴1 ) − 1
𝐴2

C is found to depend on Reynolds Number of flow, and usually lies between .90 and .98 for smoothly
tapering velocities.

For air flow you can use the same calculation and assume that the gas is incompressible. The density
needs to be adjusted appropriately using the ideal gas formula.
𝑃
ρ=
𝑅𝑇
where R is gas constant (287 J/Kg/K for air)

3.

A simple thermocouple circuit is formed using two wires of different alloy: one end of the wires is
twisted together to form the measuring junction, while the other ends are connected to a voltmeter
and form the reference junction. A voltage is set up by the difference in temperature between the two
junctions. For a given pair of alloy material and reference junction temperature, the temperature of the
measuring junction is inferred from the measured voltage difference. For a measurement, what
variables need to be controlled? What are the dependent and independent variables?

Thermocouple is temperature measuring device. It is used to measure the temperature of materials or

system. In this scenario, it is placed across a temperature difference, it generates a voltage difference and
is measured by a voltmeter which is calibrated to read this temperature.

Reference junction temperature and alloy material need to be controlled. Temperature is independent
variable, Voltage generated, and alloy material are dependent variables.

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

4.

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

5.

Why is knowing the accuracy of the input important in this case?

6
Increasing Input (mV)
5

4
Y-axis

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X-axis

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

6
Decreasing Input (mV)

4
Y-axis

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X-axis

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

6.

Hint:

Try manipulating the equation above to obtain a linear relationship between the transformed input and
output variables and to find the coefficients a and b. You can then use MS Excel to fit a linear “trend
line” to the transformed data points

70
Relationship between Y and X
60

50

40
Y (cm)

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

-10
X (m)

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249

EGR 601 – Advanced Engineering Experimentation Dr Enur Karadogan

References

[1] R. S. Figliola and D. E. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, 5th Edition, Wiley,
2006, Ch 1, pp 21.

[2] https://www.che.iitb.ac.in/online/system/files/92/course_details/FM+308.pdf (Accessed September

17, 2019)

[3] Mitchell S. Cottrell, Notes, ME 240 Mechanical Instrumentation, Flow Measurement, Missouri
University of Science and Technology, 2019, pp 7

Rafique, Muhammad Musaddique Ali CMU ID: 760249