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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In Asexual of reproduction, offspring are reproduced from
a vegetative unit produced by a parent without any fusion
of gametes or sex cells.
– A single parent is involved
– Offsprings are genetically identical to the parent.
Asexual reproduction may be of the following types:
1. Fission :
As in unicellular organisms like bacteria and yeast where
the content of the parent cell divides into 2, 4 or 8 daughter
cells and accordingly the fission is known as
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binary or multiple fission. Each newly formed daughter cell

grows into a new organism.
2. Budding :
A bud like outgrowth is formed on one side of the parent
Cell and soon it separates and grows into a new individual
e.g .in yeast.

3. Fragmentation :
In filamentous algae, an accidental breaking of the
filament into many fragments, each fragment may give rise
to a new
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filament of the algae by cell division e.g. Spirogyra

4. Spore formation :
In lower plants including bryophytes and pteridophytes,
special reproductive units develop asexually on the parent
body. These are called spores. They are microscopic and
covered by protective wall. When they reach the suitable
environment they develop into a new plant body e.g. in
bread moulds, moss, fern.
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EXAMPLES OF NON
-FLOWERING PLANTS

1. MOSSES- There are approximately 12, 000 species of

moss. Mosses are small and soft plants that grow together
in clumps or mats. These mats or clumps grow in damp or
shady areas. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients
through their roots but through their leaves. In asexual
reproduction, mosses reproduce when stems separate from
a dying or dead large clump of moss. Sometimes, bits of
stems or leaves are broken off and become separated. In
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both cases, the separated plant parts regenerate and regrow

into new individuals.
2. FERNS
Ferns possess true roots, stems and complex leaves and
they reproduce by pores. The number of fern species is
about 9,000 but estimates have ranged to as high as 15,000.
Ferns are most abundant in the tropics especially in the
tropical rain forest. Many of the species grow as epiphytes
upon the trunks and branches of trees. Ferns like moist and
humid habitats with low light.The delicate leaves of ferns
are called fronds. The horizontal stems of ferns are called
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rhizomes. The roots grow out of rhizome. Ferns don’t have

seeds. Instead, they have spores. These can be found on the
underside of the fronds.In ferns, the spores are enclosed in
structures called sporangia. The individual sporangium is
grouped together in clusters called sori(singular, sorus).
These form yellowish or brownish masses arranged on
the edge of the under surface of the fronds.
3. CONIFERS
Conifers are cone-bearing trees or shrubs. Typical
examples of conifers include cedars, cypresses, firs, and
pines.Most conifer trees are evergreen and are specially
adapted to survive in areas with lots of snow. Otherconifers
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are cone-shaped in terms of tree form, and snow slides off

then so the branches do not break. The leaves or needles of
coniferous trees lose less water than other kinds of leaves.
This also helps them survive. There are about 600 species
of conifers.
4. CYCADS
Cycads are seed plants with a crown of large, hard and stiff,
innately compound leaves and stout woody trunks. They
grow very slowly and live very long, some being as old as
1,000 years. Cycads were common plants about 250 million
years ago. Today, there are about 150 species of cycads.
They grow in the tropics and subtropics. Cycads look like
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palms, but they aren’t. Their naked seeds are exposed to the
air for direct fertilization by special pollinators.
Cycads can produce sexually or asexually. In asexual
reproduction, cycads produce stem offshoots or suckers
called pups.
These can be separated and rooted to grow into a new plant.
In sexual reproduction, the individual plants contain either
all male cones or strobili(singular, strobilus) or all
female cones.
The male strobili contain the pollens while the female
strobili contain the ovules.