The corporate discovery history and geology of the

Collahuasi district porphyry copper deposits, Chile

Richard L. Moore
Falconbridge Limited, 1200 - 95 Wellington St. West, Toronto, ON Canada M5J 2V4

Glen J. Masterman
Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, PO Box 252-79, Hobart, Tasmania
7001, Australia

The Collahuasi district is located in the northeast of Chile about 250 km southeast of the port of Iquique.
It hosts a cluster of deposits that currently comprises three porphyry copper deposits, associated high
level epithermal vein deposits, and palaeogravel-hosted exotic copper deposits. The Quebrada Blanca and
Ujina porphyry copper deposits are currently in production, as well as the Huinquintipa exotic deposit,
while the Rosario porphyry deposit is in the final stages of feasibility. The Collahuasi porphyry deposits
are spatially associated with the West Fissure/Domeyko Fault system and appear to have been emplaced
during a period of dextral transpression between 35–34 Ma.
Two major faults have segmented the Collahuasi district into three principal tectonic units. The central
uplifted block of Collahuasi Formation is made up of Permian to Triassic andesite, dacite and rhyolite
with small porphyry intrusions. The central block is separated from Jurassic sedimentary and volcanic
rocks of the Cerro Empexa and Quehuita Formations by the West Fissure and is overlain to the east and
north by extensive sheets of Cenozoic ignimbrites. To the east the Collahuasi Formation is truncated by
the Loa Fault system that is a western splay of the West Fissure fault system.
The Quebrada Blanca, Rosario, and Ujina porphyry centres define a broad east-trending corridor between
the West Fissure and Loa Faults. At Rosario, high-grade massive sulfide (Cu-Ag-Au) veins overprint
porphyry-style Cu-Mo mineralisation. Similar high sulfidation veins occur in the La Grande and Poderosa
areas south and southeast of Rosario respectively. Low sulfidation Ag mineralisation occurs in a long (3–
5 km), semi-continuous quartz vein in the Monctezuma Fault. West of the Rosario porphyry centre are
several palaeochannel systems containing exotic copper mineralisation. The present drainage system has
dissected the original deposit resulting in preservation of several isolated mineralised bodies know as the
Huinquintipa deposits.
Mining in the Collahuasi district commenced with the Incas around 1400 AD, and continues to the
present day. The first modern exploration of the Quebrada Blanca deposit was conducted by geologists
employed by the Chilean arm of Anaconda; they recognised that the geology and alteration zones were
consistent with a porphyry deposit. In 1973, the Chilean government invited the Superior Oil/Falconbridge
group to consider investing in the copper industry, and provided a group of eight prospects from which
to choose. A joint venture controlled by Superior Oil was formed and in 1977 the Quebrada Blanca
deposit was chosen for detailed investigation, based on the results of previous work by Anaconda. Although
Codelco drilled the first hole into Quebrada Blanca, the deposit was not delineated until the Superior
Oil/Falconbridge Group optioned the property from the Chilean authorities. The Rosario and Ujina
areas were optioned from private interests and exploration subsequently led to the discovery of the Rosario
porphyry system in 1979. In response to corporate restructuring and difficult economic times, the project
was recast as a joint venture between Falconbridge, Shell Chile and Chevron. This joint venture was
operated by a management company which was controlled by Chevron and Shell Chile and it conducted
the exploration that eventually led to the discovery in 1991 of the economically important Ujina porphyry
deposit. The main exploration tools used were induced polarisation, surface mapping, and reverse
circulation drilling. From the technical perspective, the responsibility for the discovery of the Collahuasi
district deposits rests with the team of John Hunt, but credit must also go to the team of Louis DeBeer
and Larry Dick who managed the exploration program that finally discovered the Ujina porphyry. From
the Falconbridge corporate perspective, Ash Clark is responsible for first choosing the Quebrada Blanca
deposit for exploration and for later maintaining Falconbridge’s interest in the project.

1
INTRODUCTION
The goal of all private corporations is to increase
shareholder value. In mining companies this can best
be achieved by discovering a giant ore deposit. These
provide cash flow over long periods to provide the basis
of a sustainable company. Determining the sequence
of events that led to the discovery of a major deposit
can be challenging, as memories tend to be selective
and often self supportive, whilst critical roles are
neglected or forgotten. Throughout the period of
exploration, investment decisions are influenced by
perceptions of political risk, corporate strategy, and
corporate financial capabilities, and these change with
time. Also, in the case of a joint venture, different
partners have different decision making processes
brought about by different corporate objectives. In the
history of the exploration and discovery of the
Collahuasi deposits, this is especially the case as more
than thirteen companies have had an interest in the
project at one time or another.
How did Falconbridge, a Canadian nickel miner,
end up taking the leading role in the discovery of a
Fig. 1. Location of the study area.
2
giant porphyry copper district in Chile and end up
with 44% of the prize? The answer to this question
began in 1973 when Falconbridge was controlled by
Superior Oil. The discovery of Collahuasi resulted from
a complex interplay of technical, corporate and
enabling events, and the unfolding of political events
in Chile. From the Falconbridge perspective, the story
can be broken into four parts. The first part is how
Quebrada Blanca was first chosen as a property to
explore. The second part involves the Superior Oil/
Falconbridge Joint Venture, which discovered the
Quebrada Blanca and Rosario porphyry copper
deposits. The third part is the Shell Chile/Chevron
Joint Venture that explored the Rosario vein deposits,
and the fourth part is the discovery of the Ujina deposit.
The story is told here from the perspective of
Falconbridge.
The Collahuasi District is located in the high Andes
in the First Region of northern Chile, 15 km from the
Bolivian border (Fig. 1). The deposits are located at
altitudes which vary from 4200 m to 5000 m above
sea level. Road systems connect the project with
Chuquicamata, 150 km to the south and with the port
city of Iquique, 200 km to the west.
The Rosario and Ujina porphyry copper deposits
along with their associated high level vein systems and
the Huinquintipa exotic deposit are owned by
Compañía Minera Doña Inés de Collahuasi SCM,
(CMDC). CMDC is owned by Falconbridge Limited
(44%), the Anglo American (44%), and a consortium
of Japanese companies led by Mitsui and Co. Ltd
(12%). The Quebrada Blanca Deposit is now owned
by Aur Resources (76.5%), Sociedad Minera Pudahuel
LTDA (13.5%), and Enami (10%). Mineral reserves
for all deposits are listed in Table 1.
The geology sections of this paper were written by
Glen Masterman who studied the deposits as part of
his PhD study at CODES. The sections on the
discovery history were written by Richard Moore, an
employee of Falconbridge.
Collahuasi - District to deposit scale geology
Porphyry Cu-Mo centres in the Collahuasi district
constitute the northern-most group of major deposits
known to be associated with the West Fissure fault
system in northern Chile. Presently, supergene copper
ores are mined from the Quebrada Blanca and Ujina
porphyry complexes. Additionally, secondary exotic
copper oxides are mined from the Huinquintipa gravel-
hosted deposit near Rosario. Historical mining focused
on the Cerro La Grande and Monctezuma areas where
high sulfidation Cu-Ag-Au and low sulfidation Ag
mineralisation cropped out as high grade veins.
Rosario is the largest Cu-Mo porphyry deposit in
the Collahuasi district and provides an excellent
example of high sulfidation Cu-Ag telescoping onto
the core of a porphyry system. This has enabled
investigation of the genetic link between the porphyry
and epithermal environments, and considered a crucial
element in the generation of high hypogene Cu grades
Table 1. Proven and probable mineral reserves plus production from Collahuasi district deposits.
Deposit Category
Rosario Mineral Reserves (Proven and probable 2001)
Ujina Production to end of 2001
Mineral Reserves (Proven and probable 2001)
Production plus reserves
Huinquintipa Production to end of 2001
Mineral Reserves (Proven and probable 2001)
Production plus reserves
Quebrada Blanca Production to end of 2001
Mineral Reserves (Proven and probable 2001)
Production plus reserves
3
at Rosario. This section provides a review of the geology
and geodynamic history of the Collahuasi district, and
a brief description of the diverse range of mineralisation
styles.
District Geology
Collahuasi (20°58' S and 68°43' W) is situated in the
north of Chile in the Andean Cordillera about 10 km
from the border of Bolivia (Fig. 1). The region defines
an area of 64 km2 in the Western Cordillera between
altitudes of 4400 m and 5000 m. The Collahuasi
district comprises three principal stratigraphic domains
(Figs 2, 3). The north-trending West Fissure Fault
separates Cretaceous (Cerro Empexa Formation) and
Jurassic sequences (Quehuita Formation) in the west
from the Permo-Triassic Collahuasi Formation in the
central part of the district. Extensive Cenozoic
ignimbrite covers the basement stratigraphy in the
north. Modern andesite stratovolcanoes define the
eastern edge of the Collahuasi Formation along the
north-south trending Loa Fault. Late Eocene porphyry-
Cu deposits (Quebrada Blanca, Rosario and Ujina)
occur in the central, uplifted Collahuasi Formation.
Collahuasi Formation
Permian to Triassic andesite, dacite and rhyolite and
small porphyry intrusions characterise the geology of
the Collahuasi Formation. Volcanic units are
intercalated with arenites (andesitic origin) and rare
limestone lenses. The West Fissure defines the contact
between the western edge of the Collahuasi Formation
and the Cerro Empexa Formation. The eastern edge
of the Collahuasi Formation is not exposed, but is
probably the Loa Fault. The northern termination of
the Collahuasi Formation is poorly defined as the
sequence is buried beneath the Huasco Ignimbrite. The
Collahuasi Formation extends south to Chuquicamata,
but is absent beyond Calama (Fig. 1).
tonnes % Copper
710 MT 0.93
87 MT 1.69
1,135 MT 0.74
1,222 MT 0.81
2 MT 1.62
6 MT 1.41
8 MT 1.47
149 MT 1.52
132 MT 0.91
281 MT 1.23
Fig. 2. Simplified map of geology of the Collahuasi District. Note the alignment of the Rosario and Ujina porphyry centers
along the trace of a northwest-trending lineament between the West Fissure and Loa Fault.
The Collahuasi Formation was emplaced onto
Proterozoic to early Paleozoic basement of the Arequipa
Terrane during the late Paleozoic (Shatwell, 1995).
Deposition occurred in a continental setting,
characterised by dacitic and minor andesitic volcanism
(Vergara and Thomas, 1984). The Permo-Triassic
continental topography permitted concomitant
deposition of sedimentary rocks in fluvial basins and
lakes.
Quehuita Formation
Sedimentary rocks of the Quehuita Formation,
exposed extensively west of the West Fissure,
unconformably overlie the Collahuasi Formation. They
consist of a lower member of deep marine mudstone
and siltstone, and an upper member of shallow marine
to subaerial- continental limestones, calcareous
sandstones, arenites and conglomerates (Vergara,1978;
Vergara and Thomas, 1984). Limestones and deep
marine units in the lower marine member contain fossil
associations that indicate a Jurassic age (Vergara and
Thomas, 1984; Munchmeyer et al., 1984). Growth
faults in both members indicate deposition occurred
4
in an extensional setting that was initially deep water
but gradually shallowed up-stratigraphy into
continental sedimentary rocks. Quehuita Formation
sedimentation is associated with back-arc extensional
basins that formed during development of the Jurassic
arc in northern Chile.
Cerro Empexa Formation
The Cerro Empexa Formation is a north-trending,
elongate sequence of andesite and dacite lavas, volcanic
breccias, and interbedded red-bed arenites and
conglomerates (Vergara and Thomas, 1984). The West
Fissure defines the eastern contact of the Cerro Empexa
Formation. To the west, the Cerro Empexa Formation
unconformably overlies the Quehuita Formation
(Jurassic). Granite stocks, dated at 95 Ma, have
intruded the Cerro Empexa Formation and led Vergara
and Thomas (1984) to assign a Cretaceous age for these
units. Continental deposition of the Cerro Empexa
Formation consisted of andesitic-dacitic volcanism and
simultaneous emplacement of red bed deposits in an
environment similar to the modern arc of the Eastern
Cordillera.
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column showing lithofacies of the Collahuasi District (modified after Vergara and Thomas, 1984).

5
 Cenozoic Rocks
Three discrete ignimbrite bodies occur in the
northern and eastern parts of the Collahuasi district.
They have been dated by Vergara and Thomas (1984)
and were deposited between 17.1 and 0.75 Ma (see
Table 2). Recent andesite flows, erupted between 7.4
and 3.4 Ma (Vergara and Thomas, 1984), originated
from stratovolcanoes that define the position of the
modern arc.
Intrusive rocks
Intrusive bodies ranging in composition from
diorite to monzonite, granodiorite and granite occur
throughout the Collahuasi District (Munchmeyer et
al., 1984; Vergara and Thomas, 1984). Pre-continental
arc Paleozoic granite and granodiorite are restricted to
the Collahuasi Formation. Late Cretaceous–early
Tertiary quartz diorite and granodiorite occur through-
out the Cerro Empexa, Quehuita and Collahuasi
Formations. These were succeeded by late Eocene
porphyry-Cu quartz-monzonite intrusions emplaced
exclusively within the Collahuasi Formation
(Munchmeyer et al., 1984; Vergara and Thomas,
1984).
Structure
Two major faults have segmented the Collahuasi
district into three principal tectonic units (Fig. 4). The
central, uplifted block of Collahuasi Formation
corresponds with the northward continuation of the
Precordillera (known also as the Domeyko Cordillera)
that is bound to the west by the West Fissure fault
system (Masterman, 2000). At Collahuasi, the eastern
edge of the Precordillera is defined by the active
volcanic front of the Western Cordillera. West of the
West Fissure, sedimentary and volcanic units of the
Cerro Empexa and Quehuita Formations are isoclinally
folded and dip steeply into the Longitudinal Valley.
West Fissure/Domeyko Fault System
The West Fissure consists of numerous regional-
scale fault segments that occur along a narrow north-
south corridor traceable for over 2000 km (Lindsay et
Table 2. Cenozoic Ignimbrites of the Collahuasi District (Vergara and Thomas, 1984).
Unit
Pastillos Ignimbrite
Ujina Ignimbrite
Huasco Ignimbrite
6
al., 1995). It is described by a variety of terms including
the West Fault (Falla Oeste), Domeyko Fault system,
Precordillera Fault system and West Fissure Fault
system (Clark et al., 1998; Dilles et al., 1997; Kuhn
and Reuther, 1999; Lindsay et al., 1995; Maksaev,
1990; Maksaev and Zentilli, 2000; McInnes et al.,
1999; Munchmeyer et al., 1984; Reutter et al., 1996;
Richards et al., 2001; Scheuber et al., 1994; Scheuber
and Reutter, 1992; Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997a;
Vergara and Thomas, 1984). The terminology “west”
is derived from the type locality at the Chuquicamata
mine where a single branch of this fault system defines
the western margin of the deposit. In the Collahuasi
district, several porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are spatially
associated with the West Fissure. These include the
Quebrada Blanca, Rosario and Ujina intrusive centers.
Further south, the Domeyko Fault (southern
continuation of the West Fissure) played a significant
role in the emplacement of the El Abra, Radimiro
Tomic, Chuquicamata, Mansa Mina, La Escondida and
El Salvador intrusive complexes.
Disagreement over displacement sense and
magnitude has complicated resolution of the timing
and origin of the West Fissure. Tomlinson and Blanco
(1997) argued that the West Fissure developed as a
through–going fault system in the Precordillera
between 37–34 Ma. Before this, Precordillera faulting
consisted of a series of isolated and semi-detached
dextral fault segments that developed during the Incaic
shortening event (45–37 Ma.). This coincided with
east-west folding and inversion of trench-parallel
detachment faults along the edge of the Jurassic back-
arc during rapid convergence (Padilla-Garza, 1998).
Propagation and coalescence of the West Fissure is
though to have occurred under slowed convergence
rates during the late Eocene-early Oligocene
(Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997).
Post-mineralisation sinistral strike-slip movement
on the West Fissure has cut in two the Chuquicamata
Intrusive Complex, juxtaposing it with the barren
Fortuna Intrusive Complex (35–36 Ma; (Zentilli and
Maksaev, 1995). The other part of the Chuquicamata
orebody has never been discovered. Stratigraphic
Age
0.75 ± 0.2 Ma., K-Ar (Bi)
9.3 ± 0.4 Ma., K-Ar (Bi)
17.1 ± 0.8 Ma – 14.5 ± 0.5 Ma., K-Ar (Bi)

Fig. 4. Tectonostatigraphic domains from Collahuasi to
Calama (modified after Kuhn and Reuther, 1999). The West
Fissure broadly defines the contact between the
Precordillera and the Longitudinal Valley.
reconstructions across the West Fissure north of
Chuquicamata indicate 35–37 km of post-mineral-
isation sinistral strike-slip displacement (Tomlinson
and Blanco, 1997; Dilles et al., 1997). Based on
(U-Th)/He thermochronometry, McInnes et al. (1999)
estimated approximately 600 m vertical displacement
on the West Fissure at Chuquicamata. The western
crustal block containing the Fortuna Granodiorite was
uplifted to an altitude of 3600 m. Topography adjacent
to the West Fissure does not reach this altitude
suggesting that the western portion of the orebody was
either eroded, or displaced by considerable post-
mineral strike-slip displacement. Assuming all the
displacement was accommodated on a single strand of
the West Fissure, then the other half of the
Chuquicamata intrusive complex would have been
placed south of Calama in a sinistral wrench system.
Loa Fault System (LFS)
The LFS splays from the Domeyko Fault System
north of El Abra (Clark et al., 1998, Figs 2 and 6),
where it occurs as a series of concave to the west arcuate
faults (inverted basin structures). These structures,
though not well exposed, extend north along the trace
of the Loa River. At Collahuasi, the LFS passes to the
east of Ujina beneath the Ujina Ignimbrite. Several
Collahuasi drill holes have intersected the LFS, where
it cuts the La Profunda Granite.
7
Folding
Open, upright folds in the Collahuasi Formation
have north to northwest axial trends (Fig. 5). The
Mesozoic sequences west of the West Fissure are more
intensely folded than the Collahuasi Formation. In the
least competent Jurassic sedimentary rocks of the
Quehuita Formation, tight and upright (in places
overturned) folding has resulted in orogen-parallel,
subvertical stratigraphy (Vergara and Thomas, 1984).
Further south, in the Sierra de Moreno, Z-shaped
vertical folds are developed where north-trending
strike-slip faults cut the north-striking vertical strata
(Reutter et al., 1996). The Cenozoic formations in the
northern and eastern areas of the Collahuasi district
have not been deformed.
Minor Faults
A system of north- to NNE-trending subvertical
faults cut the volcanic stratigraphy south of Rosario
(Fig. 5). Some of these faults have localised high
sulfidation Cu-Ag-Au and low sulfidation Ag mineral-
isation. Munchmeyer et al. (1984) suggested that
development of the La Grande and Monctezuma fault
systems was related to strike-slip movement on the West
Fissure. A second group of faults striking northwest
(dipping 45°–50° SW) occur at Rosario (Fig. 5). These
faults also localised high sulfidation Cu-Ag-Au mineral-
isation and possibly influenced the emplacement of
the Rosario Intrusive Complex (Masterman, 2000;
Masterman, 2001).
At Quebrada Blanca, a series of shallow southwest-
dipping faults have imposed structural control on late
hydrothermal veins (Hunt et al., 1983; Rowland and
Wilkinson, 1998). This orientation corresponds with
the SOUTHWEST-dipping fault system at Rosario.
The northeast-trending Quebrada Blanca Fault cuts
porphyry-style mineralisation, but may have developed
before intrusion of the porphyries thus influencing their
emplacement (Johny Bonilla: chief geologist CMQB,
pers. com. 2000) The Quebrada Blanca Fault bends
around the northwest quadrant of the Quebrada Blanca
intrusive complex into the Quebrada Agua del Mote
Fault (Fig. 5).
Uplift and Deformation History
Tectonic uplift to the present height of the
Precordillera resulted from increased convergence rates
during the Neogene (Isacks, 1988). However, Maksaev
and Zentilli (2000) suggested that tectonic uplift was
active as early as Eocene time, coinciding with porphyry
copper emplacement between 41 and 30 Ma. Based
on apatite fission track data, Maksaev and Zentilli
(2000) estimated 4–5 km of erosion during exhum-
ation of the Domeyko Cordillera between the middle
Eocene to early Oligocene. This corresponds with the
8
Fig. 5. Generalized
geology of the
Quebrada Blanca and
Rosario areas (after
Munchmeyer et al.,
1984).
age and duration of crustal thickening and erosion
associated with the Incaic compressive event. The
fission track apatite ages of the Chuquicamata and El
Abra porphyry copper deposits are concordant with
their 40Ar/ 39Ar dates, implying fast cooling and
negligible exhumation of shallow mineralising systems
(2–3 km). Maksaev and Zentilli (2000) estimated uplift
rates to be 200 to 100 m/Ma in the Domeyko
Cordillera during this period.
At least two deformation events are recognised in
the Collahuasi district. Brittle fault development and
reactivation post-date north-trending folds
(Masterman, 2001). The Incaic compression, induced
by an increase in the rate of oblique-northeast
subduction (Reutter et al., 1996), generated east–west
shortening and tight to open folding with north and
NNE axial trends.
The development of the Rosario and La Grande-
Monctezuma Fault systems in folded stratigraphy of
the Collahuasi district imply rapid uplift of the
Collahuasi Formation through the brittle-ductile
transition during the same tectonic event. The Rosario
and La Grande-Monctezuma faults possibly formed
as a conjugate fault system (Masterman, 2001).
Geology of the Quebrada Blanca, Rosario and
Ujina Intrusive Complexes
The Quebrada Blanca, Rosario, and Ujina porphyry
centers define a broad east-trending corridor between
the West Fissure and Loa faults (Fig. 6). At Rosario,
high-grade, massive sulfide (Cu-Ag-Au) veins overprint
porphyry-style Cu-Mo mineralisation. Similar high
sulfidation veins occur in the La Grande and Poderosa
areas south and southeast of Rosario respectively. Low
sulfidation Ag mineralisation occurs in a 3–5 km long,
semi-continuous quartz vein along the Monctezuma
Fault.
Quebrada Blanca
The Quebrada Blanca intrusive complex is hosted
by a Permian granite batholith that intruded a north-
trending anticline of folded Collahuasi Formation
volcanic units (Fig.5; Munchmeyer et al., 1984;
Rowland and Wilkinson, 1998). The volcanic strati-
graphy consists of several andesite flows interfingered
with epivolcaniclastic sandstone of andesitic origin.
Rhyolitic and dacitic pyroclastic rocks overlie the
andesite and sandstone units (Hunt et al., 1983). Field
relationships suggest that the contact separating the
rhyolite and dacite units from the underlying andesite
succession is a Jurassic unconformity (Munchmeyer et
al., 1984).
The mineralised intrusions define an ENE-trend
that cuts the axis of the anticline. Copper mineral-
9
isation is associated with several generations of igneous
activity. These are described in Table 3.
Rosario
The Rosario porphyry center intruded close to the
position of the Permo-Triassic unconformity, which
separates the La Grande Unit from the Condor Unit
(Fig. 7). The southwest-dipping Rosario fault system
cuts both the northeast-dipping unconformity and the
Rosario intrusive complex (Fig. 6; Masterman, 2000;
Masterman 2001). The La Grande Unit is distin-
guished by predominantly andesitic volcanic facies,
whereas the Condor Unit consists of abundant dacite
and minor sedimentary beds that contain carbonate
lenses. Intrusive activity at Rosario is summarised from
youngest to oldest in Table 4.
Ujina
The host rocks at Ujina are laterally equivalent to
the La Grande Unit. The local stratigraphy consists of
a thick basal andesite (possibly several flows), overlain
by rhyolite and sedimentary breccia (Bisso et al., 1998).
The Inca Porphyry occurs as a series of north- and
northwest-trending dykes that intruded the Ujina
Porphyry (Fig. 8). There is no age data for the weakly
mineralised Inca Porphyry, but it is interpreted to have
intruded the Ujina Porphyry before the cessation of
hydrothermal activity. Intrusive activity at Ujina is
summarised in Table 5.
Mineralisation and Alteration in the
Collahuasi District
Quebrada Blanca
At Quebrada Blanca, copper ore is mined pre-
dominantly from the supergene zone. A detailed
description of hypogene mineralisation styles is
presented in Rowland (1998). Early chalcopyrite-
bornite mineralisation at Quebrada Blanca is associated
with the quartz monzonite stock and a porphyry dyke
suite, whereas late chalcopyrite-molybdenite-pyrite
mineralisation is associated with the cross-cutting
igneous and hydrothermal breccia bodies (Rowland,
1998; Rowland and Wilkinson, 1998; Hunt et al.,
1983). Quebrada Blanca vein and alteration paragenesis
is detailed in Table 6.
The Quebrada Blanca stock is intensely biotite
altered along its northern contact. Hunt et al. (1983)
defined this facies as a discrete mafic (diorite) intrusion.
Disseminated bornite-chalcopyrite mineralisation is
spatially associated with potassic alteration in the
granodiorite core of the quartz monzonite intrusion.
The highest molybdenite grades occur along the
Quebrada Blanca Fault. Potassic alteration grades out
Fig. 6. Simplified map of the Collahuasi district showing the location of the Quebrada Blanca, Rosario and Ujina
intrusive complexes as well as the La Grande and Monctezuma epithermal veins systems.

Fig. 7. North-south cross-section through the Rosario deposit showing the

Permo-Triassic country rock stratigraphy, the Collahuasi, Ines and Rosario
porphyries and the Rosario fault system (modified after Munchmeyer et al.,
1984).

10
 Fig. 8. Northwest-southeast cross-section though the Ujina intrusive complex showing Permo-Triassic
host rock stratigraphy intruded by the Ujina and Inca porphyries (modified from Collahuasi
Prefeasability Study, 1993).

Table 3. Pre-, syn- and post-mineralization intrusions at Quebrada Blanca (Hunt et al., 1983; Rowland and Wilkinson, 1998).

Intrusion Composition Relationship to mineralization

Andesite dykes Plagioclase-hematite-magnetite Post-mineralization (?)
Igneous and hydrothermal breccias I gneous: monzonite and porphyry clasts Syn-mineralization
in quartz-biotite-kspar-sulfide matrix
Hydrothermal: porphyritic clasts in
quartz-sericite-sulfide matrix
Mafic dykes Plagioclase-biotite-amphibole, trace Syn-mineralization
quartz
Porphyritic dykes Quartz-feldspar with accessory biotite- Syn-mineralization
amphibole
Quartz-monzonite stock Quartz monzonite grades to granodiorite Pre- to syn– mineralization
in the center of the intrusion
35 Ma. (Maksaev, 1990; Maksaev et al.,
1988)

Table 4. Pre-, syn- and post-mineralization intrusions at Rosario (Clark et al., 1998; Munchmeyer et al., 1984; Vergara, 1978).

Intrusion Age Composition Relationship to mineralization

Rosario Porphyry (RPO)
biotite; Clark et al., 1998)
Collahuasi Porphyry (PCO)
Pre-mineralization
Ines Porphyry (PIN)
34.2 ± 1.5 (K-Ar whole rock; (Munchmeyer et al., 1984) - 32.9 ± 0.5 Ma. (Ar-Ar: hydrothermal
Quartz monzonite Syn-mineralization
59 Ma. (K-Ar: whole rock; (Vergara, 1978) Quartz monzonite
Permo-Triassic (?) Dacite Pre-mineralization

11
Table 5. Syn- and post-mineralization intrusions at Ujina (Bisso et al., 1998).

Intrusion Age Composition Relation ship to mineralization

Inca Porphyry (PCA) ? Quartz latite Syn- to post-mineralization
Ujina Porphyry (PUJ) 34 Ma (analytical technique unknown; (Cornejo et al., 1997) Quartz monzonite
Syn-mineralization

Table 6. Summary of vein paragenesis at QB (after Rowland and Wilkinson, 1999; Hunt et al., 1983).

Stage Vein mineralogy Alteration zone

Pre-ore Biotite-magnetite ± potassic halo
Early Quartz-kspar-anhydrite-magnetite-sulfides ± potassic or sericitic halo
Quartz ± potassic/sericitic halo
Hydrothermal breccias Quartz-molybdenite-chalcopyrite ± anhydrite
± sericitic halo
Tourmaline breccias Tourmaline-chalcopyrite-bornite-molybdenite-pyrite
Tourmaline
Late Pyrite > quartz Strong sericitic to argillic halo

Table 7. Vein and alteration paragenesis at Rosario (Masterman, 2000; Lee, 1994).

Stage Vein Infill Wall-rock Alteration Halo

Pre-ore magmatic
Early hydrothermal
Intermediate hydrothermal
Late hydrothermal
Magnetite-albite Albite
Quartz-chalcopyrite-bornite- K-feldspar-biotite
molybdenite
Quartz-chalcopyrite-pyrite Sericite-chlorite-quartz
Bornite-tennantite-chalcopyrite-pyrite Pyrophyllite-alunite

to chlorite-epidote in the southern sector of the deposit Rosario

(Hunt et al., 1983). A funnel-shaped zone of pervasive
sericite alteration surrounds the vuggy hydrothermal
breccia unit (Rowland, 1998). Secondary copper-
arsenic oxide minerals occur at the top of the hydro-
thermal breccia body in the supergene zone (Johny
Bonilla, chief geologist CMQB, pers. com., 2000)
suggesting they were derived by oxidation of primary
copper-sulfosalt minerals. The vuggy breccia zone and
associated copper-sulfosalts may have originated from
hydrothermal fluids of high sulfidation character.
At least two tourmaline breccia bodies containing
chalcopyrite are defined on the northern and eastern
margins of the intrusive complex (Rowland and
Wilkinson, 1999). Their relationship to breccia bodies
in the central mineralised zone at Quebrada Blanca is
unclear, however Hunt et al. (1983) speculated that
tourmaline breccias postdate igneous breccias in the
core of the Quebrada Blanca complex.
Multiple generations of mineralisation and alter-
ation occurred at Rosario (Masterman, 2000;
Masterman, 2001; Lee, 1994). These are grouped into
three main paragenetic stages described in Table 7. The
distribution of alteration facies is shown in Figure 9a.
Early-stage hydrothermal alteration and mineral-
isation occurs in all rock units, overprinting widespread
disseminated and vein magnetite-albite. Ore minerals
consist of a central chalcopyrite-bornite zone grading
out to chalcopyrite-only (Masterman, 2000).
Intermediate-stage veins extensively overprint early
stage mineralisation and alteration assemblages
(Masterman 2000). Based on underground mapping,
Lee (1994) recognised that intermediate-stage veins
occurred in steep and shallow southwest-dipping
orientations. He interpreted them to be a conjugate
vein set that developed during extension on the Rosario
Fault (Lee, 1994).

12
Fig. 9a. Northeast-southwest cross-section through the Rosario deposit showing
distribution of alteration facies (modified after Munchmeyer et al., 1984).

Fig. 9b. Imaged copper grade distribution on the same section through the
Rosario deposit (modified from Collahuasi Prefeasability Study, 1993).

13
 Late-stage massive sulfide veins are localised by the
Rosario Fault System (Masterman, 2000). These veins
define a southwest-dipping high grade zone where
copper grades increase locally above 10% (Fig. 9b).
Vein sulfide associations consist of pyrite-bornite-
chalcopyrite-tennantite and accessory chalcocite-
covellite-mawsonite (Cu6Fe2SnS8)-colusite (Cu3(As,
Sn,V,Fe)S4). Proximal pyrophyllite-alunite-dickite-
quartz alteration grades outward through muscovite-
quartz to distal epidote-chlorite alteration (Masterman,
2000; Masterman, 2001).
40
Ar/ 39 Ar dates determined for early-stage
hydrothermal biotite and late-stage hydrothermal
yielded indistinguishable ages of 32.9 ± 0.5 Ma. and
32.9 ± 0.6 Ma. respectively (Clark et el., 1998). The
absence of a clear hiatus between the early and late
mineralisation events at Rosario indicated this
extremely large hydrothermal center was emplaced over
a short time interval.
La Grande, Capela and Poderosa Vein Systems
The mineralisation and alteration styles at La
Grande, Capela and Poderosa are similar to the late-
stage hydrothermal veins at Rosario. The distribution
of these vein systems is shown in Figure 6. At La
Grande, massive sulfide veins consist of pyrite-bornite-
chalcocite-enargite with accessory mawsonite and
colusite (Masterman 2001). Alteration facies consist
of proximal advanced argillic associations (pyrophyllite-
alunite-dickite) that grade outward through sericite-
quartz to epidote-chlorite alteration (Masterman,
2001).
The Capela vein group occurs southeast of Rosario
and is characterised by a series of massive pyrite veins,
locally enriched in copper. The copper-silver veins at
Poderosa lie along a NNW-trending structure that is
rotated parallel to the Rosario Fault at the Rosario
deposit. Vein sulfide associations consist of bornite-
tennantite-chalcopyrite-enargite-pyrite (Munchmeyer
et al., 1984).
Monctezuma
The Monctezuma vein dips subvertically to the west
and has been traced along surface and intersected in
drill holes over a total strike length of 7 km. The vein
varies in width from 1–5 m, and crops out as banded,
cockade quartz that has been impregnated by
manganese oxides and limonite. Below the base of
surface oxidation, sphalerite, pyrite, galena and
chalcopyrite occur with accessory polybasite,
argentopyrite, argentite, stephanite, tetrahedrite, and
native silver and gold in a quartz-rhodochrosite gangue.
In a 1km segment of the vein, several Collahuasi drill
holes have intersected a narrow (20–30 m) vertical
enrichment zone that occurs at the base of oxidation.
14
This interval grades between 500 and 1000 g/t Ag,
and passes down dip into hypogene mineralisation
grading 200–500 g/t Ag. (Munchmeyer et al. 1984).
Ujina
Sulfide mineralisation at Ujina is concentrically
zoned about the Ujina Porphyry. DeBeer and Dick
(1994) described a low sulfide core of chalcopyrite-
bornite grading outwards through chalcopyrite-pyrite
to an outer pyrite shell. Hypogene copper distribution
is also concentrically zoned, with the highest Cu grades
forming an annulus about the low sulfide potassic core
(Fig. 10a.; Bisso et al., 1998). The high-grade zone
coincides with the cylindrical contact made by the
Ujina Porphyry with the Collahuasi Formation host
rocks.
At Ujina, sericite-quartz alteration coincides with
the high-grade hypogene Cu annulus (Fig. 10b). It
overprints a central orthoclase-biotite facies and grades
out to regional chlorite-epidote alteration (Bisso et al.,
1998).
Huinquintipa
Originating from Rosario, the Huinquintipa
palaeodrainage system strikes broadly east-west. Gravels
were transported from the east and impregnated with
exotic copper oxide minerals following deposition in
the palaeochannel ENRfu (Munchmeyer, 1996). The
present drainage system has dissected the original
deposit resulting in the preservation of several isolated
mineralised bodies (Munchmeyer et al., 1984).
Economic copper mineralisation at Huinquintipa
occurs over an area of 1 km by 150 m, averaging 10 m
thick (Figs 5, 11). Zonation of exotic copper species
and hydrothermal alteration minerals is evident along
the 6km length of the palaeochannel (Munchmeyer,
1996). Near Rosario, the gravels are unaltered and
cemented by abundant limonite. Two kilometres from
Rosario, pervasively kaolinised gravel fragments are
cemented by copper wad and kaolinite. At
Huinquintipa, weakly altered to unaltered gravel
fragments are cemented by chrysocolla and accessory
copper wad. The mineralised area has terminated
abruptly at the transition from the palaeochannel into
a small palaeobasin (1.5 km wide, 100 m deep).
Munchmeyer (1996) interpreted that increasing pH
(due to rock-fragment reaction and possibly fluid
mixing) triggered deposition of exotic copper at
Huinquintipa. The fluids were strongly diluted when
they entered the palaeobasin preventing further
significant copper precipitation.
Fig. 10a. Gridded image of copper grades on section 126NE at Ujina (modified from Collahuasi Prefeasability Study, 1993).

Fig. 10b. Northwest-southeast cross-section showing distribution of alteration facies at Ujina (modified from Collahuasi
Prefeasability Study, 1993).

15
16
Fig. 11. Surface geology and north-south cross section through the Huinquintipa exotic copper deposit (after Munchmeyer et al., 1984).
Origin of the Collahuasi District Porphyry
Copper Deposits
In the Collahuasi District, basement architecture
controlled the emplacement of late-Eocene intrusive
complexes. The Rosario and Ujina deposits were
emplaced along a northwest-striking lineament (visible
in Landsat/SPOT imagery) that intersected the West
Fissure north of Quebrada Blanca (Lee, 1994; Fig. 2).
Brittle deformation at Quebrada Blanca, Rosario and
La Grande localised late-stage metalliferous
hydrothermal fluids in strike-slip faults. Multiple
reactivation of the Rosario and La Grande fault systems
was crucial in generating high grades at Rosario and
La Grande as they gave hydrothermal fluids repeated
access to the mineralised system (Masterman 2000;
2001).
Early potassic and late low pH hydrothermal
alteration at Rosario-La Grande clearly indicate a signi-
ficant contribution from a magmatic-hydrothermal
reservoir as do initial Os isotope data (Mathur et al.,
2000). No data are currently available that indicate
external fluids contributed significantly to the metal
budgets of the Collahuasi porphyry deposits. The
superposition of advanced argillic assemblages onto
early potassic alteration indicates that they were discrete
events (Masterman, 2001). Telescoped epithermal
mineralisation required rapid uplift and exhumation
of the Rosario intrusive complex to the crustal level of
the epithermal environment.
Geochronologic evidence from Quebrada Blanca,
Rosario and Ujina suggests that in the Collahuasi
district, hydrothermal activity migrated eastward over
a period of ca 3–4 m.y. and became more potent with
time (Clark et al. 1998). Clark et al. (1998) speculated
that Chuquicamata, La Escondida and Rosario, the
three largest West Fissure-associated Cu-Mo porphyry
systems, were emplaced simultaneously towards the
final stages of the late Eocene-early Oligocene orogenic
event. Assuming the absence of Tertiary volcanic rocks
signifies there was no coeval volcanism in the
Collahuasi district during the late Eocene, it is
contemplated that the large porphyry magmas did not
vent prohibiting dispersion of magmatic volatiles. This
closed system behavior possibly promoted development
of the massive hydrothermal centers responsible for
the giant porphyry-Cu deposits in the Collahuasi
district.
Historical Mining
Evidence for the earliest exploitation of copper at
Collahuasi was identified during environmental
baseline studies (von Fersen, 1993). Archaeologists
identified an important Inca settlement, probably
dating from around 1400 AD just a few kilometres
17
from Collahuasi. Within these ruins a copper smelting
facility was located, along with crude copper jewellery.
The first recorded production comes from the
1890s when 20,000 tons of silver ore were mined and
shipped from the Monctezuma veins. Underground
mines were developed at La Grande in 1899 and shortly
afterwards at the copper-rich Poderosa vein system
(Fig. 6). Ore grades from the La Grande and Poderosa
vein systems averaged between 23 and 32% Cu plus
7–10 ounces/ton Ag. A spur line from the Antofagasta-
Bolivia railroad to Poderosa and La Grande was
completed in 1907. At this time, more than 15
companies were exploring and developing vein type
mineralisation in the district. A map of the area dating
from 1905 shows the location of many of these mines
and the infrastructure (Fig. 12). Because of the
continuity of the Poderosa vein, it became the largest
producer in the district, and in 1910, produced 23,241
metric tons grading 21.5% Cu and 7 oz/ton Ag. That
year the total district production was 41,237 metric
tons grading 22.65% Cu, which was 25% of the entire
annual Chilean production. During the height of
activity between 1907 and 1920, over 2000 people
lived and worked at Collahuasi.
During the early part of the Twentieth Century,
the underground mines at La Grande and Poderosa
were operated by French and English companies. In
1923 the operations were merged to form the Poderosa
Mining Company which continued to extract copper
ore until 1930, when, due to low prices brought on by
the depression, the mines were forced to close. Until
that time, the copper veins at Collahuasi represented
the third most important copper producer in Chile.
The Quebrada Blanca area was worked by artisan
miners for gold in the period 1905 to 1930, during
the heyday of the Poderosa Mining Company at
Collahuasi. However, it was not until the late 1950s
that significant attention returned to the Quebrada
Blanca area when the Chilean subsidiary of Anaconda,
the Chile Exploration Company, staked claims over
the area (Hunt and Bratt, 1981). The target was chosen
for follow-up on a regional airborne colour photo-
graphy survey along the West Fissure fault system.
Geologists from the Chile Exploration Company
produced the first geological maps and predicted the
existence of a secondary enrichment blanket (Hunt and
Bratt, 1981).
EXPLORATION HISTORY
Part 1: The initial choice of the Collahuasi
District
The involvement of Falconbridge in the Collahuasi
District resulted from its relationship to Superior Oil.
Howard Keck, the Chairman of Superior Oil, had been
 Figure 12. Map circa 1905 showing the Collahuasi District and associated deposits and workings. Original
source unknown. “Mina” means mine.
invited to invest in Chile by the Pinochet government
shortly after the military coup in 1973. Thus the first
‘enabling’ political event that ultimately led to
Falconbridge’s position in Chile came about as a result
of the nationalisation of the Chilean copper industry
by the government of Salvador Allende in 1971. A list
of significant political “enabling” events is given in
Table 8.
The Pinochet government promised to change the
investment laws that were put in place by the former
regime so investment would once again flow into Chile.
Superior Oil was initially interested in investing in
agriculture. However, the company also controlled
37% of Falconbridge through it’s ownership of
McIntyre Mines and as a result, Falconbridge was
invited by Superior Oil to a meeting in Santiago in
December 1973 to review potential mining invest-
ments in Chile. At the time, Falconbridge was
interested in the El Abra deposit which had been
reported in the 1 October 1973 issue of Metal Week to
contain 1.5 billion tonnes grading 0.8 to 1.0 % Cu.
Falconbridge was represented at this meeting by Marsh
Cooper, President, and Geoff Mitchell, Vice President
Exploration.
A second meeting was held in January, 1974, in
which the Chilean government presented to
Falconbridge eight projects that were available for
18
investment. They were: Quebrada Blanca, Andacollo,
La Quanaca, El Abra, Copoquire, Cerro Colorado, Los
Pelambres, and Sierra del Jardin. In January and
February field trips were undertaken by a Falconbridge
contingent, including Ash Clark, Lorne Wrigglesworth,
Bill Snow, Pat Raleigh, and John Mortimer, to evaluate
the properties. The results of these investigations are
summarised in Table 9.
The Quebrada Blanca and Los Pelambres projects
were chosen for further consideration. Finally, Ash
Clark of Falconbridge summed up the result of those
investigations in a memo dated 27 February 1974:
It is recommended the Company negotiate a deal to
do the diamond drilling on this property (Quebrada
Blanca) with the right to exploit it if economical.
This is the best non-drilled prospect visited but it is
definitely only a prospect at this stage.
In June 1974, Falconbridge sent a letter to the
Chilean government expressing interest in investing
in Quebrada Blanca as a joint venture with Superior
Oil, with Falconbridge as the operator of the project.
At this time, copper prices were at a relative all time
high (Fig. 13). A list of ensuing pertinent Corporate
and Joint Venture events is shown in Table 10 and a
chronology of significant technical events is shown in
Table 11.
 300

Copper Price US cents / lb

Part 1
250
Part 2

Part 4
200
Part 3

150
Collahuasi Properties Acquired

QB Acquired
100
Falconbridge
first visits QB
Ujina discovery
50
Chevron / Shell JV formed Initial Production
0
1960

1963

1966

1969

1972

1975

1978

1981

1984

1987

1990

1993

1996

1999
Figure 13. Copper prices from 1960 until 1999 showing timing of discovery sequence, and significant corporate events.
Light line, US dollars of the day and heavy line constant 1999 US dollars.

Table 8. Political events critical to decreasing political risk and thus enabling the discovery of the Collahuasi district
porphyry copper deposits
Date “Enabling” Political Events

1971 Expropr iation of Chilean Mining Industry by Allende Government

1973 Agusto Pinochet overthrows Allende government in military coup

March, 1977 Passage of new Chilean Foreign Investment Law

January, 1978 75% of Chileans give General Pinochet support in General Referendum

April, 1978 A general amnesty is given to individuals convicted by the military court after the 1973 coup
1990 General Pinochet loses general election, and allows transfer of power to elected officials

Table 9. Summary of conclusions from 1974 examination of 8 projects presented to the Superior Oil/Falconbridge Group for
investment in Chile

Andacolla Would be a local political football

Sierra del Jardin Small with little potential
La Quanaca Small with little potential
Hypogene zones extends to depth so much larger mineral inventory in the .50% Cu range.
Anhydrite causes trouble as it has recemented the mineralized pipe and the ground will not block
Potrerillos cave. In last years of operation costs for block caving rose from 60 cents per ton to about $2.00 per
ton. Economics seriously affected by this situation. Bulk leaching of caved area not recommended
because of recovery problems.
Pampa Norte A natural to feed into the Chuquicamata operation. No place for an independent operation.
Too closely tied to the Chuquicamata operation. Water, power, personnel, transportation, etc.,
El Abra would always be tied to what Chuqui is doing or needs. Too close to Codelco controlled personnel.
Big tonnage but grade not exciting.
Good property. Easy to construct access road to the west where Pampa areas within 15 km to 20
Quebrada Blanca km would make ideal town and plant sites. All infrastructure would be tied to your operation.
Water to the eas t, but not sufficient to exploit. Potential for large tonnage of secondary
enrichment.
Project appears good. Chances for secondary enrichment under the mountain to the east appear
very good. A good port area exists at Los Vilos. Salamanca and other villages reasonable by Chilean
Los Pelambres standards. Valley cuts well down into the primary zone so we should be careful of concentric
vertical fracturing concentrating the mineralization and not drill vertical holes for evaluation.
Definition on 100 m centres good. Exploration on 300 m to 400 metre centres is adequate
19
Table 10. List of Corporate and Joint Venture events critical to the exploration of the Quebrada Blanca - Collahuasi -
Ujina discoveries

Year Summary of Corporate and Joint Venture Events

1973 Superior Oil enlists Falconbridge to select and develop a copper project for investment in Chile.
Joint Venture formed between Sup erior Oil, Falconbridge Limited, Canadian Superior Oil and
1977
McIntyre Mines (Nevada) Limited to acquire and explore the Quebrada Blanca property.
1982 Near bankruptcy of Falconbridge.
1984 Quebrada Blanca property returned to Enami.
1985 Superior Oil purchased by Mobil O il.
1985 New Joint Venture formed between Falconbridge Limited, Chevron, and Shell Chile.
1988 Falconbridge purchases Mobil Oil’s residual interest in Collahuasi for US$10 million.
1989 Noranda and Trelleborg purchase Falconbridge.
1992 Chevron sells interest in Collahuasi to Minorco.

1994 Falconbridge becomes a public company once more when Trelleborg sells its 50% interest in
Falconbridge to the public.
1995 Shell Chile sells its interest in Collahuasi to Minorco and Falconbridge.
Falconbridge and Minorco jointly sell 12% of the project to a Japanese consortium headed by
1995
Mitsui.

Table 11. Chronology of significant technical events in the discovery histories of the Collahuasi
district porphyry copper deposits

Year Significant Technical Events

1959 Chile Exploration Company (Anaconda) examines and maps Quebrada Blanca property
1974 Chile government offers 8 properties to Superior Oil/Falconbridge group for investment
1974 Falconbridge evaluation team visits Chilean properties
1974 Ash Clark recommends that Quebrada Blanca be chosen as the property for exploration
Falconbridge expresses interest to the Chilean Government for investment in the Quebrada
1974 Blanca project as a joint venture with Superior Oil
1975 Codelco drills hole into the QB alteration zone intersecting blanket of secondary sulfides
1975 John Hunt visits the property and makes independent recommendations to Superior Oil

1976 Definite interest expressed by Superior Oil/Falconbridge Group to the Chilean government for
acquisition, exploration and development of Quebrada Blanca
1977 Detailed agreement signed between Superior O il/Falconbridge Group and Codelco
October 1977 First hole in QB by JV intersects 28 m of 2.02% Cu

April 1979 Collahuasi properties are acquired for the Superior Oil/Falconbridge Group on the
recommendation of John Hunt
September 1979 Discovery of the Rosario porphyry copper deposit on the first drill hole
1979 IP survey conducted over Rosario proving the utility of the technique
1983 Three holes drilled into the Ujina alteration zone. No significant copper sulfides are encountered
Chevron/Shell Joint Venture work focussed on shaft sinking on Rosario Vein to exploit “high
1985 to 1989
grade Rosario Vein”.
1990 IP lines proposed to cover Rosario alteration and mineralization and Ujina alteration zone
1991 Landsat interpretation completed
1991 IP survey carried out over the Ujina area
Discovery Hole drilled into the Ujina porphyry copper deposit (seventh hole, three holes in 1982
1991
and the fourth hole in 1991)

20
 As a result of the Clark memo, negotiations began
with the Chilean government for the Quebrada Blanca
concession. In the meantime, geologists of the Chilean
Geological Survey carried out their own geophysical
and geochemical surveys, and in 1975 a hole drilled
by the Chuquicamata Division of Codelco-Chile
penetrated 12 m averaging 1.39% Cu in secondarily
enriched sulfide ore.
In 1975, John Hunt visited the property on behalf
of the Superior Oil Co. and reported:
Quebrada Blanca is one of the best untested prospects
in Chile. Samples of excellent primary mineralisation
and secondary chalcocite enrichment are exposed in
old dumps at the property. Drill hole #1 was stopped
in chalcocite enriched ore assaying 2.2% Cu. I believe
the property has the potential for more than 100
million tons plus 1% secondarily enriched ore.
Later on in the report John Hunt also added:
A large number of copper and gold prospects and old
mines are present in the region around Quebrada
Blanca. The largest of these is Collahuasi, an
interesting copper-gold vein district. Should Superior
become active at Quebrada Blanca the potential of
these properties gradually should be evaluated, but
on a low priority basis.
In April of 1976, definite interest in Quebrada
Blanca was presented to the Chilean government by
the Superior Oil/Falconbridge Joint Venture group. In
January 1977, a general agreement had been worked
out, and in March 1977, the Chilean government
passed the new foreign investment law. In July 1977,
the detailed agreement was signed. The properties were
to be held in a Chilean subsidiary company called Cia.
Exploradora Doña Inés Ltd which was owned by the
Joint Venture. By October, the first hole was completed
and it intersected 32 m of high grade chalcocite-
enriched ore grading 2.17% Cu.
Part 2: The Superior Oil/Falconbridge Group
Joint Venture
The Superior Oil/Falconbridge Joint Venture consisted
of four partners: Superior Oil (37.5%), Canadian
Superior Oil (22.5%), McIntyre Mines (Nevada) Ltd
(20%), and Falconbridge Limited (20%). All of these
companies were subsidiaries of Superior Oil. The
exploration work was conducted for the Joint Venture
by the holding company Cia Exploradora Doña Inés
Ltd, and John Hunt was appointed manager of the
project. He recruited many former Anaconda
employees who had worked on porphyry copper
deposits in Chile before the Allende expropriations,
and his crews, led by himself, Carlos Munchmeyer and
Hunter Ware, quickly had a significant discovery at
21
Quebrada Blanca. In his first budget memo from July
4th 1977, John Hunt states:
Strongly mineralised and altered outcrops of
granodiorite and breccia occupy an area about 1 km
by 0.7 km in size on Gavilan Ridge and in upper
Quebrada Oxidos, and extended east and southeast
beneath gravel cover for an undetermined distance.
Favorable indicators observed within this area
include: strong original potassic alteration and
subsequent pervasive sericitic alteration: relatively
abundant quartz veining; microscopic traces of bornite
and chalcopyrite bearing relict sulfides assemblages
in the leached capping; and several geochemical
molybdenum anomalies. The indicated target is a
major secondary enrichment blanket beneath about
100 m of leached capping. Fourteen initial diamond
drill holes have been laid out, and drilling can begin
as soon as the first week of August.
The first hole was collared on October 10, 1977,
and from 118 m to 150 m intersected 28 m grading
2.02% Cu. By the time the first 16 holes had been
drilled, it was estimated that the deposit contained
approximately 140 million tons of enriched copper ore.
On the political front, significant improvements
had occurred. A general referendum took place in
January 1978, in which the majority of Chileans gave
General Pinochet support to continue running the
government. Meanwhile, John Hunt had been lobby-
ing the Joint Venture to acquire the land around the
old Poderosa workings and the old copper vein deposits
in the Collahuasi district. Finally, in September 1978
the management committee gave John Hunt per-
mission to negotiate for the Collahuasi properties.
At Quebrada Blanca, by May of 1979, 144 million
tons grading 1.4% Cu had been outlined and it was
now apparent that Quebrada Blanca would not be the
giant deposit that had been hoped for. In a 31 June
1979 memo by J.M. Langton of Superior Oil:
… Our goal was to find a ‘typical’ high grade Chilean
deposit that would substantially reduce the high capital
risk of placing an ‘orebody’ in production. Therefore, the
Quebrada Blanca deposit does not satisfy the goal of the
program.
More hope was now put on the Rosario area for
the discovery of a larger deposit.
In April of 1979, the Collahuasi properties were
acquired and exploration began with surface mapping
and later drilling. It was concluded that nearly all the
major vein systems, including La Grande, Cacique, and
Poderosa, were within a large area of hydrothermal
alteration over 5 km in diameter. The exploration effort
resulted in the first detailed geological map of the entire
area. Alteration indicative of porphyry copper mineral-
isation was recognised in old exploration pits along
strike and NORTHWEST of the old Poderosa Mine.
A second large alteration system was identified 6 km
to the east in the Ujina area. The first hole at Rosario
was drilled in September, 1979, and intersected 28 m
of secondary enrichment mineralisation grading 2.9%
Cu, beneath 64 m of leached cap. A total of 80 holes
were subsequently drilled, outlining a very large protore
resource. At the same time, prospecting and mapping
east of the Rosario area had outlined a large alteration
zone near the Ujina railway station.
By 1983, Superior Oil’s interest in the project was
waning, Falconbridge had just staved off bankruptcy,
and copper prices were almost at historic lows. As a
result, funds for the project dried up, but as a final
effort, John Hunt drilled three holes in the Ujina
alteration zone. Figure 14 shows a map from the 1983
progress report outlining the Ujina alteration zone and
the location of three holes drilled to test the zone.
Hunt described the holes from the July 1983
Progress Report thus:
Three reverse circulation holes were drilled in the
Ujina hydrothermal alteration zone, located 4 km
southwest of the Ujina railroad station. Mapping
shows a four square kilometre sericitised zone, where
preliminary geochemistry and relict sulphides are
favourable. A small palaeochannel with exotic copper
mineralisation overlays part of the zone. Drilling
22
indicated that copper oxides are restricted to an
insignificant tonnage. Two of the holes were deepened
to the top of sulphides, but only strong pyrite
disseminations were intercepted. This large area
deserves further drilling for a major enriched copper
target.
In 1984, the Quebrada Blanca feasibility study was
completed. The Quebrada Blanca Agreement signed
in 1977 with the Chilean Government (which has been
transferred to Enami) stipulated that the deposit be
put into production or returned to the state agencies.
The price of copper was now at an all time low (Fig. 13)
and as a result, the partners are not able to raise
financing. The property was returned to Enami, but
the Collahuasi properties were retained. In a letter to
Superior Oil in 1984, John Hunt wrote:
I am saddened and frustrated by the events of the
past two years which have brought to a standstill what
has been one of the most successful exploration
programs with which I have ever been associated.
In 1985, Superior Oil was purchased by Mobil, but
they were not interested in copper exploration in Chile.
John Hunt managed to interest Chevron and Shell
Chile in the project, and in 1985 a new joint venture
company was formed to explore the Collahuasi
properties.
Figure 14. Map from 1983
report showing location of
mapped Ujina alteration zone
and location of reverse
circulation holes.
Part 3: The Chevron/Shell Chile/Falconbridge
Joint Venture
Chevron and Shell Chile were chosen from a group of
five potential partners to form a new joint venture along
with Falconbridge and Superior Oil, the owners of the
property. Chevron and Shell agreed to spend US$45
million over eight years on further exploration and
development in exchange for each gaining a one-third
interest in the project. The exploration work was to be
managed by a reformulated company, Cia Minera
Doña Inés de Collahuasi, (CMDIC) under the
direction of a management committee on which only
Shell and Chevron had voting privileges during the
earn-in period.
From 1985 until 1990, Shell and Chevron spent
most of their time exploring the high grade Rosario
vein system and sinking two exploration shafts, the
first of which collapsed. Ultimately the program was
unsuccessful when the continuity of the mineralisation
in the vein was not what had been hoped for.
When Mobil Oil had purchased Superior Oil, it
had retained Superior’s interest in the property even
though it was unwilling to invest any additional funds.
In 1988 it put its interest up for sale. Ash Clark, now
retired, was still interested in the project and
recommended that Falconbridge purchase Mobil’s
interest for US$10 million and a net smelter return
royalty. This recommendation was backed by Mike
Knuckey and Tom Pugsley, both senior executives at
Falconbridge. The ownership in the project now stood
at Falconbridge, Shell, and Chevron each with a 331/3%
interest. In 1989, Noranda and Trelleborg purchased
all of the outstanding shares of Falconbridge.
After the collapse of the first exploration shaft in
1989, Falconbridge decided to more closely review the
joint venture programs to protect its interest in the
project, even though it had no vote. In spite of the low
copper prices, Falconbridge’s preferred exploration
target was a large porphyry copper deposit rather than
a small, high grade vein deposit.
On the political front, in 1990, Pinochet was voted
out of office in a national election and Chile returned
to civilian rule. The risk taken by the original Superior
Oil/Falconbridge Joint Venture in investing in a
country run by a potentially unstable government was
vindicated. At this time, Falconbridge was determined
to change the focus of the exploration work from the
Rosario vein system to looking at the larger porphyry
resource. To this end, Falconbridge succeeded in getting
the agreement of the management committee to form
an Exploration Task Force, in which Falconbridge had
a vote, that would make recommendations to the
Management Committee for future action. The
Exploration Task Force (whose members were Jim Platt,
23
the Chief Geologist for Collahuasi, Bob Miller from
Chevron, Vicente Irarrazabal, from Shell Chile and
Richard Moore from Falconbridge) amongst other
things recommended:
• More detailed drilling of the Rosario porphyry to
determine a mineral reserve, especially to determine
the extent of the supergene enriched zones.
• A regional aeromagnetic survey.
• An IP survey over Rosario and Ujina.
• A Landsat interpretation study.
Part 4: The Discovery of the Ujina Porphyry:
The Economic Key
It was clear from the drilling in the early 1980s that a
1 billion tonne porphyry copper deposit with a grade
of 0.92% copper existed at Rosario. What was not
obvious was if and how this mineral resource could be
turned into an economic deposit. The enrichment
blanket at Rosario was relatively small and deep, so a
lot of pre-stripping would have to be completed before
the mineralisation could be reached. This made the
economics of the deposit questionable. Copper prices
had been declining in constant dollars (Fig. 13) so a
higher grade supergene deposit would be required to
improve the economics.
In early 1991, Shell wished to push forward quickly
to production from the Rosario veins while
Falconbridge and now Chevron favoured the evaluation
of the overall porphyry copper resource, together with
additional exploration to search for another supergene
enrichment blanket. As mentioned above, the
Exploration Task Force had proposed an IP survey to
cover the whole Rosario and Ujina Porphyry areas. The
suggestion for using IP at the time came from
Falconbridge because IP had been used previously, in
a limited way, over Collahuasi in a 1979 survey by
Hunter Ware. Reprocessing of this data in April 1990
by Tony Watts, Falconbridge’s Chief Geophysicist
confirmed that IP was an excellent tool for evaluating
the prospectivity of the target rocks and that IP surveys
in this part of Chile did not suffer from the problems
caused by brines and salts further south in the Atacama
desert. The 1979 survey showed that the Rosario
porphyry could be mapped with IP, and was an obvious
tool to use to explore the Ujina alteration zone,
especially where it was covered by Miocene ignimbrites.
Consequently, survey plans were drawn up by Tony
Watts of Falconbridge and Charlie Swift of Chevron,
to cover the Rosario, La Grande, and Poderosa areas
and an additional three lines extended to cover the
Ujina alteration zone. The date of the survey plan was
November 5, 1990.
In early 1991, as part of the procedure of regularly
rotating seconded staff from the joint venture partners
into CMDIC, a new operating team was put in place
that included Louis De Beer, from the Billiton
organisation in South Africa as the new General
Manager, and Larry Dick, from Chevron Chile as the
new Chief Geologist. Larry and Louis agreed with the
recommendations of the Exploration Task Force, which
they immediately implemented.
It has been stated in another publication (Dick et
al., 1993) that the discovery of the Ujina deposit was
the result of an IP survey to cover the extent of an
alteration zone that was outlined using Landsat
interpretation. However, the Landsat interpretation was
not received by the operating company or Falconbridge
until late 1991, months after the IP survey was already
laid out and under way. While it is possible that Dick
had seen a copy of an earlier, or preliminary satellite
interpretation created by Chevron, representatives of
Falconbridge and Shell Chile (Nigel Grant, personnel
communication) were not aware of it.
The IP survey was started in January 1991 and
initial surveying outlined the Rosario/La Grande/
Poderosa system (Fig. 15), and the lines over the Ujina
alteration zone showed a build up of chargeability at
the ends of the lines. The grid and survey were
subsequently extended 3 km to the east over ignimbrite
cover. Even through 150 m of ignimbrite, the Ujina
mineralisation was clearly defined as a prominent
resistivity low with above background IP response
(Fig. 15). A seven hole reverse circulation program was
laid out to test the IP response and hole AU4
intersected 2.03 % Cu over 62 m (Fig. 16). This hole
was collared within 100 m of hole RC-46 that was
drilled into the alteration zone in 1983. At the time,
hole RC-46 had not been able to penetrate the leached
cap due to equipment limitations.
The Ujina porphyry copper deposit was now
quickly outlined and it had the secondary enrichment
blanket that could make the deposit economic. In
1993, a feasibility study was started which was
completed in 1995. A production decision was made
in 1996, and construction began in the same year. The
first copper cathode was stripped in July of 1998, and
the first copper sulfide concentrate was produced in
October 1998.
Chevron and Shell vested in the project in 1992,
but in late 1992, Chevron sold it’s interest to Minorco
for 190 million US dollars. In 1993 Shell sold its
mineral assets to Gencor, but Collahuasi was excluded
from the package and put up for tender. In 1995, Shell
sold its interest to Falconbridge and Minorco for 195
million US dollars. Later in 1995, Falconbridge and
Minorco sold 12% to a Japanese consortium headed
by Mitsui. At this time, the present ownership of
Falconbridge 44%, Minorco 44%, and Mitsui 12%
was established.
24
At Quebrada Blanca, in 1989, Enami sold 76.5%
of its interest to the Cominco Group who produced a
new feasibility study and gave the project the go ahead
in 1991. First production achieved in August, 1994
using a bacterial leach and SXEW technology. This
was the first time that copper production had been
attempted using this process at such a high elevation.
Finally, in 2000, the Teck-Cominco Group sold its
interest in Quebrada Blanca to Aur Resources who now
hold 76.5 % along with Sociedad Minera Pudahuel
LTDA at 13.5%, and Enami at10%.
DISCUSSION
The discovery of the Collahuasi district porphyry
copper deposits resulted from the consistent use of a
well established mineral deposit model along the
structural extension of a well mineralised district. The
three deposits contain all of the expected attributes.
Quebrada Blanca, the best exposed was discovered first,
Collahuasi, which is more deeply buried, took longer
to be recognised, and Ujina, which was partially
covered by recent gravels and ignimbrite, and which
exhibited the fewest clues, last. The discovery of all
three deposits could have been accomplished without
high technology tools such as IP and Landsat images,
but these tools added a layer of information to the
geological observations that validated the working
model. This extra layer of information decreased the
risk of a non discovery. Nonetheless, John Hunt would
have discovered the Ujina deposit without the benefit
of IP or Landsat information if he had had the budget
to finish the drill program that he had started.
The Ujina deposit was discovered by drilling a
partially covered hydrothermal alteration zone that was
coincident with an IP resistivity anomaly. The impetus
for Falconbridge was the geological evidence of the
alteration zone, while Chevron seemed to prefer the
indirect Landsat evidence. Figure 16 shows the super-
position of the alteration zone, as mapped in 1983,
the interpreted Landsat anomalies, the resistivity
anomaly, the drill holes, and the outline of the copper
enrichment zone.
The corporate story of a discovery is in many ways
quite different from the technical one. The most
difficult part of any exploration discovery is being in
the right place at the right time. Perhaps any competent
porphyry copper geologist could have discovered the
Quebrada Blanca deposit if they had been handed the
project and told to explore it. Rosario was fairly obvious
(at least in hindsight) but required more resources to
prove, and finally Ujina was subtle and ultimately
required additional tools to give the confidence to drill
after the first three holes had disappointing results.
The key is choosing the right place. Falconbridge
chose Quebrada Blanca from a list of eight projects
 Figure 15. IP Survey
showing apparent
resistivity contours over the
Rosario, La Grande and
Ujina areas.

300 2 00 100 100 200

10

AU-1

AU-4
AU-2 AU-3 RC-47 RC-46
RC-45 AU-7 20

AU-6
IGNIMBRITE
COVER
AU-5

Landsat oxide picks

Landsat alteration picks
edge of ignimbrite cover
0 500 ouline of enriched copper mineralization
metres resistivity contours ( ohm / metre )
outline of alteration zone mapped in 1982
1983 reverse circulation drill holes
1991 reverse circulation drill holes

Figure 16. Superposition of resistivity contours, the alteration zone as mapped in 1983, the Landsat iron oxide picks, the
Landsat alteration picks, the location of the 1983 reverse circulation holes, the location of the 1991 reverse circulation
holes, and the location of the chalcocite enrichment blanket over the Ujina area.
25
submitted to them for consideration by the Chilean
government geologists. It appears that Quebrada
Blanca was chosen because of a combination of good
geology, its location on the West Fissure, and its lack
of complicating encumbrances, both commercial and
social. The choice of Chile as a location to invest must
be viewed as a political gamble. This was a decision
taken by Superior Oil, who were originally interested
in investing in agriculture. The story bears out the
observation that better investment opportunities are
found in areas or regions that contain higher risk, and
in the case of Chile at the time, a much higher political
risk. It is worth pointing out that the Utah Mines/
Getty joint venture that discovered the giant Escondida
deposit, was also initiated during this same time of
high political uncertainty in Chile.
When a discovery takes place over a period of
20 years, events cannot be divorced from changes in
corporate circumstances, and commodity cycles.
Falconbridge was in a strong financial position when
the initial expressions of interest were made in investing
in Chile, but by the time the agreements had been
signed, commodity prices had dropped and
Falconbridge had to take a lesser role than they had
originally envisaged. When the Quebada Blanca
discoveries were made, financial conditions had
improved, but, by the early 1980s, when the first holes
were being drilled in Ujina, Falconbridge was close to
bankruptcy. There was no money for additional
exploration so the net was widened and more
companies were recruited. Escondida had been
discovered by now, and the Chilean political situation
was becoming more stable so it was less difficult to
attract joint venture partners. However, by the late
1980s, porphyry copper deposits were out of fashion
because of low copper prices and the problems of
investing in projects with a high capital cost in an era
of high inflation.
The late 1980s was also a time when the last of the
oil companies that had entered the minerals industry
were leaving. At the end, Chevron had three significant
mineral deposits in its portfolio, namely Collahuasi,
Stillwater and Lisheen. However, its strategy was to
leave the business and this coloured the decisions that
it was making at Collahuasi.
Two people stand out as the most significant in
why Falconbridge owns 44% of the Collahuasi
deposits. The first is Ash Clarke who originally chose
Quebrada Blanca, and kept Falconbridge’s interest alive
through good times and bad. In 1988 he recommended
the purchase by Falconbridge of Mobil Oil’s share of
the property that it had inherited from Superior Oil.
Secondly, John Hunt directed the exploration team and
relentlessly pursued discovery through difficult and
changing times. The quality of the exploration work
26
conducted under his direction stands out for its
excellence. A final acknowledgement must go to the
team of Louis DeBeer and Larry Dick who were the
last General Manager and Chief Geologist respectively
of the major exploration phase of the project. They
pushed through the geologically obvious projects in
spite of a lack of complete agreement by the partners
on the overall direction of the project.
Is there anything that we can we learn from all of
this in our search for new giant ore deposits? Some
suggestions are made below. These are not new but are
worth restating.
1. Choose the right terrain. It was obvious that Chile
was well endowed with copper and that this is a
good place to explore for more. The first modern
exploration in the Quebrada Blanca area was by the
Anaconda company and their exploration strategy
was to follow the West Fissure looking for zones of
iron staining.
2. Do not be afraid to be a contrarian. As a result of
political turmoil, Chile was not a popular place to
be when the properties were first acquired. It was
effectively virgin territory even though it had more
than 100 years of production history. A careful
assessment of political risk is essential.
3. Know your geology. While Falconbridge did not
have any porphyry copper expertise, it had highly
competent geologists who recognised good projects
when they saw them. They also installed a superior
team of geologists who were experts in the local
geology to conduct the work.
4. Hang on to the good projects through the bad times.
Even though Falconbridge went through several
financial crises during the discovery history, they
managed to maintain their interest in the project
until they were financially secure and the project
was a success. From the first trip to Chile in 1973,
until the discovery of Ujina in 1991, is a long time
for a company to maintain its interest and commit-
ment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Ross Large and David Cooke
for suggesting that we write this paper and to
Falconbridge Limited for permission to publish it. This
paper has greatly benefited from constructive reviews
by Noel White and Jamie Wilkinson, while any
remaining obscurities remain the responsibility of the
authors.
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28