SYBBA SEMESTER 4

PRODUCTION
MANAGEMENT -2
CHAPTER 2

WORK
STUDY
Method Study & Time Study

Dr. Milind H Parekh

 WORK STUDY
Topic 1: Introduction
Work study may be defined as “the analysis of a job for the purpose of finding the preferred
method of doing it and also determining the standard time to perform it by the preferred (or
given) method”.

Work study, therefore, consists of two areas of study: method study (motion study) and
time study (work measurement).

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Topic 2: Definitions of Work Study
 “Work Study is a generic term used for those techniques, particularly method study
and work measurement which are used to examine human work and material
resources in all contexts and which lead to systematic, objective and critical
investigation of all factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation
being reviewed for the purpose of achieving improvement.” – British Standard
Institute
 “Work study is the analysis of a job for the purpose of finding the preferred method
of doing it and also determining the standard time to perform it by the preferred
method.”
 “Work study is the systematic examination of the methods of carrying on activities
so as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of
performance for the activities being carried out.”

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Topic 3: Importance of Work Study
1. Work study helps in increasing the productivity of an organisation by studying the method
of the work and time taken for performing it. Work study is a method that normally involves
little or no capital expenditure on facilities and equipment.

2. It is systematic. This makes sure that each and every factor affecting the efficiency of an
operation is considered in the study of work.

3. It is the most accurate means of setting standards of performance. Based on this

standard, the effective planning and control of production is done.

4. It can contribute to the improvement of safety and working conditions at work by

exposing hazardous operations and developing safe methods of performing operations.

5. The savings resulting from properly applied work study start at once and continue as long
as the operation continues in the improved form.

6. It is a “tool” which can be applied everywhere. It can be use with success wherever work
is done or plant is operated, not only in manufacturing shops but also in offices, stores,
laboratories and service industries such as wholesale and retail distribution and restaurants
and on farms.

7. Work-study is relatively cheap and easy to apply.

8. It is an excellent weapon for removing inefficiency in any organization.

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METHOD STUDY
Topic 4: Definition of Method Study
Method study is the technique of systematic recording and critical examination of existing
and proposed ways of doing work and developing an easier and economical method.
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Topic 5: Objectives of Method Study:

1. Improvement of manufacturing processes and procedures.
2. Improvement of working conditions.
3. Improvement of plant layout and work place layout.
4. Reducing the human effort and fatigue.
5. Reducing material handling

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6. Improvement of plant and equipment design.
7. Improvement in the utility of material, machines and manpower.
8. Standardization of method.
9. Improvement in safety standard.
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Topic 6: Basic Procedure for Work Study / Method Study

1. SELECT
 Firstly, select the job or process or operation to be studied.
 The basic objective behind selecting the job / process / operation for the study is to
get maximum economic advantage, scope for work improvement through reduction
of excessive material handling & fatigue of workmen, scope for improving the
working conditions and improving the utilisation of resources.
 Before selecting the job for the study, following factors should be taken into
consideration:
(a) Economic Factors

Work study will be useful only if the money saved by studying and improving the method is
more. Generally job is selected on the bases of following factors.

 Operation having bottlenecks (which affect other production activity badly)

 Operations which are done repetitively
 Operations having more manual work
 Operations where materials are moved for a long distance

(b) Human Factors

Work study will be successful only with the cooperation of all people concerned like
workers, supervisors, trade unions etc. If they do not accept work to be studied, it cannot be
successful. They may resist work study because of –

 The fear of unemployment

 The fear of reduction in wages
 The fear of increased work load

(c) Other factors which induce work study are –

 High operation cost in an operation or job

 High wastage and scrap in an operation or job
 Excessive movements of workers and materials

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 Excessive rejections and rework
 Complaints about quality
 Complaints about poor working conditions
 Increasing number of accidents
 Excessive use of overtime

2. RECORD
 Once the job under study is selected, all the details about the existing method are
recorded. This is done by directly observing the work.
 To record the work, one can prepare various charts and various diagrams. These
charts and diagrams are as follows:
a. Operations Process Chart: Records operations and inspection
b. Flow Process Chart:
a. Man Type: Activities of men are recorded
b. Material Type: Activities of material are recorded
c. Equipment Type: Activities of equipment or machine is recorded
c. Two Handed Process Chart: Motions of both hands are recorded
d. Multiple Activity Chart: Simultaneous activities of workers and machines are
recorded
e. Flow Diagram: Path / Flow of material is recorded
f. String Diagram: Movements of workers is recorded

3. EXAMINE
 In this stage, the recorded facts and data are examined critically by putting and
analysing number of questions. This is also known as questioning technique. The
following sequence of questions may be used:
a. Purpose – What is actually been done?
i. Why it is done?
ii. What else could have been done?
iii. What should be done finally?
b. Place – Where is it being done?
i. Why it is done here?
ii. Where else could it be done?
iii. Where should it be done?
c. Sequence – When it should be done?
i. Why is it done then?
ii. When could it be done?
iii. When should it be done?
d. Person – Who is doing it
i. Why does that person do it?
ii. Who else can do it?

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 iii. Who should do it?
e. Means – How is it done?
i. Why is it done that way?
ii. How else could it be done?
iii. How should it be done?

By doing this questioning

 Unwanted activities can be eliminated

 Number of activities can be combined
 Method can be simplified
 Time can be reduced to perform work

4. DEVELOP
 Once critical examination of activities is done, next step is to develop the most
economic and improved method by generating several alternatives out of all
circumstances, various production techniques and contributions of managers,
supervisors, workers and other specialists and selecting the best alternative.
 Following factors are to be considered while developing the method.
o Cost of implementation
o Expected savings in time and cost
o Feasibility
o Producibility
o Acceptance to design, production planning and marketing department
o Reaction of employees
5. INSTALL
 The next step after developing the method is installing the selected method. In this
step, acceptance is taken from various parties. Install stage consists of –
o Getting acceptance of the change by supervisor
o Getting approval of management
o Getting acceptance from workers and trade unions
o Giving training to operators who are involved in this new method
6. MAINTAIN
The last step in the process is to maintain new method to ensure that it functions well; by
monitoring the results, by periodic checks, and verifications at regular intervals and by
proper controlling techniques. Any defect or difficulty should be corrected by the work
study man. Suggestions from workers and supervisors should be taken.

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Topic 7: Symbols Used in Process Chart with Examples:
The recording of the facts about the job in a process chart is done by using standard symbols
as shown in the figure below:

 Operation - ⃝
 A large circle indicates operation. An operation takes place when there is
some amount of work done on anything. For example, an assembly or
disassembly is an operation. When information is given or received or when
planning or calculating takes place it is also called operation.
 Example - Reducing the diameter of an object in a lathe.

 Inspection - □
 A square indicates inspection. Inspection is checking an object for its quality,
quantity or identifications.
 Example - Checking the diameter of a rod. Counting the number of products
produced.

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  Transport - →
 An arrow indicates transport. This refers to the movement of an object or
operator or equipment from one place to another. When the movement takes
place during an operation, it is not called transport.
 Example - Moving the material by a trolley; Operator going to the stores to get
some tool.
 Delay or temporary storage - D
 A large capital letter D indicates delay. This is also called as temporary storage.
Delay occurs when an object or operator is waiting for the next activity.
 Example - An operator waiting to get a tool in the stores. Work pieces stocked
near the machine before the next operation.
 Permanent storage -
 An equilateral triangle standing on its vertex represents storage. Storage takes
place when an object is stored and protected against unauthorized removal.
 Example - Raw material in the store room.
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Topic 8: Recording Techniques used in Method Study

Charts
• Operation Process Chart
• Outline Process Chart
• Man Type Flow Process Chart
• Material Type Flow Process Chart
• Man Machine Chart
• Travel Chart
• SIMO Chart

Diagrams
• Flow Diagram
• String Diagram

Photographic Techniques
• Cyclograph
• Chrono-Cyclograph
• Still Photography
• Micro-Motion Photography

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1. VARIOUS CHARTS USED AS RECORDING TECHNIQUES OF
METHOD STUDY
[A] Operation Process Chart:
 "An operations Process Chart is a graphic representation of the sequence of all the
operations and inspections involved in a process or procedure"
 An operation process chart provides an overview of the whole process or activity.
 In an operations process chart all the operations and inspections involved are recorded.
 The chart does not indicate where the work takes place or who performs it.
 The delays, transport and storages are not indicated. But the entry points of materials are
indicated.
 Where the process is long and complicated, this chart provides an overall picture and gives
enough information for critical examination.
 This chart is especially useful for recording maintenance and other indirect type of work.
Often operation process chart is known as Outline process chart.
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[B] Outline process chart:

 Sometimes operation process chart is considered same as outline process chart.
 “Outline process chart is an overall view of the job under study that can be obtained by
recording only the important operations and inspections without going into all the other
activities like delays, movements and storages."
 Such a chart is known as an Outline Process Chart. This chart is particularly useful for large
projects for getting a broad outline.

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[C] The Flow Process Chart (Material Type)

 A flow process chart (material) is a detailed chart, showing all the activities involved in a
process.
 "A flow process chart (material)), is a process chart setting out the sequence of the flow of
a product or a procedure by recording all events under review in terms of the material
being processed, using the appropriate symbols”
 In a flow process chart (material), the subject of the chart is material. Since all the activities,
operations, inspections, movements, delays and storages are recorded; all the five symbols
are used.
 A flow process chart (material) is more detailed than the operation process chart.
 All the factors in the process must' be recorded. The distance and time values are also
recorded whenever appropriate. Since all the movements are recorded very clearly, the flow
process chart is a very useful chart for analyzing and improving layout and handling
problems.

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  This chart is also useful for presenting new proposals to the management. Figure below
gives an example of be flow process chart (material).

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[D] The Flow Process Chart (Man-Type)

 The flow process chart (man) is one of the basic charts to record the method of work. It is
used to record the work of Individual operators/worker.
 It gives a graphic representation of all the activities performed by the operators in the
sequence in which they occur.
 "A flow process chart (man) is a chart setting out the sequence of the flow of a product or
a procedure by recording all event in terms of the worker by using the appropriate process
chart symbols."
 Flow process chart (man) is a useful recording technique to chart the method of
performance rather than the process. Once the process has been examined and all possible
improvements have been made, then the analysis and improvements in methods would be
necessary.
 Existing methods when clearly recorded through this chart, would be helpful in developing
new methods.
 This chart can also be used as an operating instruction for use by supervisors and workers.
An example of the flow process chart (man) is shown in Fig below.

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[E] The Multiple Activity Chart / Man-Machine Chart

 This kind of process chart records the activities of the operator as well as the machine on the
same chart against a common time scale.
 Separate vertical columns (in the form of bars) are used for both; workers and machines.
 The chart clearly indicates the IDLENESS (or UTILISATION) of operator as well as the
machine.
 On the basis of the recorded events in the chart, one can rearrange the process so that IDLE-
TIME is reduced, or BETTER UTILISATION of the operator/machine is achieved.

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  It is used for balancing the work between man and machine; proper utilization of
maintenance staff etc.
 EXAMPLE: following chart shows chart representing 3 workers and 1 machine performing
activities;

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[F] The Two-Handed Process Chart

 Jobs that are completed at a single work place often consist of number of activities of the
worker's two hands.
 The two-handed process chart records the sequence of manual activities in such jobs in a
graphical manner.
 "The two-handed process chart is a process chart recording the work of the operator's
hands (limbs) in relation to another.”
 A two-handed process chart is made up of two columns in which the activities of the left
hand and right hand and the appropriate symbols are respectively recorded in sequence.
 The activities of the two hands are inter-related by aligning the symbols on the chart so that
simultaneous movements by both hands appear opposite to each other.
 Additional columns can be designed to record the activities of the other parts of the body
whenever necessary.

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  The two-handed process chart generally uses the same symbols as the other process charts.
 In practice only four of the five symbols are used to any extent. "Inspection" is rarely used
since "inspection" is a combination of hand movements and operations.
 The storage symbol implies "hold" instead of storage.
 The transport symbol represents movements of hands, the operation symbol, pick up,
positioning, etc., and the delay symbol denotes the waiting of one hand for the completion
of work by the other.
 There is no time scale on this· chart and the exact duration of various activities is usually
unknown.
 This chart is usually applicable only to the individual workplace and after, the broad methods
have been decided and thus most suitable at the later stages of methods improvement.
 Work of a short duration is suitable for recording on this type of chart. The following
example shows the movements of two hands of a worker recorded in a chart.

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[G] Simultaneous Motion Cycle Chart (SIMO Chart)

 The SIMO Chart is an improvement of the two-handed process chart.

 SIMO chart is a two handed process chart in which simultaneous micro motions, called as
‘Therbligs’ or group of Therbligs of different body parts (usually hands or legs), of one
worker or more than one worker are recorded.

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  When the movements are so fast that they can not be measured or recorded with naked
eyes, a cine film is prepared and then studied by slow projection and finally a chart is
prepared for the body movements.
 The activities recorded are in terms of "Therbligs"; which are very fine basic human motions.
 Such a chart can be prepared only with the help of photographic aids. Short cycle and highly
repetitive jobs are suited for this type of recording.
 By an analysis it will be possible to identify and remove the idleness and increase the
utilization of both the hands.

LIST OF THERBLIGS
Symbol THERBLIGS Abbreviation Colour

Search Sh BLACK

Find F GREY

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 Select St LIGHT GREY

Grasp G RED

Hold H GOLD OCHRE

Transport Load TL GREEN

Position P BLUE

Assemble A VIOLET

Use U PURPLE

Disassemble DA LIGHT VIOLET

Inspect I BURNT OCHRE

Pre-Position PP PALE BLUE

Release Load RL CARMINE RED

Transport Empty TE OLIVE GREEN

Rest for Overcoming Fatigue R ORANGE

Unavoidable Delay UD YELLOW

Avoidable Delay AD LEMON YELLOW

Plan Pn BROWN

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[H] Travel Chart

 When the movement patterns are complex, the Travel Chart is a quicker and more
manageable recording technique. The figure below shows a typical travel chart.
 "A Travel chart is a tabular record for presenting quantitative data about the movement of
worker, materials or equipments between any numbers of places over any given period of
time."

 Explanation of Travel Chart

 The travel chart is always a Square, which contains smaller squares inside. Each small square
represents a work station (a machine).
 For example, if there are 10 work stations then the travel chart will have 10 x 10 = 100 small
squares.
 The squares from left to right along the top of the chart represent the places from where
movement takes place & those down the left hand edge represent the stations 'to which'
the movement is made.
 The travel chart can also be made to indicate the weight/material moved per trip. This is a
particularly useful technique for plant layout and materials handling analysis studies.
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2. VARIOUS DIAGRAMS USED AS RECORDING TECHNIQUES OF
METHOD STUDY
[A] The Flow Diagram

 In any production shop, repair shop or any other department, there are movements of men
and material from one place to another.
 Process charts indicate the sequence of activities but they do not show the frequent
movements of men and material. If these movements are minimized, a lot of savings can be
achieved in cost and effort.
 If the path of movement of material is not frequent and simple, a flow diagram is used for
recording the movement.
 A flow diagram showing the movement of a paper in an 'office is given in Fig. 15. The
corresponding FPC is partly shown in Fig. 16.

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The flow diagrams are used for the following purposes:

1. To remove unwanted material movement.

2. To remove back tracking.

3. To avoid traffic congestion.

4. To improve the plant layout.

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[B] String Diagram

 The term 'String Diagram' comes from the way the diagram may be created with a
scale drawing, pins and a piece of string and we can then measure the string to see
how far the movements are.

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  The String Diagram is a simple tool for analyzing and designing work spaces such
that movement can be minimized. The basic diagram simply consists of a map of
the work area, with the actual movements drawn on top.

 Distance can be measured with the help of length of string used.

3. PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES FOR RECORDING WORK

1. STILL PHOTOGRAPHY
 It includes taking photos of existing situation of a worker or machine at work or at a
lay out. It is much quicker than models and templates and gives accurate picture of
situation.
 The requirement is that the work study person should be trained in photography.
Also, the cost is higher than conventional / traditional recording technique.

2. MICRO MOTION PHOTOGRAPHY

 It means making film by taking photos at the rate of 16 or 24 or 32 or even 64 frames
per second.
 This film will then be projected in slow motion and studied frame by frame.

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  It is used where work elements are too fast for naked eyes to visualise, cycle times
are too short and activities are repetitive.

3. CYCLE GRAPH
 This is the technique for analysing the paths of motion made by an operator.
 Here, the path of movement is traced by a continuous source of light (small bulbs)
attached on the body parts (whose movements needs to be recorded) of worker,
taken by a still camera, for one single cycle of the work performed.
 The graph will be seen in the form of a white line.

HOW TO PREPARE?

 A small electric bulb is attached to the finger or hand or any other part of the body
whose movement is supposed to be recorded.
 By using still photography, the path of light of bulb (ultimately the path of body
movement), as it moves through space for one complete cycle, is photographed.
 After the film is developed, the resulting picture will be seen as cyclograph.
 Resulting picture shows a permanent record of the motion pattern employed in the
form of a closed loop of white continuous line with the working area in the
background.
 A cycle graph does not indicate speed or direction of motion.

USEFUL FOR

 Improving the motion pattern

 Training purpose in that two cycle graphs may be shown with one indicating a better
motion pattern than another.

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4. CHRONO CYCLE GRPAH
 The Chrono-cycle graph is similar to the cycle graph but here the power supply of the
bulb is interrupted (i.e. ON and OFF) regularly by using an electric circuit. Hence, the
bulb is made to flash.
 Chrono-cycle graph is a special type of cycle graph in which path of movement
traced by a suitably interrupted source of light attached on the body parts of a
worker by a still camera for a single cycle of the work performed.
 The procedure for taking photographs is same as it is in cycle-graph.
 The resulting picture (Chrono-cycle graph) shows short dashes or dots of line spaced
in proportion to the speed of the body member photographed, instead of showing
continuous line of motion.
 Wide spacing would represent fast moves / speed whereas close spacing would
represent slow moves / speed. The jumbling dots at one point indicate fumbling or
hesitation of the body member.
 It is used to measure speed as well as the direction of the body movements.

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 TIME STUDY / WORK MEASUREMENT
Topics to be covered:
Topic 1: Meaning & Definition of Work Measurement

TOPIC 2: DIRECT METHODS OF TIME STUDY

Topic 2A: Procedure of Direct Method Time Study / Stop Watch Time Study

TOPIC 3: INDIRECT METHODS / TECHNIQUES OF TIME STUDY

Topic 4: Various ways to classify or to break job / operation into time Elements

Topic 5: Various types of allowances that we need to consider while converting Normal time
into Standard time

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Topic 1: Meaning & Definition of Work Measurement

Once the method study reduces the work by eliminating repetitive elements on the part of
material or operatives and substituting improved methods for poor ones, now work
measurement starts investigating and eliminating ineffective time in the improved method
and measures time taken in performance of the same identifying and then eliminating
ineffective time.

Definition of Work Measurement given by ILO (International Labour Organisation)

“Work Measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of performance.”

Techniques of
Time Study

Direct Indirect
Method Method

Stop Watch Work Synthesis from Analytical

PMTS
Time Study Sampling Standard Data Estimating

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Topic 2: DIRECT METHODS OF TIME STUDY
Topic 2(A) Time Study Procedure / Procedure for conducting Stop Watch
Time Study / Process of Direct Method Time Study / Direct method of Time
Study
STEP 1: SELECTING THE JOB

 First step in the process is to select the work / job to be studied.

 A job / work are selected for the time study under following circumstances.
o A new job which is recently introduced
o Change in the material or method
o Appearance of bottleneck in a particular operation
o Need for preparation of an incentive scheme for the job
o Any equipment involved in production process having excessive idle time
o Excessive cost associated with the job
o When new standard time is required
o To check correctness of existing standard time
o When two methods are to be compared
 Any one or more of above listed criteria make(s) one job eligible for selection as a
job to be studied.

STEP 2: RECORDING THE INFORMATION

 After selecting the job, next step is to obtain and record all the available information
about the job, operator and the surrounding conditions. The following groups of
information need to be recorded:
a. Information about the study: Study number, Sheet number, Number of
sheets, Name and initials of the work study man, Date of study, Name of
persons who approves the study (Head of Work study dept., Production
department or other appropriate executive)
b. Information about the product: Name of product, Materials used, Quality
requirements
c. Information related to process, method, plant and machine
d. Information of workers
e. Duration of Study: Start time, finish time, elapsed time (Finish time – Start
time)
f. Working Conditions: Temperature, Humidity, Adequacy of Lighting

STEP 3: BREAKING DOWN JOB INTO ITS ELEMENTS

 An element means a distinct part (activity) of a specified job selected for time study.

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  In this step each operation is divided into a number of different elements. This is
done for easy observation and accurate measurement.

The various elements are as follows:

i. Repetitive Element

It is an element which occurs in every work cycle of the job. E.g. Loading and unloading the
machine, picking up a material from a tray, keeping aside a finished part etc.

ii. Occasional Element

It is an element which does not occur in every work cycle but takes place at regular interval
or irregular interval. E.g. adjusting or resetting the machine, sharpening of a tool

iii. Constant Element

It is an element for which basic or normal time remains constant whenever it is performed.
It may be occasional or repetitive. E.g. Switch-on and switch-off the machine, measuring the
dimension, screw on and tighten the nut etc.

iv. Variable Element

It is an element for which the basic time varies depending upon the characteristics of the
product, equipment or process. E.g. Sawing (Cutting) the log of wood [here time varies with
hardness and diameter of wood], pushing the trolley [time varies with distance of weight]
etc.

v. Foreign Element

It is an element, observed during the study, which after analysis not found to be an essential
part of the job. E.g. breakage of tool

vi. Manual Element

It is performed by worker.

vii. Machine Element

It is performed automatically by a machine and that does not require the influence of a
worker. E.g. pressing a part, cutting, throwing waste material etc.

viii. Governing Element

It is an element which occupies longer time than that of any other element during a cycle.

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STEP 4: DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Here, the sample size of observations i.e. the number of observations required for each
element is determined by statistical formula or traditional method.

STEP 5: MEASURING TIME (TIMING ELEMENTS BY STOP WATCH)

Time taken by each element is measured by a stop watch. Time can be measured by either
of two principal methods.

 Cumulative Method
 Fly Back Method

In Cumulative Method, stop watch runs continuously throughout the study. It is started at
the beginning of the first element of a cycle and is stopped only after the study is
completed. Here, total time of study is recorded.

In fly back method, stop watch is started at the beginning of the first element. Once the
element is completed, time for that element is noted in the sheet, and at the same time, the
stop watch hand is back to zero. This is done by pressing down the knob. This method
measures the time for each element.

STEP 6: ASSESSMENT OF RATING FACTOR

 Rating is the measure of efficiency (usually speed) of a worker.

 The worker’s rating is found out by comparing his actual speed of work with
standard performance.
 The standard rating is taken as 100. If the actual rating is less than 100, worker
seems to be slow and if it is more than 100, worker seems to be fast.

STEP 7: CALCULATING THE BASIC TIME

 Basic time is calculated as follows by applying the rating factor.

Basic Time = Observed Time X Actual Rating / Standard Rating

STEP 8: DETERMINE THE ALLOWANCES

 A worker cannot work all the day continuously. He will require time for rest, going to
drink water, going to toilet etc. Also unavoidable delay also may occur because of
tool breakage or any such incident. So always extra time should be added to basic
time. This extra time is known as allowances. There are various types allowances
which are as follows:
o Rest and Personal Allowances
o Process Allowances
o Contingency Allowances

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 o Special Allowances
o Policy Allowances

STEP 9: COMPILE THE STANDARD TIME

The standard time is the sum total of basic time and allowances. It is also known as allowed
time.

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Topic 3: INDIRECT METHODS OF TIME STUDY

[A] Work Sampling Method / Activity Sampling / Ratio Delay Method / Snap
Reading Method / Observation Ratio Method
Stop watch time study becomes costly and time consuming process when the work follows
long and irregular cycle. To remove this limitation, L.H.C. Tippet of British Cotton Industry
Research Association in 1934, developed the idea of work sampling.

“Work sampling is the method of finding the percentage occurrence (or non-occurrence) of
certain activity of one or more workers by statistical sampling and random observations.”

Work sampling technique enables the analyst to obtain the information about an activity or
machine by simply making random observations of worker or machine without the use of
stop watch.

In this method a time study person makes a large number of observations of a worker or
machine in terms of activities defined i.e. working or idle, activity occurring or not occurring
etc. In short, percentage of occurrence of the activity is measured and percentage of delay
being happened in that activity is measured.

Then he finds the result in proportion of occurrence and non-occurrence with total output
during the total observed time is noted.

Find Normal Time using following formula.

Normal Time = [(Total Number of observations) x (Duration of each observation) x

(proportion of occurrence)] / Number of units produced during observed time

Advantages:

1. It is simple method and giving quick results.

2. Lower cost than stop watch time study.

Limitations:

1. Not suitable for short cycle jobs and not much economical for single worker

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 2. Operator may change his pattern of work when he finds that he is being observed
3. When method changes, work sampling needs to be done again.

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[B] SYNTHESIS FROM STANDARD DATA

 Synthesis is a work measurement technique to work out standard time for a job by
totalling the elemental times already obtained from previously done time studies.
 Hence, it avoids carrying out time studies (stop watch time study process).
 It is most suitable when the job involves elements which are common in other jobs
in the organisation.
 Many operations in an industry have several common elements e.g. starting the
machine, stopping the machine etc. Whenever these activities occur, they take same
duration of time. They are called as constant elements. Time for these constant and
some other variable elements are collected from the previously made time studies.
 They are being recorded in a file and this file is known as Standard data catalogue.
These data usually contains in the form of:
1. Tabulated standard time for constant elements
2. Charts and Graphs
3. Formulae etc.

Advantages / Merits

1. Time and cost of carrying out time studies are being saved
2. Reliable data can be built up because catalogues are prepared on the bases of large
number of observations
3. Consistency is maintained in standardising the times
4. It is useful in finding cost estimates of jobs, determining prices, designing incentive
schemes etc.

Limitations / Demerits

1. Any error in standard data is carried forward

2. Sometimes it is viewed by workers with suspicion
3. The data cannot be used when conditions change

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[C] ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING

 It is a work measurement technique in which time required to carry out a job at a

defined level of performance is obtained from knowledge & experience of
concerned elements wherever possible, and also by the use of synthesis data.

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  Here knowledge & experience of concerned person is used in standardising the time
as well as synthesis data are also used so it is the combination of estimation and
synthesis.
 And that is why success of this method depends upon competency, intelligence and
experience & analytical ability of the estimator.
 Setting time standards for long and repetitive operations by stop watch method are
uneconomical and time consuming. So this method is useful in such cases.
 How to estimate Standard Time using this method
o Breaking the job into its elements
o Times are set for those elements for which synthesis data are available
o Experience and estimation is done for those elements for which synthesis
data is not available
o Allowances are added
o Standard time is achieved

Advantages / Merits

1. Time & cost of carrying out time study is saved

2. Reliability increases when experienced persons are involved

Disadvantages / Demerits

1. It cannot be used by other organisations as situations in every organisations may not

seem to be same, hence it lacks universality
2. Errors in estimation may be carried forward
3. It may be viewed by workers with doubt

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[D] PMTS (PRE-DETERMINED MOTION TIME SYSTEMS)

 PMTS is a work measurement technique where by times, established for basic

human motions (classified according to the nature of the motion and the conditions
under which it is made) are used to build up the time for a job at a defined level of
performance.
 In this method, that time is used which has already been established for basic human
motions (like move, reach, grasp, eye movements, leg movement, feet movement
etc.) are used to measure the time.
 Procedure in PMTS
 Observe the job
 Break down job into elements
 Locate the elements with specified conditions in the standard time tables &
find out basic elemental time
 Add allowances

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  Obtain standard time
Few well-known systems using this concept are
1. M.T.M. : Method Time Measurement.
2. W.F.S. : Work Factor System.
3. M.T.A. : Motion Time Analysis.
4. D.M.T. : Dimensional Motion Times.
5. B.M.T. : Basic Motion Times.
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Topic 4: Various ways to classify or to break job / operation into time

Elements
Element:

An element is defined as a “distinct part / activity of a specified job (or an operation)

selected for convenience of observation, measurement and analysis.”

There are various types of elements viz.

i. Repetitive Element, which occurs in every work cycle of the job.

ii. Occasional Element, which does not occur in every work cycle but takes place at
regular interval or irregular interval.
iii. Constant Element, for which basic or normal time remains constant whenever it
is performed.
iv. Variable Element, for which the basic time varies depending upon the
characteristics of the product, equipment or process.
v. Foreign Element, which is observed during the study but after analysis, not found
to be an essential part of the job.
vi. Manual Element, which is performed by worker.
vii. Machine Element, which is performed automatically by a machine
viii. Governing Element, which occupies longer time than that of any other element
during a cycle.

After recording the information regarding the job to be studied, now the time comes for
breaking the total job into its various parts so that next activity i.e. timing the various
activities can be done with ease.

How to Break Job into its Elements?

1. Elements should be having definite beginning and ending (Break Points)

 Elements should be easily identifiable and should be having definite beginning
and ending.
 These beginning and ending can often be recognized by a particular sound or by
a change in direction of the hand or an arm.

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  And these are known as break points.
 Break point is the instance when one element in a work cycle completes and
another begins.
2. Elements should be as short as possible
 Elements selected should be as short as possible so that they can be measured easily
by trained observer.
 Duration equal to or more than about 0.04 minutes (2.4 seconds) is generally
accepted as smallest practical element that can be measured reliably.
 Lowest limit range for trained observer is 0.07 minutes to 0.10 minutes.
3. Manual elements should be separated from machine elements.
4. Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.
5. Occasional and foreign elements which do not occur in every cycle should be timed
separately.
6. Elements should be measured in terms of time.

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Topic 5: Discuss various types of allowances that we need to consider while

converting Normal time into Standard time

OR

Topic 5: Various types of allowances given to workers

Various types of allowances which are given to workers are as follows.

1. Relaxation Allowances
 Relaxation allowances are addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker
with the opportunity to recover from the psychological and physiological effects of
carrying out certain specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention
to personal needs.
 Relaxation allowances are usually 10% of normal time.

2. Contingency Allowances
 Contingency allowances are the extra time given to meet legitimate (genuine / valid)
and expected items of work delay which cannot be measured precisely because of
infrequent or irregular occurrence.
 Such allowances are very infrequent and irregular so precise measurement of these
become very difficult.
 They are usually 5% of normal time.

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3. Process Allowances
 Process allowances are the extra time to compensate for enforced idleness of
operator due to nature of process or operation. This means worker is not able to
work because process or machine takes its own part of cycle. E.g. Worker working on
automatic machine
4. Interference Allowances
 They are extra time for a worker attending two or more machines and the worker is
busy on one of the machines resulting in idleness of other machines. E.g. if a worker
is handling two or more machines, so when he is working on a particular machine,
other machine(s) may remain idle at that time.
 It is actually to compensate for the loss of earnings by a worker due to interference.

5. Start up Allowances
 They are extra time given to compensate for time taken for starting a job.

6. Cleaning Allowances
 They are extra time given to clean a machine or a workplace.

7. Set-up Allowances
 They are extra time for preparing a machine or process for production.

8. Policy Allowances
 They are the extra time given by either management’s discretion. They are used to
provide satisfactory earnings by worker by enhancing performance.

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