B.

S Nishat Education
0300-5371884, 0344-5515779, 0512285833
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
(Secondary Teacher Education Department)
Course: Educational Management and Supervision (6502)
Level: MA/ M.Ed.
Semester: Spring, 2020
Assignment No. 1
(Units: 1-4)
Q.1 Discuss the essential characteristics of educational administration. Highlight the importance of
Islamic administration model to improve the system of educational institutions in Pakistan. (20)
Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material
resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an
educational institution.
The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella
encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and
evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The
concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain
purposes or goals to fulfill.
Essential characteristics of educational administration
Educational management, the name implies, operates in the educational organizations. There is no defining
definition of educational management because its development has drawn heavily on several disciplines like
economics, political science and sociology. Most of the definitions of educational management which have
been offered by write are partial because they reflect the particular sense of their authors. Definitions of
Educational Management: "Educational management is the theory and practice of the organization and
administration of existing educational establishments and systems." "Management implies an orderly way of
thinking. It describes in operator terms what is to be done, how it is to be done and how we know when have
done. Management is not a mystique. It is a method of operation. Good management should result in an
orderly integration of education and society "School management, as a body of educational doctrines,
comprises a number of principles and precepts relating primarily to the technique of classroom procedure
and derives largely from the practice of successful teachers. The writers in the field have interpreted these
principles and precepts in various ways, usually with reference to longer and more fundamental principles of
psychology, sociology and ethics." Education administration generally refers to the work and positions
within a system of education that are not directly involved in the education of students. In other words,
education administrators are those people who work at a school or school district in a managerial capacity
but are not teachers, such as principals, vice principals, and school district administrators. These
administrators typically work to ensure teachers are able to do their jobs and are properly instructing
students as well as managing budgetary issues for a school and district, and setting curriculum standards and
achievement goals for students in a district. Education administration is typically performed by people who
were previously teachers or by other individuals with a degree in education. Individuals involved in
education administration typically work at schools or within a school district in public education. While
private schools and postsecondary education institutions, such as colleges and universities, also have
education administrators, these individuals will have different concerns than those working in public
education. Education administration within the private sector will typically involve budget analysis and
ensuring students meet certain goals and expectations, though there will typically be less pressure from
regional or national government. Administrators working at public schools and districts often have to meet
government standards and goals. Education administration takes place within individual schools, typically
represented by principals and vice principals. These individuals are responsible for ensuring a school
operates properly, typically setting and overseeing budgets for the school, dealing with severe behavioral
issues at the school, and ensuring satisfactory performance from teachers and students. They may spend time
in classrooms observing teachers and students to ensure classrooms are running smoothly, though they will
not typically actually teach a class. Many of these education administration individuals are former teachers
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who have worked their way up to higher positions, and may be working toward a position at the district
level. District education administration is typically involved in ensuring the various schools within a district
are running properly. Administrators at this level may be former teachers and principals, though they could
also be individuals with master’s or doctoral degrees in Education. They often will be responsible for
ensuring budgets are set properly and being met by the various schools within the district. District
administrators are also responsible for hiring and firing teachers, though principals are often involved in this
type of decision making. Education administration at the district level also is typically responsible for setting
curriculum standards and goals for students and teachers. In discussing the most important characteristics of
an good educational management system (EMS), one is tempted to paraphrase the real estate motto and
simply say "Cost, cost, and cost". With all the competition for federal and state dollars, what is considered
good to often is reduced to what is affordable. Leaving aside the question of cost, these would be the things I
would look for in a well-designed EMS.
Importance of Islamic administration model to improve the system of educational institutions in
Pakistan
Education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of Pakistan. Pakistani education must equip the nation’s
youth with the skills they require to function in a modern state. At the same time, it must balance schooling
applicable to the modern world with Pakistani traditions and culture.
The formal name of Pakistan is the “Islamic Republic of Pakistan,” making explicit that the government and
its various agencies, including education, are identified with Islam. Pakistan has two distinct systems of
education, a traditional and a modern, but both are based on Islam. Traditional educational can be traced
back to the advent of Islamic culture in the seventh century C.E. The modern educational system was
inherited from the British and continued after the country gained independence. Both traditional and modern
forms of education are supported financially by the Ministry of Education (The Ministry of Education has
undergone several name changes. In 2011, it was named the Ministry of Professional and Technical
Training; in 2013, it was renamed the Ministry of Education, Trainings and Standards in Higher Education,
and in 2014 was renamed the Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training.).
Major questions, post 9/11, have been whether attending the madrasah leads to militant behavior and
whether increasing the length of schooling reduces militant behavior. Studies have been conducted in
Lebanon, Palestine, and elsewhere in the Middle East that suggest the possibility of such relationships, at
least regarding individuals who participate directly in terrorist activities (Berrebi 2007; Krueger and
Maleckova 2002; Hassan 2001).
In Pakistan, Christine Fair surveyed 141 families, each of which lost at least one son to militant actions in
Kashmir and Afghanistan, and she found that only 19 young men were reportedly recruited from
a madrasah, while an equal number were recruited from a public school and none from a private school. At
least 50 were recruited from friends, 32 at mosques, 27 from proselytizing groups, and 19 from relatives
(Fair 2008, p. 68). Fair also found that those who participate in militant activities also tend to have relatively
high levels of schooling. For example, 58% of the young men in her sample had completed at least 10 years
of schooling, while the average male in Pakistan had completed less than the sixth grade (ibid.: 69).
Although Fair found that only a small number of militants came from the madrasah , she is concerned that
under certain circumstances education in the madrasah may encourage terrorism or militant activity.
Rastegar (1988) found that certain madrasahs in and near refugee camps located near Afghanistan and
Kashmir became training grounds for young militants who would dedicate their lives to the liberation of
these two areas. According to Rastegar, these schools failed to provide the traditional curriculum but became
part of the political mobilization process by distorting concepts such as jihād (striving and struggling in the
face of persecution) and turning that concept into one of struggling against any enemy through violence and
vengeance.
In the 1980s, the administration of General Zia ul Haq tried to Islamize the state and society, and the
traditional madrasahs underwent a dramatic change. Funds were appropriated through religious tithes (zakāt)
and used to encourage the establishment and development of madrasahs (Jones 2002, pp. 31–32). These
increased resources were enhanced by major contributions from Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States.
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Because the program of studies of madrasahs has not been overseen by the state, their school’s leaders have
able to decide who to take in and what to teach. The assumption on the part of state authorities was that
these schools would follow the pattern of traditional secondary education and that occurred in the vast
majority of cases (Andrabi et al. 2006). Ironically, while traditional education has often been blamed for the
slow rate of economic and political development in Pakistan, it is also seen by some as a possible key to tap
into Pakistan’s potential. UNESCO, for example, declared in 2005 that madrasahs could make an effective
contribution to national development efforts if the teachers could become better.
The Contested Question of Islamic Education among Women in Pakistan
The constitution of Pakistan promises equality for all citizens, and explicitly states, “there shall be no
discrimination on the basis of sex alone” (Article 25: 2). The same document extends this guarantee
specifically to education: “The state shall provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing,
education and medical relief, for all such citizens, irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race” (Article 38: d). In
spite of this, “gender parity remains a distant prospect” for Pakistan (UNESCO 2003), and this assessment
had not changed by 2015. Although overall enrollment rates have increased dramatically over the past
60 years, the gender gap persists (Jalil 1988).
Authorities often assign blame for low rates of girls’ enrollment at the primary and secondary school on
parents placing low value on female education. However, many scholars feel parents are willing to send
their girls to school under the right conditions. Scholars such as Farah and Shera (2007) and Heward (1999)
argue that schools must be free and of decent quality, located near their homes, and staffed by teachers the
community can trust, preferably women. Despite growing awareness of the importance of education,
attitudes deeply rooted in the traditional Islamic structure of family, gender roles, and power towards female
education have been slow to change (Farah and Shera 2007; Weiss 1998).
Islam is thought, especially by non-Muslims, to restrict girls’ access to education (King and Hill 1993).
Indeed, gender inequalities have been a part of Pakistan since its inception and many scholars suggest that
Muslim values account for a part of this inequality. According to Lisa Laumann (2000, p. 98), “women have
been constructed as legal minors, economic dependents, political appendages, and objects of social
protection in the contentious struggle over Muslim communal identity….”
However, Coleman (2004) challenges this, stating “Islamization is clearly not the reason for Pakistan’s low
female literacy rates” and that “most Islamists are careful to stress their support for female education.” She
offers a more indirect effect, stressing that religious leaders’ emphasis on a traditional role for women and
the need to protect women’s honor reinforces cultural norms that limit female mobility and access to the
public sphere, compounding the already large challenges of getting and keeping girls in school. Others argue
that cultural practices sometimes curtail women’s rights guaranteed by Islamic law and that girls’ enrollment
rates are a reflection of restrictive and often misleading interpretations of the status and role of females
according to Islam (Farah and Shera 2007).
Throughout its brief history, Pakistan has articulated strategies to grapple with these educational imparities.
The framing of education goals changed in 1992, when for both male and female education documents
began to recognize education as a right, influenced by global ideals expressed in the Education for All
movement (ibid.). International efforts have reinforced Pakistan’s attempts to bring about greater gender and
education equality. Few doubt the importance of achieving educational parity, even though some scholars
challenge as simplistic the above conventional portrayal of the benefits of educating girls (Hannum and
Buchmann 2003). Pakistan has repeatedly expressed the ambition to achieve the goals mentioned, however,
has been unable to match these goals with the financial resources to achieve them (Farah and Shera 2007;
Heward 1999).
In July of 2007, the Pakistani government besieged the Lal Masjid in Islamabad, after students and clerics
agitated against President Musharraf’s government through a variety of public disturbances in favor of
imposing sharī’ah. The siege ultimately ended with a death toll over 100 after military forces stormed the
mosque and the attached female seminary Jamia Hafsa (BBC 2007). According to Saini’s analysis of the
Pakistani military operation, “the Lal Masjid was widely known to be a center of radical Islamic learning”
(Saini 2009, p. 554). News coverage of the incident, in particular, focused on the actions of Jamia Hafsa’s
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female students as they represented a heretofore uncommon phenomenon in Pakistan: a significant number
of women from a female madrasah, politically and publicly engaging in movements against the government.
Most of the students attending Jamia Hafsa came from rural areas, and in particular the North West frontier
provinces. In July 2005, the women defended Lal Masjid against a raid by Pakistani special forces who were
investigating suspected links between the mosque and bombings in London (BBC 2007). In the months
leading up to the siege, the women shut down several movie stores and massage parlors for promulgating
“decadent western values” (ibid.). Perhaps the most high-profile demonstration carried out by the female
students was in response to government demolition of mosques that had been illegally constructed on
government land. As demolition began, the students occupied a children’s library near the mosque with
intent to “fight to the death” once the government threatened eviction.
The Lal Masjid incident, a confrontation between students and the Pakistani government at the Red Mosque,
and reactions to it, brought the female madrasah education in Pakistan and the role of Islam in Pakistani to
the forefront of debates and contentions.
The siege of the mosque, and in particular, the involvement of Jamia Hafsa’s female students, both in the
disruptions leading up to the siege and in the siege itself, raised the need for a more in depth understanding
of female madrasah education in Pakistan. Conflicting reports emerged about the role of Jamia Hafsa’s
female students in the siege. Some news outlets used claims made by the Pakistani government to depict the
women as hostages forced to stay in the madrasah against their will (Masood, New York Times, July
13, 2007). However, the actions taken by the women leading up to the siege suggest at least partial
willingness by female students and teachers to participate in the resistance to the Pakistani government.
Thus, given the complexity of the potential sociopolitical influences over female education in Pakistan and
their effects on the position of women within Pakistani society, understanding the madrasah as a legitimate
source of education for females becomes essential.
The effect of increased politicization of women’s rights and empowerment in Pakistan, different theories of
feminism, and its relationship to education were emerged to consider the role of female madrasah education.
Women, especially in countries such as Pakistan and Afghanistan, have been identified as key actors in
progressing development in the third world.
In her examination of female madrasa education at Madrasatul Niswan in New Delhi, India, Marieke
Winkelmann discusses how female madrasah education affords its students a degree of social mobility that
works within Muslim community in India. Winkelmann concludes that although she went into the project
looking for women’s emancipation within Islam as produced by education, she found that empowerment
itself proved to be a problematic tool for analysis (Winkelmann 2005). This raises concerns about the
control the male officials exert over the female madrasah, particularly in the partial curriculum on Islamic
law. However, in reference to Mahmood (2001), Winkelmann recognizes and argues that the education in
the schools on the subjects of Qur’ān, Islamic upbringing (tarbīyah), Arabic, Urdu, and even the partial
exposure to Islamic law (fiqh) has benefits for the students, namely upward social mobility in a context
where religious ties are strong.

Q.2 Define the term management. Also discuss its nature as science or art. (20)
Management can be considered as both science as well as an art.
Management is science because of several reasons like - it has universally accepted principles, it has cause
and effect relationship etc, and at the same time it is art because it requires perfection through practice,
practical knowledge, creativity, personal skills etc.
Management is both an art and a science. Management combines features of both science as well as art. It is
considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal
truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal possessions of managers.
Science provides the knowledge & art deals with the application of knowledge and skills.
A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of science & the art of applying it.
Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an art because it proves the principles and
the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science teaches to ‘know’ and art teaches to ‘do’. E.g.
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A person cannot become a good singer unless he has knowledge about various ragas & he also applies his
personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but
he must also apply them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not
mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).
The old saying that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in favor of “Managers are Made”. It has been
aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we can say that
science is the root and art is the fruit.
Management As Science
Yes,Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to a specific field of study that contains general
facts which explains a phenomenon. It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more
variables and underlines the principles governing their relationship. These principles are developed through
scientific method of observation and verification through testing. Science is characterized by the following
main features: 1. Universally acceptance principles – Scientific principles represents basic truth about a
particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time & at all places. E.g. –
law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. Management also contains
some fundamental principles which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of Command i.e.
one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organization – business or non business. 2.
Experimentation & Observation – Scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation &
researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes round the sun has been
scientifically proved. Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry & observation and not
only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments & practical experiences
of large number of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a
satisfied work force. 3. Cause & Effect Relationship – Principles of science lay down cause and effect
relationship between various variables. E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating
& result is expansion. The same is true for management, therefore it also establishes cause and effect
relationship. E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority & responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If
you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily -in effectiveness. Similarly if
workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not treated in fair and just manner,
reduces productivity of organization. 4. Test of Validity & Predictability – Validity of scientific principles
can be tested at any time or any number of times. They stand the test of time. Each time these tests will give
same result. Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles.
E.g. hydrogen & oxygen will always give water. Principles of management can also be tested for validity.
E.g. principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons – one having single boss and
one having 2 bosses. The performance of 1st person will be better than 2nd. It cannot be denied that
management has a systematic body of knowledge but it is not as exact as that of other physical sciences like
biology, physics, and chemistry etc. The main reason for the inexactness of science of management is that it
deals with human beings and it is very difficult to predict their behavior accurately. Since it is a social
process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. It is a flexible science & that is why its theories and
principles may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a behavioral science. Ernest
Dale has called it as a Soft Science.
Management as Art
Art implies application of knowledge & skill to trying about desired results. An art may be defined as
personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. Art has the
following characters – 1. Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of
theory is not sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g. to
become a good painter, the person may not only be knowing different colour and brushes but different
designs, dimensions, situations etc to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by
obtaining degree or diploma in management; he must have also know how to apply various principles in real
situations by functioning in capacity of manager. 2. Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same
for every artist, but each one has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of
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success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. E.g. there are several qualified
painters but M.F. Hussain is recognized for his style. Similarly management as an art is also personalized.
Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality,
that is why some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj) whereas others as
bad. 3. Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he aims at producing
something that has never existed before which requires combination of intelligence & imagination.
Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human resources in
useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by combining chords in an
efficient manner. 4. Perfection through practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more
and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly managers learn through an art of trial and error
initially but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing.
5. Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner,
management is also directed towards accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Managers use various
resources like men, money, material, machinery & methods to promote growth of an organization. Thus, we
can say that management is an art therefore it requires application of certain principles rather it is an art of
highest order because it deals with moulding the attitude and behavior of people at work towards desired
goals. 6. Work by effectively. manager manage all problem in every environment so this is not science, it is
an art that how he manage every problem of organization in every environment.
Management as both Science and Art
Management is both an art and a science. The above mentioned points clearly reveals that management
combines features of both science as well as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized
body of knowledge which contains certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires
certain skills which are personal possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge & art deals with
the application of knowledge and skills. A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the
knowledge of science & the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well
as an art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art. Science
teaches to ’know’ and art teaches to ’do’. Example. a person cannot become a good singer unless he has
knowledge about various ragas & he also applies his personal skill in the art of singing. Same way it is not
sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply them in solving various managerial
problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other
(like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.). The old saying that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in
favor of “Managers are Made”. It has been aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest
of science. To conclude, we can say that science is the root and art is the fruit.

Q.3 Discuss the scope and applications of different kinds of supervision in the context of Pakistani
elementary school. (20)
Definition and scope
The term ‘supervisor’ is commonly used in the University to refer primarily to those individuals who deal
with students or who engage in research, but for the purposes of health and safety law many other members
of staff may also have a supervisory function. An employee of the University may be considered to be a
supervisor if he/she has the power and authority to give instructions and/or orders to subordinates, and be
held responsible for the work and actions of other employees, or those under their day-to-day control.
Individuals holding such titles as team leader, overseer, coordinator, facilitator, principal researcher, or
manager therefore may be considered ‘supervisors’ if these criteria apply and for the purposes of this Policy
will hereafter be referred to as ‘supervisors’.
Application
The role of the supervisor carries with it a number of responsibilities. There is a duty to represent
management in the organisational hierarchy. It is the supervisor’s job to organise his/her section and staff,
visualise future developments, impacts and needs, energise staff to meet targets and deadlines, and supervise
their work, ensuring not only that productivity and quality standards are met, but that all arrangements
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established for their safety and welfare are adequately followed. To ensure that this is done, the supervisor
must make certain that the staff under his/her control have the relevant training, tools, materials, and support
that they need to carry out their various duties. Safety training is not separate from other job related or skills
training, but integral to it.
Collaboration is important to the work of the University and the responsibilities of supervisors extend also to
visiting workers, or any other group of individuals invited into departments. Similarly any supervisor who
engages a contractor for maintenance, or similar, purposes will assume responsibility for them while they
remain on University premises.
Supervisors in day-to-day charge of staff, students, and/or visitors are expected to control all associated
safety matters and have a legal duty to manage risks appropriately. This responsibility is set out as part of
the University’s safety management structure and is detailed in Departmental Statements of Safety
Organisation.
When planning for the needs of their section, supervisors must ensure that safety matters are considered and
integrated at the earliest stages. They are expected to understand and apply the appropriate safety policies of
the University, and any local rules established in their departments, as well as ensuring that individuals
under their supervision are aware of these requirements. Supervisors should set, by example, high standards
in health and safety. These standards must be consistently applied and appropriate action taken against those
members of staff or students who fail to meet them.
In summary, supervisors must:
(a) be conversant with the University’s safety policies and departmental local rules
(b) ensure that staff, students, or visiting workers for whom they are responsible receive suitable induction
training and information about emergency procedures
(c) ensure the necessary risk assessments have been done and the safety provisions relating to the work
discussed with those doing it
(d) ensure that relevant safety documentation is readily available for reference
(e) ensure that those under their supervision have received training appropriate to their needs and that safety
considerations are integrated into this training
(f) document the training given to individuals
(g) ensure that the work environment and equipment are safe and well maintained
(h) identify and correct hazardous conditions
(i) investigate accidents or incidents and revise risk assessments, where necessary
(j) ensure that relevant staff are registered with the Occupational Health Service, and that they attend health
surveillance appointments when required
(k) monitor compliance with risk assessments, enforce the control measures and censure those who fail to
comply
(l) ensure proper disposal of waste materials
(m) ensure compliance with relevant departure requirements and the proper handover of laboratory or other
workspace to relevant parties.
Further information relating to these responsibilities may be found in the following sections.

Q.4 What are the current needs of educational Planning at secondary school level in Pakistan?
(20)
Need of educational planning
The developments taking place in and the increasing complexity of the educational system have made
educational planning an absolute necessity.
The nation today faces problems such as population explosion, increasing aspirations among different
sections of the society, man-power needs, mismatch between educational products and the demands of the
economy, dwindling resources, ecological imbalances and haphazard applications of scientific
developments.
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These problems place demands on the system of education for solutions. In order that the system of
education meets these problems, planning becomes imperative and the competence to plan becomes
mandatory.
The developments taking place in and the increasing complexity of the educational system have made
educational planning an absolute necessity.
The nation today faces problems such as population explosion, increasing aspirations among different
sections of the society, man-power needs, mismatch between educational products and the demands of the
economy, dwindling resources, ecological imbalances and haphazard applications of scientific
developments.
These problems place demands on the system of education for solutions. In order that the system of
education meets these problems, planning becomes imperative and the competence to plan becomes
mandatory.
(2) The scarcity of financial and other non-material resources poses a challenge to education. Planning is a
response to such challenges and explores the possibilities of alternative uses and optimum utilization of
limited resources.
(3) Effective and efficient planning saves time, effort and money.
(4) It is a co-ordinated means of attaining pre-determined purposes.
(5) Education is a public service demanded by the public and supplied by the government. For any
government effort of such a large magnitude as education, planning is absolutely necessary.
(6) Educational planning is one of the components of the overall national socio-economic development. The
over-all planning has to provide the objectives of education and the finances for educational development
for accomplishing these objectives
The real situation of education in Pakistan is very different in context to the laws in Constitution of Pakistan.
The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into five levels: primary (Grades 1 through 5), middle
(Grades 6 through 8), high (Grades 9 and 10, leading to the secondary school certificate [SSC]),
intermediate (Grades 11 and 12, leading to a higher secondary (school) certificate [HSC]), and university
programs (leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees). The government launched a nationwide initiative
in National Education Policy (NEP) 1998-2010, with the aim of eradicating illiteracy and providing a basic
education to all children. A new NEP 2009 has been launched one year before finishing the last NEP.
Through various educational reforms, by 2015, the ministry of education expects to attain 100% enrollment
levels among children of primary school age and a literacy rate of 86% among people aged over 10. In
Pakistan, most of the nationally representative household surveys do not contain information on variables,
such as completed years of schooling, age of starting school, literacy and numeracy skills, quality of
schooling, and technical training. Due to the unavailability of data, one can neither compute the potential
experience, nor observe the effect of primary education on literacy rate. Therefore, the available literature in
Pakistan is lacking for estimating the real difference among male and female, rural and urban, and rich and
poor. A number of foreign and local agencies (including the UNDP) carried out several studies to assist the
government of Pakistan in improving the performance of primary education system to remove illiteracy.
However, so far, not much has been achieved to show any significant improvement in the number of
primary schools and quality of primary education offered by these institutions. Keeping in view, the findings
of so far available studies on the subject of illiteracy and educational development, this paper attempted to
survey all those indicators with which Pakistan satisfactorily delivered all that was required to achieve
primary education for all (PEFA) and literate nation.
Facts and Present Conditions Education provides the bedrock for reducing poverty and enhancing social
development. An educational system of poor quality may be one of the most important reasons why poor
countries do not grow (Memon, 2007). Pakistan needs to educate its masses up to a level where they can
understand their own responsibilities, as well as that of the governing bodies. They must be able to earn their
own living and contribute to promoting the welfare of the society. This is most urgent and must be
accomplished without further delay, and calls for a sincere and dedicated effort to implement a carefully
designed course curricula of compulsory education for all. All education policies of Pakistan since 1947s
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laid exclusive emphasis on achieving high literacy and compulsory primary education for all. The NEP 2009
prescription included the following: 1. Education for all (EFA) goals and millennium development goals
relating to education enrollment at the primary level will be enhaced to 100% by 2015; 2. The literacy rate
will be enhanced to 86% by 2015; 3. The allocation for education would be 7% of the national gross
domestic product (GDP) by 2015; 4. A bachelor degree in education shall be the minimum requirement for
teaching at the elementary level. A Master degree with a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) for the secondary
and higher secondary shall be ensured by 2018; 5. A common curricular framework in general as well as
professional education shall be applied to educational institutions in both the public and private sector.
Governments shall take steps to bring the public and private sectors in harmony through common standards,
quality, and regulatory regimes. The actual performance to achieve the desired goals so far, reiterated in the
NEP of Pakistan 2009, reveals the following performances.
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Q.5 Critically examine the process of educational planning being adopted in our Pakistani context.
Process of educational planning being adopted in our Pakistani context
There are five main stages of educational planning being adopted in our Pakistani context:
(1) Collection and Analysis of Statistical Information:
At this stage, relevant information about the system of education and concerned socio-economic factors is
collected so as to provide the quantitative basis for projections aimed at the future development of the
educational system.
Along with this, assessment in some allied fields is also necessary as education is an integral part of the total
plan and is closely inter-related with the economic development of the country.
(2) Evolving Policy Proposals:
The statistical information collected helps in identifying the gaps, weaknesses and shortcoming and provides
the planners with a clear idea of the existing conditions. This helps the planners in formulating policy
proposals aimed at accomplishing pre-determined objectives.
The formulation of the policy proposal requires an over-all view of the role of education vis-a-vis the
economic development and the over-all planning. It should also take into account the complexities of a large
country like India, the diversities of cultures within it as well as the regional aspirations.
These necessitate the introduction of a uniform educational system (e.g., 10+2+3 system) along with scope
for regional diversities in the curricula. It should also aim at evolving policy decisions concerning rational
norms of optimum class-size in terms of enrollment and student-teacher ratios at different levels and types of
education.
Besides, policies concerning admission criteria (except the compulsory primary education level), promotion
of students, fees to be paid on the basis of the principle of social justice, supply of text-books, equipment,
devising curricula, methods of teaching, teachers’ qualifications and in-service professional development,
methods of evaluation, medium of instruction, language policy and teachers’ salaries must be taken into
account.
(3) Projections, Programming and Project Analysis:
An effective plan necessitates projections of all the inputs of the educational system – students, teachers,
administrators, school buildings and classrooms, equipment and financial requirements.
Projections have to be made of the future nature and size of the demographic composition of population for
a period of fifteen to twenty years. Since student is the focus of the educational process, projection should
begin with the school and the college age-groups drawn on a yearly basis in terms of enrolments.
There are two commonly employed procedures available for scientific projections:
(i)The enrolment ratio method which is based on the projection of past and present ratios of school
enrolment or school attendance into the future. It requires estimates of population by age and sex regarding
school enrolment and/or attendance data.
(ii)The grade cohort method which is also known as cohort survival method. This method also makes use of
the past and current enrolment data by grade for every school level and for approximately seven-year and
ten-year data for primary and secondary levels respectively.
 B.S Nishat Education
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It also requires data on the number of new students, repeaters and those who pass on to the next higher class
for every standard/class. Projections are calculated from the survival rates of students after taking into
consideration demographic characteristics such as birth rate, mortality rate and migration rates.
Alongwith this, a minimum social standard of education needs to be postulated such as compulsory
schooling for every child for a certain number of years.
Besides, provisions should be made in the estimates for the changes made by students midstream (e.g.,
switching from science faculty to commerce faculty) and other forms of turnover, adult education, literacy
programmes, excess supply of products in a particular stream etc.
An assessment should also be made about the efficiency and effectiveness of the curricula, pedagogy used
and criteria of admissions and evaluation as well as the changes required therein.
This is followed by programming and operation. For example, if 800 technicians are to be produced, a
programme on the number of institutions, teachers, equipments, space, syllabi, courses, etc., is to be worked
out. Here, one institution is called a project programming and project analysis involves the application of
administrative and economic principles in order to assess a particular situation and establish an operational
programme.
(4) Costing Educational Plans:
Education is an activity wherein the institution and the society bear part of the cost and the learner bears part
of the cost. In order to improve the formulation and implementation of educational plans, it is necessary to
understand the methods of costing education and the problems associated with it.
The unit costs of different types of educational facilities need to be computed. These costs are to be studied
in terms of the availability of present and future financial resources. It should be ensured at this stage that
the real cost of education is not too high so as to be inconsistent with the attainment of the overall plan
objectives.
(5) Decision, Implementation and Evaluation:
A five year plan needs to be broken up into annual plans. Each annual plan is scrutinized, discussed and
criticized in relation to a review of previous year’s strengths, weaknesses and achievements. At this stage,
the necessary conditions for effective implementation of the programme need to be created. Thereafter, the
actual operations take place.
At the end of the plan, evaluation is done in terms of the extent to which the objectives of the plan have been
accomplished in an effective and efficient manner.