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Frequency and
voltage stability

KEY LEARNING POINTS:

Electrical current is transmitted and distributed at specified voltage and frequency levels

A mismatch in supply and demand can cause frequency and voltage changes

One of the roles of the electricity system operator is to ensure that the frequency and
voltage stay within strict limits

Electricity systems are networks of interconnected transmission and distribution wires, carrying
alternating electrical current at specific frequencies and voltages

It is critical that these voltages and frequencies are maintained across the system, otherwise there
could be damage and loss of transmission. So maintaining frequency and voltage stability is central
to the safe and effective operation of electricity systems. Both the frequency and voltage can be
affected if the supply and demand of electricity are not carefully balanced within certain limits.

As explained later in this course, increasing penetrations of variable renewable electricity

generators increase the challenge of maintaining this balance

As a result, it is useful to understand in greater detail what we mean by frequency and voltage,
and why maintaining their stability is important. This is a key consideration of grid operations and
management as shares of variable renewable electricity increase, thereby potentially increasing the
variability of electricity generation into the grid.
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Electrical current is transmitted and distributed at specified voltage and frequency levels

Electrical current, measured in Amps, is the rate of flow of electrical charge through a conducting
wire. Voltage, measured in Volts, is the force that drives this charge through the conductor. Within
an alternating current (AC) transmission or distribution network, electricity fluctuates between
negative and positive voltage many times per second, which means the current flows forwards and
backwards in an alternating manner.

The number of times the voltage changes per second is known as the frequency

This frequency depends on agreed standards within the national or regional grid. Internationally the
two standards are 50 or 60 complete cycles per second (50 Hz or 60 Hz - see Table 1). Figure 1 shows
the difference in time taken for a single full oscillation cycle for 50 Hz and 60 Hz. AC generators
must be synchronised to the grid to match the frequency before they can feed electricity into it.

The voltage fluctuates between the positive and negative peaks

However for the majority of the time the voltage is below the peak. The peak is therefore not a good
way of measuring the voltage level. Instead we use something called the “root mean square (RMS)”
of the voltage (literally the square root of the average of the squared voltage level across the cycle)
to give a more accurate measure. In the example below, the usable voltage for the end consumer is
the RMS voltage of 240 volts, but the voltage will actually peak at 340 volts.
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340
Peak voltage

240
RMS voltage
Voltage (volts)

60 Hz 50 Hz

-340

Time (ms)

Figure 1: Frequency and Voltage Example – 50Hz & 60Hz (single phase).
(Adapted from pumps and systems / world standards.eu)

A mismatch in supply and demand can cause frequency variations

If demand from consumers outpaces supply, then the frequency on the grid can start to fall, meaning
that more electricity needs to be fed-in to return to the correct operating grid frequency. Likewise, if
supply outpaces demand, the frequency may increase above desired levels.

Appliances may not operate safely if used on anything other than the intended frequency

Although some electrical equipment may be able to tolerate minor shifts in frequency, many
electrical appliances such as motors may experience problems if operated at the wrong frequency.
Variations could cause a motor to run faster or slower, as the electrical frequency determines how
fast it rotates. The wrong frequency may cause the motor to run inefficiently, producing excess heat
that could result in damage.
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The grid operates at a range of specified voltages in different parts of the network

High voltages (of many thousands of Volts) are used in the transmission network, with lower voltages
in the distribution network, and much lower voltages (of hundreds of Volts, as shown in Table
1) for delivery to consumers. Voltage is stepped up and down using devices called transformers.
Transmitting electricity at high voltage minimises line losses during transmission. Lower currents
(which are inversely proportional to voltage) reduce the proportion of electrical energy lost as heat.
The voltage must be stepped down to much lower levels for consumers, however, as high voltages
are dangerous.

Country Voltage Frequency

India 230 V 50 Hz

Germany 230 V 50 Hz

China 220 V 50 Hz

United States 120 V 60 Hz

Colombia 110 V 60 Hz

Japan 100 V 50 Hz / 60 Hz*

* Japan uses different frequencies in the north and the south of the
country, requiring a frequency converter to connect the two networks

Table 1: National Frequency and Household Consumer Voltage standards . (Adapted from pumps
and systems / world standards.eu)

Excess supply or demand can cause voltages to increase or decrease beyond desired levels

When demand outstrips electricity supply, the voltage may start to fall, causing an undervoltage
event or ‘brownout’ to occur; this typically happens at the local distribution network level. Within
specified limits, however, most loads will continue to work if the voltage falls. Excess supply could
cause the voltage on the grid to rise, resulting in damage.
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Part of the role of the electricity system operator is to ensure that the frequency and voltage stay
within strict limits

In the UK, for example, the frequency is only allowed to vary by plus or minus 1% around 50Hz.
Likewise, the system operator must additionally make sure voltage levels on the system stay within
defined limits. The variation permitted will depend on the part of the grid concerned: transmission,
distribution or consumption stages.

System operators can instruct generators to vary their output in order to maintain frequency and
voltage stability

Electricity systems consist of generators which provide ancillary or reserve services to maintain
the supply-demand balance over very short timescales (down to the sub-second level). Introducing
variable renewable generation into an electricity system tends to increase the amount of fast
responding reserve services necessary to cope with unexpected short-term fluctuations in output
that result from varying wind speeds or solar insolation levels.

References

UK National Grid, (2017), Product Roadmap for Frequency Response and Reserve

Electricity Northwest, (2014), (UK) Code of Practice 290 Issue 1 - Power Quality, January 2004

Royal Academy of Engineering, (n.d.), The Study of Root-mean-square (RMS) Value (Mechanical,
Electrical, Electronics Engineering)

University of New South Wales School of Physics, (n.d.), RMS and Power in Single and Three-phase
AC circuits

APC & Schneider Electric, (n.d.), The Seven Types of Power Problems (White Paper)

CIFF MOOC 3
Author: Hamish Beath (Imperial College London)