Failure Resulting From Static Loading

1- Ductile materials and brittle materials

The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material characteristics and
strengths that are used in design. Figure 2–l illustrates a typical tension-test
specimen and its characteristic dimensions, the original gauge length l0, is
recorded before the test is begun. The specimen is then mounted in the test
machine and slowly loaded in tension while the load P and the extension δ are
observed. The load is converted to stress σ by the calculation

4P
σ=
Л . dO2

The extension is converted to strain Є by the equation

δ
Є=
LO

The relation between the stress and strain for different loading up to fracture is
plotted as shown in Figure (2)
Ductile materials exhibit the following behaviors regarding stress-strain diagram:
1- There is a notable yield point, where the curve tends to go parallel to the
strain axis (the X-axis), because at yield, the extension per unit load is
hundreds times the extension per unit load before yield.
2- At the point of ultimate strength u, the specimen form a neck.

The specimen after necking

STRENGTH S
Strengths are the magnitudes of stresses at which something of interest occurs,
such as yielding, or fracture. Strength may be defined as the stress level at which
loss of function occurs. Strength is a property of a material which depends on the
type of the material , and the processing of the material. In other words, strength is
an inherent property of a part, a property built into the part because of the use of a
particular material and process.
STRESS σ
When a part is acted upon by an external force F, then each cross-section of the
part resist deformation and tries to maintain its original shape by creating internal
forces of resistance. The stress is physically defined as the intensity of internal
forces per unit area of the cross-section under question. In case of pure tension, the
stress is mathematically, defined by:
P
σ=
A
Where P is the force and σ is the stress
In case of a round bar of diameter d, under a pure tensile force P, the stress will be
given by:
4P
σ=
Л d2
FACTOR OF SAFETY Fs
When designing a machine member, the designer will not calculate the dimensions
based on the strength of the material, because the dimensions thus obtained will be
marginal, and any overload will lead to failure. Designers usually use what is
called a FACTOR OF SAFETY (Fs). Designers based the dimensions of machine
parts using ALLOWABLE STRESS or DESIGN STRESS which is obtained by
dividing the stress by the factor of safety, Thus we can define the factor of safety
from the relation:
S
Fs=
σ all
Where, S is the strength and σall is the allowable stress.
Stress Concentration
Rotating shafts must have shoulders for bearings . Other parts require holes, oil
grooves etc. Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers,
and the regions in which they occur are called areas of stress concentration.
Stress concentrations is defined as the phenomenon of a sudden and drastic
increase of the value of the stress due to an abrupt change in the geometry of the
section.

Theoretical stress-concentration factors Kt or Kts are defined by the equations

 σ mx
Kt= (a)
σ nom

or

σ mx =K t∗σ nom

τ mx
K ts = (b)
τ nom

or

τ mx =K t∗τ nom

where Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses. The nominal stress
σ0 or τ0 is the stress calculated by using the elementary stress equations and the net
cross sectional area. But sometimes the gross cross section is used instead. The
subscript t in Kt means that this stress-concentration factor depends for its value
only on the geometry of the part. That is, the particular material used has no effect
on the value of Kt. This is why it is called a theoretical stress-concentration factor.
Stress-concentration factors for a variety of geometries may be found in the design
texts and in the litrature.
If the material is ductile and the load is static, the design load may cause yieling at
the critical location in the notch which may cause a strain hardening of the
material at that location (increase in the yield strength) , the the designer may set
the tress concentration factor Kt = 1. This is not applicable to brittle materials.