1-Machine Tools - Made Easy PDF

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
TOPICS COVERED
1. MACHINE TOOLS –
LATHE, SHAPER, PLANER, SLOTTER, DRILLING, MILLING,
BROACHING, GRINDING, SUPER FINISHING, THREAD MFG,
GEAR MFG, JIGS & FIXTURES, NON-TRADITIONAL
MACHINING, NC, CNC, DNC, NC PART PROGRAMMING.
2. WELDING –
CLASSIFICATION, WELDABILITY OF COMMON METALS,
METALLURGY OF WELDS, TYPES OF JOINTS, 30 DIFFERENT
WELDING PROCESSES, DEFECTS, DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS,
WELD SPECIFICATIONS
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP E-mail: grcpradeep@gmail.com

MACHINE TOOLS
INTRODUCTION:
The process of metal cutting in which chip is formed is
effected by a relative moment b/w the work piece and the
hard edge of the cutting tool. The relative motion is produced
by a combination of rotary and translatory moments of either
work piece (or) tool (or) both.
Eg: Relative Motion
Machine Tool
Work Tool
Lathe R T
Shaper, Planer T T
Drilling Fixed R&T
Milling T R
Surface Grinding T R
Cylindrical Grinding R&T R
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 2 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
LATHE – MAIN PARTS
CARRIAGE ASSEMBLY
SLIDE
Video SLIDE
1,2
SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE
1) Height of centers over
bed  U.K. spec.
2) Maximum swing over
bed  USA spec.
carriage
Gap
5) Maximum distance b/w
centers
6) Length of bed
7) No. of speeds and
feeds etc.
EARLY LATHES

EARLY LATHES

EARLY LATHES

EARLY LATHES

TYPES OF LATHES
1) Bench lathe: It is a very small lathe mounted on separately
prepared bench or cabinet and used for small, precision
works.

2) Speed lathe: They do not have provision for power feed
and have no gear box, carriage, lead screw etc.
Two or three
spindle
speeds are
available by
cone pulley
arrangement.
They are used
for wood
turning,
polishing,
metal
spinning etc

3) Engine lathe: In olden days lathe was driven by a steam
engine. Hence the name is still in existence even after
modern lathes are provided with motor drive.

4) Tool Room Lathe: It is nothing but the engine lathe
equipped with some extra attachments for accurate and
precision work like taper turning attachment, follower
rest, collets, chucks etc. The bed is relatively small.

5) Capsten & Turret lathes: These are semi automatic type
machines very useful for mass production (small lot sizes).
Less skill is required for operator and wide range of
operations can be performed. They carry special mechanisms
for indexing their tool heads. They are provided with a front
tool post which can hold 4 turning related tools and rear tool
post which can hold 2 to 4 turning related tools. The turrets
can hold only drilling related tools. The turning tools used in
the rear tool post are reverse tools with reverse geometry.
Video
3,4

Turret Indexing
Movement of turret during return stroke

Turret Indexing in Capsten and Turret Lathes
Just before indexing at the end of the return stroke, the locking
pin is withdrawn by the lever which is lifted at its other end by
gradually riding against the hinged wedge as shown.
Further backward travel of the turret slide causes rotation of

the free head by the indexing pin and lever as shown.
Rotation of the turret head by exact angle is accomplished by

insertion of the locking pin in the next hole of the six equi-
spaced holes.

Turret Lathe

Turret Lathe

Capsten Lathe

Capsten Lathe

Turret Lathe Capstan lathe
1. Turret head (square (or) 1. Turret head (round (or) square
hexagonal) is mounted on (or) hexagonal) is mounted on
saddle auxiliary slide that moves on
guide ways provided on saddle
2. The above arrangement gives 2. Less rigidity, vibrations occur,
rigidity as forces are hence suitable for lighter and
transferred to bed. Hence smaller jobs (up to 60mm) and
capable of handling heavy precision work.
jobs (up to 200mm) and
severe cutting conditions.
3 Tool travel is along entire bed 3. Tool travel is limited because of
length auxiliary slide traverse limitation.
4. Tool feeding is slow and 4. Tool feeding is fast and causes
causes fatigue to operator less fatigue to operator hands.
hands
5. No tail stock 5. No tail stock
6) Automatic lathes: These are designed so that all the
working and Job handling movements of the complete
Manufacturing process for a job are done automatically.
No participation of the operator is required during the
operation. They fall in the category of heavy duty, high
speed lathes employed in mass production(large lot sizes).
Geneva mechanism is used for indexing the turret.
Video
Types of automatic lathe: 5,6,7,8,9
1) According to type of stock material
 Bar automatics;  Chucking automatics
2) According to the directions of the axis of m/c spindles
 Horizontal;  Vertical
3) According to No. of spindles
 Single spindle;  Multiple spindle
The general purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely
used for quantity or mass production (by machining) of high
quality fasteners; bolts, screws, studs etc., bushings, pins, shafts,
rollers, handles and similar small metallic parts from long bars or
tubes of regular section and also often from separate small blanks.
Unlike the semiautomatic lathes, single spindle automats are :

• used always for producing jobs of rod, tubular or ring type and of
relatively smaller size.
• run fully automatically, including bar feeding and tool indexing,
and continuously over a long duration repeating the same
machining cycle for each product
• provided with up to five radial tool slides which are moved by
cams mounted on a cam shaft
• of relatively smaller size and power but have higher spindle
speeds
Swiss type automatic lathe
The characteristics and applications of these single spindle
automatic lathes are :
In respect of application:
•Used for precision machining of thin slender rod or tubular
jobs, like components of small clocks and wrist watches in
mass production.
•Job size ⎯ Diameter range – 2 to 12 mm; ⎯ Length range – 3
to 30 mm.
•Dimensional accuracy and surface finish – almost as good
as provided by grinding
In respect of configuration and operation:
•There is no tailstock or turret
•High spindle speed (2000 – 10,000 rpm) for small job
diameter
• The headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock
against the cutting tools as shown
• The cutting tools (up to five in number including two on
the rocker arm) are fed radially
• Drilling and threading tools, if required, are moved axially
using swivelling device(s)
• The cylindrical blanks are prefinished by grinding and are
moved through a carbide guide bush

7) Special – purpose lathes: These are designed to perform
certain specified operations only. Video
Eg: Facing lathe, vertical lathe, crank shaft lathe 10,11,12

WORK HOLDING DEVICES
1) Chucks ----
a) 3 Jaw – Self centering, smaller in size, used for round
cross sections
b) 4 jaw – Not self centering, medium in size, used for round,
square, rectangular cross sections.

c) Collets– Fixed size. They are air operated or hand operated.
Used in – Tool Room lathes, Bar Automatic Lathes,
Vertical Milling m/c to hold end mills.

d) Pneumatic Chucks – In chucking Automatics
Note: In bar automatics the component is parted of from
the bar and in chucking automatics, the component is
released from the chuck and another blank is loaded from
the magazine.
e) Magnetic – Used for ferrous metals in Lathe, Milling,
Surface Grinding machines for light works and also where
Distortion is not permitted like in aerospace components.
f) Vacuum – Similar to above and used for non ferrous
metals

2) Face plate
– Used for
large size
work
pieces
of round,
square,
rectangular,
and also
very
complex
geometries
not possible
in any other
devices.
3) Carriers and catch plates – Used for supporting shafts,
mandrels for imparting rotation.
4) Centers – For supporting

a) Live centre – used with
face plate
b) Dead centre – used in
tail stock

5) Mandrel – Used to support the work pieces and also for
holding hollow parts to meet concentricity requirements
Live Work piece
Centre
Dead
Centre
Face Plate
Mandrel
Carrier Dog
6) Steady rest – mounted on bed, used for long heavy jobs that
deflect centrally by self weight
7) Follower rest – mounted on carriage and moves with tool,
used for long thin jobs that deflect laterally by cutting force.

TOOL POST

TOOL HOLDERS
HSS Tool Holders

Brazed Carbide tip Tool Holders (Can be grinded)

Throw away Carbide Tip Tool holders (Can not be Grinded)

Box Tool Holders – Used in turret lathes to apply heavy cuts
& act as travelling steadies.

OPERATIONS
1) Straight turning: Here
the work rotating about
lathe axis, tool is fed
parallel to it, depth of cut
is perpendicular to it,
thus producing a straight
cylindrical surface. Here
Diameter is effected but
Length is not effected.
2) Shoulder / Step turning:
Same as above except d
that diameter is reduced
Video
only up to certain length.
13
3) Taper turning:- Operation of producing tapered surfaces.
The following methods are used
1. Swiveling of
compound rest –
Any Angle, Any D1
Corresponding D2
Taper length.
L
θ
D1 = Larger Dia
D2 = Smaller Dia
L = Taper length
θ = Half Cone Angle
2θ= Included Angle

2. Tailstock set over – Small Angle, Long Job
Distance
θ
d
f
S = Set over Distance

L = Total Length of Work Piece

3) Form Tool – Any Angle, Short Jobs
4) Combined Feeds – 450 Chamfers

5) Taper turning attachment
The cross slide is delinked
from the saddle and is
moved crosswise by the
guide block which moves
along the guide bar preset
at the desired taper angle.
Thus, the cutting tool,
which is fitted on the cross
slide through the tool post
and the compound slide,
also moves along with the
guide block in the same
direction resulting the
desired taper turning.
4) Facing:- Here the tool is fed
perpendicular to the lathe axis
and depth of cut is parallel to the
lathe axis and thus producing a
flat surface. Here Length /
thickness is effected, but
Diameter is not effected.
5) Knurling:- Process of
embossing a diamond
shaped pattern on work
surface which is used for
gripping purpose.
Video
14
6) Spinning:-
It is the
operation of
pressing and
forming cup
shaped
components
from sheet
metal.
Video
15,16

7) Spring winding:- We can wind spring on lathe. Here coiled
spring can be made by passing a wire around the mandrel
which is rotated in a chuck.
8) Misc. operations:- Drilling, boring, milling, grinding etc.

8)Misc. operations:-
Milling, Grinding

9) Thread cutting:- There are different thread forms like V,
Square, Acme, buttress etc. Here the tool has the shape of
thread profile. Zero rake angle is used for form tools like
threading tool, parting tool, grooving tool etc. Video
17,18

V threads are the standard used on most threaded fasteners
and are by far the most common. Due to its profile, the
square thread is more difficult to machine than a V thread
and is only used where strength and wear resistance make it
worthwhile. The Acme and Buttress threads are easier to
machine.
The Buttress thread can be
used only where the applied
loading is always in one
direction. It is sometimes
used in bench vices. Lead
screw in lathe in combination
with split nut uses an Acme
thread which can apply load
in both directions.
Feed Rod is provided in medium
to big size lathes and is engaged
for other lathe operations except
threading and operates by rack
and pinion operated by change
gears other gears in apron.
Majority of screws are right handed threads. They are
tightened by clock wise rotation. When cut on lathe, tool
advances from right to left. Screws with left handed threads
are used in exceptional cases. They are tightened by counter
clock wise rotation. When cut on lathe, tool advances from
left to right. Spindle rotation is same for both operations but
lead screw rotation is opposite. Left hand threads are used on
lathe spindles, left hand pedal of bicycle, connections on the
acetylene Cylinders (to avoid wrong connections), left-hand
grinding wheel on a bench Helix
grinder, in Turnbuckles in
combination with right handed
threads to adjust the tensions in
cables, tie rods etc. Left Hand Right Hand
Thread Thread
Tapered threads are used for water (or) Gas pipes and
plumbing supplies, which require a water tight (or) air
tight connection. Tapered threads produce a wedging action
and hence produces a pressure tight joint.
Thread Terminology:
Lead – The distance a screw thread advances in one
revolution.
Pitch (P) – The distance between two successive peaks or
valleys.
Lead = P for single start thread
Lead = 2P for double start threads - A double start thread has
two start points.
Lead = 3P for triple start threads - A triple start thread has
three start points.
Thread-Chasing dial
Single
Double
Triple Lathe spindle and lead screw must

be in same relative position for each
cut. Thread-chasing dial is attached
to carriage for this purpose.
Tool Setting on Lathe
1. Setting the tool below the centre decreases the effective rake angle
and increases the effective clearance angle. This increases the
cutting forces.
2. Setting the tool above the centre increases the effective rake angle
and decreases the effective clearance angle. This increases
rubbing with flank surface.
Effective Rake is the change in
the apparent Rake angle w.r.t tool
and work position and not the
actual rake angle provided on the
tool.
1) 2)

TIME ESTIMATION
1) Machining Time = T = Length of cut / (feed x rpm)
= L / (f x N)
f = feed in mm/rev
2) Cutting speed= V = πDN / 1000 m/min
D = Starting diameter of work in mm, N = RPM of work
Note: Some times D is taken as mean diameter also.
3) Combining above two formulae we can write,
T = πDL / 1000fv
3) Feed per minute, fm = f x N
4) Depth of cut = d = (Di – Df) / 2
Di = Initial dia, Df = Final dia
5) Power or Work done = F x V
F = Cutting Force = k x d x f; k = material constant

6) Total Time for Threading = Time per cut x No. of cuts
Time per cut = L / (p x N)
p = Pitch = 1 / No. of threads per unit length
L = Length of W.P + Approach Length + Over Travel
7) Time for Drilling = πDL / 1000fv
L = Depth of hole, D = Dia of drill
8) Time for Boring = πDL / 1000fv
L = Depth to be bored, D = Starting Dia of hole
9) Time for facing = L / (f x N)
L = Radius of W.P
10) MRR = 1000Vfd mm3/min

Gear Train Calculation for Thread cutting:
1) Transformation ratio = Train value = Gear Ratio
= Lead of Work piece / Lead of Lead screw
= Speed of Lead screw / Speed of Work piece
These relations are true for threads cut in metric or inches units. All
lathes are generally provided with set of change gears having teeth from
20 to 120 with a variation of 5 teeth. (20, 25, 30, 35, 40, etc). In addition
the set has gear with 127 teeth called translating gear.
For a simple Gear train,
Gear Ratio =
No. of teeth on Driver Gear
(On Spindle) / No. of
teeth on Driven Gear (On
Lead Screw)
The number of teeth on
intermediate gear has no effect on the gear ratio.
For a Compound Gear train,
Gear Ratio =
(a/b) x (c/d)
a, b, c, d = Teeth of
respective gears

SHAPER
INTRODUCTION: The shaper is a reciprocating type of
machine tool intended primarily to produce flat
surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or
inclined. Here the cutting tool is given a reciprocating
motion, and after every cutting stroke, the work is fed
(during return stroke) to provide an uncut layer for
machining.
Here cutting is not continuous
and hence the machining is
known as Intermittent cutting
operation. This is used for
initial rough machining. The
cutting tool is a single point
tool similar to lathe.
Video
1,2
Bull Gear used in shaper to reduce the speed of rotation
obtained from motor

TYPES
1. According to the type of mechanisms used for giving
reciprocating motion to the ram.
a) Crank Shaper:
Crank and Slotted
lever mechanism is
used to change rotary
motion of the driving
gear called bull gear.

Stroke length = P1P2 = 2AP (CB/AC)

b) Geared Shaper: Rack and pinion mechanism is used.
Geared shapers have
a reversible electric
motor or mechanical
mechanism which
quickly returns the
ram, in readiness for
another cut.

c) Hydraulic Shaper: By hydraulic power i.e. oil with
high pressure is pumped into a cylinder with piston.

Advantages
1) The cutting speed is constant almost throughout the
stroke unlike the other shapers where the speed changes
continuously.
2) Power available remains constant through out hence it is
possible to utilize the full cutting capacity of the tool.
3) The ram stroke reverses quickly with out any shock as
the oil on either side of the piston provides a cushioning
effect hence vibrations are minimum. Inertia of moving
parts is relatively small.
4) The range and number cutting speeds possible are
relatively large and control is simple.
5) More strokes per minute can be obtained by consuming
less time for the cutting and return strokes at a given cutting
speed.
2. According to the position and travel of ram.
a) Horizontal shaper: Reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
b) Vertical shaper: Reciprocates in a vertical axis.
It has a round table that can
rotate and also can be fed
longitudinally and cross
wise. Also the ram can be
reciprocated at an angle up to
100 from the vertical position
enabling machining inclined
surfaces.

c) Traveling head shaper: The ram moves cross wise for
feed during reciprocation. Used for heavy jobs where table
feed is not possible.

3. According to the type of design of the table:
a) Standard Shaper: Table has only 2 movements, to give
feed.
b) Universal shaper:
In addition to the 2
movements, the table
can be swiveled about
a horizontal axis
parallel to the ram
ways and the upper
portion of the table
can be tilted about a
second horizontal axis
┴ to the first axis.
SPECIFICATIONS AND OPERATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS:
1) The max. Length of stroke or cut
2) Table size
3) Return time to cutting time ratio.
4) Number of speeds and feeds.
5) Floor space required
6) Weight of machine etc
OPERATIONS ON HORIZONTAL SHAPERS:

1) Machining Horizontal, Vertical, Angular surfaces
2) Cutting Slots, Grooves, Key ways, Splines, External Gears
etc
OPERATIONS ON VERTICAL SHAPERS:
Similar to Slotters.
TIME ESTIMATION
(1) Cutting speed V = NL(1+m)/1000 m/min
(This theoretical formula is used in calculations)
L = Length of cutting stroke in mm
m = Ratio of return time to cutting time
N = No. of double strokes per min = RPM of bull gear
Note:
1. In actual practice, the cutting speed changes during the
cutting stroke in the crank type and geared type shapers.
Hence the average cutting speed is expressed as:
V = NL(1+m) / 2
2. The stopping point of cutting stroke in hydraulic shapers
can vary depending on the resistance offered to cutting by
the work material.
(2) Time required by cutting stroke = L / 1000V
(3) Return stroke time = m x cutting stroke time= mL/ 1000V
(4) No. of double strokes required to complete the job = W / f
W = Width of W.P.
f = feed in mm (or) mm/Cutting stroke (or) mm/double stroke
(5) Total time taken for one complete cut = LW(1+m)/1000fV
(6) Metal Removal Rate (MRR) = 1000Vfd mm3 / min,
where d = depth of cut in mm
(7) Power consumed = K x MRR hp
where K = constant for calculating horse power consumed
(8) Theoretical peak to valley height = Rt = 0.5 f / tan θ mm
Where 2θ = Angle b/w the two cutting edges in the single
point tool f /2
Rt θ
PLANER
INTRODUCTION: The planer like shaper is a m/c tool
primarily intended to produce plane and flat surfaces by a
single point cutting tool. A planer is very large compared
to shaper. In a planer the work which is supported on
the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and
feed is given by the lateral movement of the tool.
Video
3,4

TYPES
1)Double housing planer (or) standard planer: Has two
vertical housings connected by a cast iron member on top.
Table is mounted on the bed and can reciprocate. The Cross
rail can move up and down on the
vertical housings and one or two tool
heads provided can travel cross wise
for tool feed across the cross rail.

2) Open side planer: Only one side housing and the cross
rail is suspended as cantilever. Used for very wide Jobs.

3) Divided Table Planer: Also called Tandem Planer. This
type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be
reciprocated separately together. This type of design saves
much of the idle time while setting large no. of identical
pieces on the machine.
CROSS RAIL
TABLES

4) Pit planer: It is a massive construction. The table is
stationary, the column carrying the cross rail reciprocates
on massive
horizontal
rails
mounted on
both sides
of the table.
Suitable for
very large
works.

5) Edge or plate planer: This is specially intended for
squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates used for
different pressure vessels and ship building works.

SPECIFICATIONS:
1.The size of the largest rectangular solid that can
reciprocate under the tool.
2. No. of speeds and feeds available,
3. Floor space reqd.
4. Net wt. of machine etc.
OPERATIONS:
(1) Planning flat horizontal, vertical, angular surfaces
(2) Slots and grooves.

SLOTTER
INTRODUCTION:
This operates almost on the same principle as that of a
shaper. Slotter was invented before shaper. Here the ram
reciprocates in a vertical axis. There is no quick return
and the mechanism used for ram is Crank and connecting
rod mechanism. The slotter is provided with a rotary
table that can be moved longitudinally and cross wise.
The slotter is used for making regular and irregular
surfaces both internal and external and also for handling
complex work pieces. Slotter is more robust compared to
vertical shaper.
Video
5,6
TYPES
1) Puncher slotter:
A heavy, rigid
machine, for
removing large
amount of metal
from large
forgings and
castings. The
length of stroke
is very large
(1.8 - 2m).

2) Precision slotter: It
is a lighter machine
and is operated at
high speeds. Used
for accurate finish,
using light cuts.

SPECIFICATION:
1. Length of stroke
2. Diameter of table
3. Amount of cross and longitudinal travel of the table,
4. No. of speeds, feeds,
5. Floor space required
6. Net weight of the machine etc.
OPERATIONS:
1) Machining slots, keyways, grooves of various shapes,
both internal and external, Internal machining of blind
holes, machining of dies, punches etc.
2) Machining flat surfaces, Cylindrical surfaces, Cams,
internal and external gears.
DRILLING
INTRODUCTION: A drilling machine
was primarily designed to originate a
hole, but it can also perform a No. of
similar operations. In a drilling
machine holes may be drilled quickly
and at low cost. The hole is generated
by the rotating edge of a cutting tool
known as the drill which exerts large
force on the work clamped on the table.
The cutting motion is provided by
rotating the drill and feeding is done by
giving rectilinear motion to the drill in
the axial direction. Here the drill used
has two cutting edges called lips. Video
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 91 1 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
TYPES
(1) Portable drilling machine:
This type of D.M. can be operated with ease anywhere
in the work shop and is used for drilling holes in work
pieces in any position which cannot be drilled in a
standard D.M. The entire D.M. including the motor is
compact and small in size. The max. size of the drill that
can accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm.

(2) Sensitive D.M. It is a small
machine designed for drilling
small holes at high speed in light
and small jobs. The base of the
machine may be mounted on a
bench or on the floor. There is
no arrangement for the
automatic feed of the drill
spindle. High speed and hand
feed are necessary
for drilling small holes. As the operator can sense the
progress of the drill it is called S.D.M. Drills size is 1.5
to 15.5 mm can be used in this machine. Super sensitive
D.M. are designed to drill holes as small as 0.35 mm and
can be rotated at a speed of 20,000 rpm or above.
(3) Upright D.M.: This is designed for
handling medium sized W.P. It is
similar to a S.D.M. but is heavier
and larger than S.D.M. and is
supplied with power feed
arrangement.
a) Round Column Section (or) Pillar
D.M.: It consists of round column
and a round table. The table can be
moved up and down on the column for
accommodating W.P. of different
heights. The table may be rotated
360o about its own centre. The max.
size of the hole that can be drilled is
not more than 50mm.
(b) Box Column Section
Upright D.M.: The upright
D.M. with box column
section has a square table
fitted on the slides at the
front face of the machine
column. Heavy box column
gives the machine strength
and rigidity. The table is
raised or lowered by an
elevating screw that gives
additional support to the table.
Heavier W.P. and holes
more than 50 mm dia can be
drilled by it.
(4) Radial D.M: It is intended for drilling medium to
large and heavy W.P. It consists of a heavy, round
vertical column mounted on a large base. The column
supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to
accommodate work pieces of difference heights The arm
may be swung around to any position over the work bed.
The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and
feeding the drill is mounted on the radial arm and can be
moved horizontally on the guide ways and clamped at
any desired position. This can be further classified as 

(a) Plain RDM.:- It has the movements explained above.

(b) Semi Universal RDM:- In addition to the above 3
movement, the drill head can be swung about a
horizontal axis to the arm. This 4th movement of the drill
head permits drilling hole at an angle to the H.P. other
than normal position.
(c) Universal RDM:- In addition to the above 4
movements the drill head may be rotated on a
horizontal axis. All these 5 movements enable it to drill
on a W.P. at any angle and in any plane.

(5) Gang D.M.: When a No. of
single spindle D.M. columns
are placed side by side on a
common base and have a
common, work table, the
machine is known as G.D.M.
In a G.D.M. 4 to 6 spindles
may be mounted side by side.
The speed and feed of spindles
are controlled independently.
This type of machine is specially adapted for production
work. A series of operations may be performed on the work
by simply shifting the work from one position to the other
on the work table each. Spindle may be set up properly
with difference tools for different operations.
(6) Multiple spindle D.M.: The function of the multiple
spindle D.M. is to drill a No. of holes in a piece of work
simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes
in a No. of identical pieces in a mass production work such
machines have several spindles driven by a single motor and
all the spindles holding drills are fed into the work.
Simultaneously. Feeding motion is usually obtained by
raising the work table. But the feeding motion may also be
secured by lowering the drill heads. The spindles are so
constructed that their centre distance may be adjusted in any
position as required by various jobs within the capacity of the
drill head. For this purpose, the drill spindles are
connected to the main drive by universal joints. The spindles
are connected by a number of planetary gears so that even
different size drills can be loaded.
7) Deep Hole Drilling machine: Special machine and drills
are required for drilling deep holes in rifle barrels, long
spindles, oil holes in crank shafts, long shafts etc. The
machine is operated at high speed and low feed. A long
job is usually supported at several points to prevent any
deflection. The work is usually rotated while the drill is
fed into the work. This helps in feeding the drill in a st.
path. The machine may be Horizontal type (or) Vertical
type. The drill is withdrawn automatically each time when
it penetrates in to the work to a depth equal to its dia.
This process permits the chip to clear out from the
work.
Video
2,3

Examples of Deep Hole Drilling

Specifications
1. Max. size of drill that the machine can operate,
2. Max. spindle travel
3. Table diameter / size
4. Morse taper No. of the drill spindle
5. No. of spindle speeds and feeds available.
7. Net wt. of the machine

TERMINOLOGY
Drills are Tang
manufactured
as: Shank
1. Straight
shank drills Neck
(up to ϕ
13.5 mm)
2. Taper shank
Drills (ϕ Body
14.0 mm
onwards)
Tip
Drill Chuck with Chuck key
Morse taper is provided on
all drilling accessories and
Drilling Machine Spindle inside drilling machine
spindle
Drift
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 107
Sleeve Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
DRILL GEOMETRY
Lip angle/ Tip Angle/ Point Angle

Land: Land maintains the alignment of the drill so that hole
is straight and to the right size.

Helix angle: Angle formed b/w a plane containing drill
axis and the leading edge of land. Based on the value of the
angle the drills can be classified as
1) Slow spiral series: 12o to 22o - Used for brass, bronze,
CI that produce broken chips. They provide less lifting
power, but are stronger, used for shallow holes. Also used
in horizontal applications where drill is not rotating.
2) Regular spiral series: 28o to 32o - most widely used
3) Fast/High spiral series: 34o to 38o – Used for softer
ferrous and non-ferrous materials producing long string
like chips. They provide great lifting power, but are weak,
used for deep holes.

Lip angle: Angle formed b/w the cutting edges. Smaller point
angles results in lower effective rake. Effect of change in
effective rake is negligible on drill performance. Less point
angles generate wider and thin chips. Higher point angles
generate narrow and thick chips. Increase in point angle
increases the cutting efficiency of the drill because most
materials are cut efficiently in the form of thick chips. Smaller
the point angle, longer is the lip length and hence reduces load
per unit length of the lip and helps in resisting the wear caused
by abrasive action during machining of metals like C.I.
Lips are the cutting edges that extend from the

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP
centre of the drill
112
to the outer diameter
Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
1) M.S.  1180 (< 180 HB)
2) Steel  1180 (180 - 280 HB)
3) Steel  1350 - 140o (280 – 380 HB)
4) Grey C.I.  900 (< 180 HB)
5) Grey C.I.  1180 (180 - 280 HB)
6) Chilled C.I.  1350 – 1400 (> 350 HB)
7) Aluminum  1180
8) Copper  1180
9) Bronze  1180
10) Brass  1110

Clearance / Lip relief Angle:
Angle formed b/w flank and
a plane normal to drill axis at
the tip of the drill. Large
clearance angles (80–120) are
used for ductile matls. to
compensate elastic recovery.
Small angles (60–80) are used
for brittle matls.

OPERATIONS
1) Drilling – Process of making hole in solid body.
2) Boring – Enlarging a hole completely with an adjustable
tool with only one cutting edge.
3) Counter boring - Enlarging one end of the hole to form
a square shoulder with original hole to avoid projections
in assemblies.
4) Counter sinking - Making a cone shaped enlargement to
provide a recess for a screw head.

5) Reaming – Sizing and finishing a small unhardened hole.
a) Straight flute reamer is used for
through holes in materials that do
not form chips like C.I, Bronze,
Brass. They form fine powder that
will fall by gravity.
b) Left hand spiral flute reamer is
used for through holes in other
a) b) c)
materials and is very effective as
they push the chips out of the
through hole.
c) Right hand spiral flute reamer Manual Reamer &
is used for blind holes as they pull Wrench
the chips out of them.
Chucking or M/c Reamers
6) Lapping – Sizing and finishing a hole already hardened.
7)Tapping–Process of making internal threads in small holes.
Machine Tap with holder Manual Tap

8) Spot facing – Process of smoothing and squaring the
surface around the hole or seat for a nut (or) head of a
screw for burr removal.
Spot facing tools with pilot

Burr
formation
during
drilling
Centre Drill used for making a

centre impression on surface for
locating the drill point.
9) Trepanning – Operation of producing a hole by removing
metal along the circumference of a hollow cutting tool. Used
for producing large holes in plates.
Video
4,5,6

TIME ESTIMATION
1) Cutting speed, V= πDN / 1000 m/min
2) Machining Time, T = L / (f x N) = L / fm
L = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4
L1 = Depth of hole
L2 = Approach length
L3 = Length of tip = 0.29D = 0.5D / tanθ
(where, 2θ = Lip angle)
L4 = Over Travel
3) Depth of cut, d = D / 2
4) MRR = πD2fN / 4

MILLING
INTRODUCTION:
A milling machine is a
machine tool that removes
metal as the work is fed
against a rotating multi
point cutter. The cutter
rotates at a high speed, and
because of the multiple
cutting edges it removes
the metal at a very fast rate.
The first milling machine
came into existence in
about 1770 and was of
French origin.
TYPES
1. Column & knee type: Most commonly used for
general shop work. The table is mounted on the knee
casting, which in-turn is mounted on the vertical slides of
the main column. The knee is vertically adjustable on
the column, so that the table can be moved up and down
to accommodate work of various heights. The table can
be moved longitudinally and cross wise on the knee
casting. Classification of this type is based on methods of
supplying power to the table, diff. movement of the table
and diff. axis of rotation of the main spindle.

(a) Hand milling machine  Feeding is done by hand and
used for light and simple operations like slots, grooves,
keyways. This is available in both horizontal & vertical
models Table movements are as above.

(b) Plain milling
machine  This is a
horizontal type
milling m/c. This is
more rigid and
sturdy, for heavy
work, can be fed by
hand or power.
Table can be fed as
above.
Video
1,2

(c) Universal milling
machine  This is also a
horizontal type milling
m/c. In addition to 3
movements in plain
milling machine the table
has a fourth movement
i.e. it is fed at an angle to
milling cutter. This
enable it to perform
helical milling. This
machine can produce
spur, spiral, bevel gears,
twist drills, reamers,
milling cutters etc.
(d) Omniversal milling
machine  This is a
horizontal type milling
m/c. The extra fifth
movement is the table
can be tilted in vertical
plane by providing a
swivel arrangement at
the knee. This enables
milling in any plane.
Taper spiral groves in
reamers, bevel gears etc
can be done.

(e) Vertical milling machine
Here the position of the
spindle is vertical and ┴ to
the work table. The spindle
head is clamped to the
vertical column and can be
swiveled at an angle . Also
the spindle head can be
adjusted up / down relative
to work. The table
movements are same as
plain milling machine.
Video
3,4

2. Plano Miller:
It resembles a planer. It is
having two spindle heads
adjustable in vertical and
transverse directions. It has
a cross rail which can be
raised or lowered along with
cutters. Hence no. of work
surfaces can be machined
simultaneously, thereby
Video
reducing production time. In
5
a plano miller, the table has
feed movement instead of reciprocation. Hence the table
movement here is much slower than planning machine.
3. Rotary table Machine  A
modification of vertical milling
machine adopted for machining
flat surfaces. A No. of work pieces
can be mounted on a circular table
which rotates about vertical axis.
The face milling cutters can be
mounted on tow (or) more vertical
spindles and can be set at diff.
heights relative to work so that
when one cutter is roughing the
other is finishing them. Continuous
loading and unloading of work
pieces can be done by the operator
while milling is in progress.
4.Planetary milling
machine: Here the
work is held
stationary while the
revolving cutter /
cutters move in a
planetary path to
finish a cylindrical
surface on the work either
internally / externally /
simultaneously. This
machine is particularly
adopted for milling internal
/ external threads of different
pitches.
5. Pantograph milling machine  It can duplicate a job
by using a pantograph mechanism which permits the size o
the work piece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or
greater than the size of a template or model used for this
purpose. A pantograph is a mechanism that is generally
constructed of four bars or links joined in the form of
parallelogram. Pantograph machines are available in 2D or
3D models. 2-D models are used for engraving letters
or other designs, 3-D models are used for copying any
shape and contour of the work piece. The tracing stylus
is moved manually on the contour of the model to be
duplicated and the milling cutter mounted on the spindle
moves in a similar path on the work piece, reproducing the
shape of the model.

Video
6,7

SPECIFICATIONS
1. The max. length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel
of the table.
2. No. of spindle speeds,
3. No. of table speeds and feeds
5. Net weight required
6. Spindle nose taper (for vertical milling machine spindle
and arbors)

MILLING GEOMETRY
Peripheral cutter: As the cutting edges are arranged radially
on the periphery the rake angle is called radial rake which is
the cutting edges angle w.r.t to the periphery of the cutter. +ve
radial rake gives better performance in peripheral milling.
Face cutter: Two rake angles are defined here.
(a) Radial rake is the cutting insert’s angle w.r.t the periphery
of the cutter
(b) Axial rake is the cutting insert’s angle w.r.t the central axis
of the cutter.
Axial Rake has significant effect on axial force and thrust
applied to the spindle. Radial rake has major effect on
tangential and radial forces. +ve axial rake, - ve radial rake
gives best performance.
PERIPHERAL CUTTER

FACE CUTTER
Side View
Bottom View
METHODS OF MILLING
1. Peripheral Milling: It is the operation performed by a
milling cutter to produce a machined surface parallel to the
axis of rotation of the cutter. Here the cutting force is not
uniform throughout the length of cut by each tooth. Due to
this reason, a shock is developed in the mechanism of the
machine that leads to a vibration. The quality of surface
generated and the shape of the chip formed is dependent
upon the rotation of the cutter relative to the direction of feed
movement of the work. According to the relative movement
between the tool and work, the peripheral milling is
classified into two types:

(a) Up milling/ Conventional milling: The metal is removed
by the cutter which is rotated against the travel of the W.P.
The thickness of the chip is min. at the beginning of cut max.
when the cut terminates. The cutting force is directed up
wards and this tends to lift the work from the fixtures. This
is used for roughing operations. The chips accumulate at the
cutting zone, and
may be carried
over with the
cutter, spoiling
the work surface.
It generates a poor
finish. Cutting
force and power
are more.
(b) Down milling/ Climb milling: The metal is removed by
the cutter which is rotated in the same direction of travel of
the W.P. The thickness of the chip is max. when the tooth
begins its cut and it reduces to the min. when the tooth
leave the work. The cutting force is directed down wards and
this tends seat the work firmly in the work holding devices.
Hence fixture design is easier. This operation cannot be used
on old machine as the back lash error present in the screw
elements that may cause vibration and damages the work
surface considerably. Hence this operation should be
performed on rigid machines provided with back last
eliminator. This is used for finishing operations. The chips
are also disposed off easily and do not interfere with the
cutting. This results in improved surface finish. Cutting
force and power are less.
BACKLASH ELIMINATOR: This eliminates the backlash
(play) between nut and table lead screw. Two independent nuts
are mounted on lead screw. The nuts engage common crown
gear which meshes with rack. The axial movement of rack is
controlled by the backlash eliminator, engaging a knob on
front of saddle. Turning the knob forces the nuts to move
along lead screw in opposite directions.
2. Face Milling: This is performed to produce a flat
machined surface to the axis of rotation of the cutter. In this
operation both up milling and down milling may be
considered to be performed simultaneously on the work
surface. When the cutter rotates through half of the
revolution the direction of movement of the cutter tooth is
opposite to the direction of feed and the condition reverse
when the cutter rotates through other half of revolution.
The chip thickness is min. at the beginning and at the end o
the cut, and it is max. when the work passes through the
centre line of cutter. The surface generated in face milling
is characterized by the tooth circular marks of the cutter.
Face milling gives superior finish than peripheral milling.

Draw Bolt
Spindle
Cutter Holder
Spindle Nose Taper

3. End Milling: It is a combination of peripheral and face
milling operations. The cutter has cutting edges both on the
end face and on the periphery. The cutting characteristics
may be of peripheral or face milling type according to the
particular cutter surface used. When end cutting edges are
only used to remove metal, the direction of rotation and
direction of cutters should be same. When peripheral cutting
edges are used, they must be opposite to each other.

Draw Bolt
Collet Holder
Collet Wrench
Collet
End Mill

TAPER USED IN MILLING MACHINES
American Standard Taper of

3.5” per foot is made standard
taper in all milling machines
built in U.S.
Brown and Sharpe Taper of 0.5”

per foot is also widely used on
collets, end mills, arbors,
milling machine spindles and
grinding machine spindles.

OPERATIONS
1. Plain Milling : Producing plain, flat horizontal surface.
This is called slab milling if performed with a peripheral
cutter and called face Milling if a face milling cutter is
used.
2. Side Milling: Producing flat vertical surface on the side of

a work piece by using side milling cutter.

3. Straddle Milling: Producing flat vertical surfaces on both
sides of the work piece by using two side milling cutter
mounted on the same arbor. The distance between the two
cutter can be adjusted by using spacing colors.
4. Gang Milling:Machining several surfaces simultaneously

using a No. of cutters of same or diff. diameters mounted
on the arbor of the machine, used widely for repetitive work

5. Form Milling: Producing irregular contours using form
cutters like concave, convex or any other shape.
Convex Cutter
Concave Milling
Convex Milling
Concave Cutter
6. End milling: Producing flat surfaces which may be

vertical, horizontal or at an angle in reference to the table
surface like slots, grooves, key ways, steps etc. A vertical
milling machine is most suitable for end milling.

7. Saw milling: Producing narrow slots or grooves using
saw milling cutter. It can also be performed for complete
parting off operation.
8. Gear cutting: By using form relieved cutter having the

same profile of the tooth space of the gear.
9. Helical Milling: Producing helical flutes or grooves
around the periphery of a cylindrical or conical work piece.
10. Cam Milling: Producing cams by using universal dividing
head and a vertical milling attachment. Video
Note: 8, 9, 10, above can be done in indexing. 8
INDEXING
It is the operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of
work into any No. of equal parts. This is adopted for
producing hexagonal and square headed bolts cutting
splines on shafts, flutes in milling cutters, drills, taps and
reamers, cutting of Gears, cams etc. Indexing is
accomplished by using a special attachment known as
dividing head or Index head. They are of 3 types 
1) Plain / Simple dividing head 2) Universal Dividing head
3) Optical Dividing head
Using these dividing heads, the work can be set in vertical,
horizontal or in inclined positions relative to the table
surface. There are several methods of indexing. The choice
of any one method depends upon the No. of divisions
required and
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP
the type of dividing
152
head used. Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com
PLAIN / SIMPLE INDEXING HEADS
Video
9

UNIVERSAL INDEXING HEADS

OPTICAL INDEXING HEADS

METHODS OF INDEXING
1) Direct Indexing: Also called rapid indexing, is used
making small No. of divisions. This can be performed in
both plain and universal dividing head. The spindle and index
crank are connected by bevel gears. The required No. of
divisions on the work is obtained by means of the rapid index
plate generally fitted to the front end of the spindle nose.
The plate has 24 equally spaced holes, into any one of
which a spring loaded in is pushed to lock the spindle with
the frame. While indexing, the pin is first taken out and then
the spindle is rotated by hand, and after the required
position is reached, it is again locked by pin. when the
plate is turned throughout the required part o a revolution,
the dividing head spindle and the work are also turned
through the same part of the revolution.
With a rapid index plate having 24 holes, it is possible to
divided the work into equal divisions of all factors of 24 i.e.
2,3,4,6,8,12,24
Video
10
Rule:
No. of holes = No. of holes in the direct index plate
to be moved No. of divisions reqd.
Q) Find out the index movement required to mill a

hexagonal bolt by direct indexing.
Ans. No. of holes to be moved = 24/6 = 4
After machining one side of the bolt the index plate will
have to be moved by 4 holes for 5 times to machining the
remaining 5 faces of the bolt.
2) Simple Indexing: Also called plain indexing, is more
accurate and suitable for numbers beyond the range of rapid
indexing. The bevel gears are replaced by a worm and worm
wheel. The shaft carrying the crank has a single threaded
worm and it meshes with the worm wheel on spindle having
40 teeth. 40 turns of crank are necessary to rotate the spindle
thro' one revolution,
i.e one complete turn
of the index crank
will cause the worm
wheel to make 1/40
of a revolution. For
indexing fractions of
a turn, various index
plates are used.
Rule:
Index crank movement = 40/N,
where N = No. of divisions required.
If the crank movement obtained from the formula is a
whole No. the index crank should be rotated equal to the
whole No. derived. If the crank movement obtained from
the above formula is a whole No. and a fraction then, the
numerator and denominator of the fraction are multiplied by
a suitable common No. which will make the denominator of
the fraction equal to No. of holes in the index plate. The new
numerator now stands for the No. of holes to be moved by
index crank in the hole circle derived from denominator, in
addition to the complete turns of crank.
Eg: Index plates- 12, 14, 16, 18, 21 hole circles etc.
Q) Set the dividing head
to mill 30 teeth on a spur
wheel blank. Use 21 hole
index plate.
Ans.
Index crank movement
= 40/30 = =
=
Thus for indexing, one
complete turn and 7 holes
in 21 hole circle of the index plate will have to be moved by
the index crank, if 21 hole plate is selected. This can also be
performed with 18 hole plate [ ] or 24 hole plate [ ]
also.
Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 160
3) Compound indexing:- The indexing method is called
compound due to the two separate movement of the index
crank in two diff. hole circles of one index plate to obtain a
crank movement not obtainable by plain indexing.
4) Differential Indexing: The differential indexing may be

considered as an automatic method of performing
compound indexing. Here the Index crank is connected to
milling machine feed rod through a set of gears to get
continuous rotation for spindle for making helical grooves as
shown.

Setting of universal dividing head for spiral or helical grooves
Video
11
Setting of universal dividing head for spiral or helical grooves

TIME ESTIMATION
1. Time required per cut = L / (f x N) = L / fm
L = L1+ ATT
L1=Length of W.P ; ATT = Added Table Travel
2. Total Milling time= Time per cut x No. of cuts(or) Indexing
3. Cutting speed, V = πDN / 1000; D = Cutter Diameter
4. Feed per tooth. ft = f / Z = fm / NZ, Z = No. of teeth
5. MRR = Wdfm ; d = depth of cut; W= Width of WP
Calculation of ATT: Operations performed on the milling
machines are done by peripheral cutters / slab cutters
(Horizontal M/c) and face cutters or end mills (Vertical M/c).
a) For Peripheral / Slab Cutters
∆ = Clearance at entry /exit

L = L1 + AL + OT + 2∆
(i)
AL ∆ L1 ∆ OT
L = L1 + AL + 2∆
(ii)
AL ∆ L1 ∆

L = L1 + AL + ∆
(iii)
AL L1 ∆
L = L1 + AL + OT
O
(iv)
B
A d
C
AL L1 OT
(v) Maximum uncut chip thickness =
(vi) Average uncut chip thickness =
(vii) Peak to valley height for surface roughness =
(viii) Effective no. of teeth cutting at same time =
(ix) Mean Tangential Force =Fmt = K d fm W / πDN

K = Material Constant
(x) Mean Cutting Power = Fmt V
b)For Face Cutters/End Mills
i) Tool fully engaged, Roughing Pass –
doesn’t require “Full Wipe”
ii) Tool fully engaged, Finishing Pass –

requires “Full Wiping ” (Single pass feed)
iii) Tool not fully engaged with W<D/2;
iv) Tool not fully engaged but W> D/2;

OT
L = L1 + OT
L1
(i) W O A B
W/2
(ii) AL = 0.5 cm L1 OT = 0.5 cm
W
W/2
L = L1 + AL + OT + D
(iii) AL L1 OT
W
A
B
O
AL L1 OT
(iv)
AL = OT = D/2
BROACHING
Broach is bar type cutter with series of cutting edges
gradually increasing in size to remove all materials in one
stroke. In broaching there is only one motion, i.e. the
primary cutting motion is provided by the machine, where
as the feed is obtained by placing the teeth progressively
deeper. Since there is no feed motion, the shape of the
broach determines the shape of the machined part.
Broach is used to produce internal forms like spline holes,
non-circular holes, slots, grooves, gears etc. Internal
broaching is done by either pulling (or) pushing the broach
through a hole drilled in the work piece. Pulling is highly
preferred to facilitate alignment and avoid buckling.
Video
1,2
External forms can also be produced by using pot broach.
Here the broach is made in segments and fixed inside a
fixture called pot fixture. The broach is stationary but the
W.P. is pulled / pushed through it.
Pot broach
Internal broaches
GRINDING
Introduction: Grinding is the process of removing excess
material by the abrasive action of a rotating wheel on the
surface of the work piece. It is basically a finishing process
employed to produce high accuracy and surface finish. The
grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals called abrasives
held together by suitable bonding. Natural abrasives available
in nature include sand stone (natural silica), diamond,
corundum and emery (natural alumina). Artificial abrasives
are free from impurities and possess better performance
properties. They include Al2O3, SiC, CBN etc.

Natural Silica Corundum Emery
White Al Oxide SiC CBN

The various bonding materials used are:
a) Vitrified bond (V) – It is made of clay and feldspar (rock
forming mineral in earth’s crust). This is the strongest bond
of all and is not effected by water/oils/acids. Vitrified bond is
suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It
cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are likely to occur. This bond is also not
recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
b) Resinoid bond (B) – It is a synthetic thermosetting resin
(phenolic resins) that becomes hard after heating. This
occupies next place to Vitrified bond. Conventional abrasive
resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load.
c) Silicate bond (S) – It is made of sodium silicate and is used
for operations that generate less heat.
d) Rubber bond (R) – It is made of synthetic or natural
rubber. Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off
operation. They are denser than resinoid bonds but are less
heat resistant. Rubber bond was once popular for finish
grinding on bearings and cutting tools. They are also used for
making regulating wheels in centreless grinding.
e) Shellac bond (E) – This is also an organic bond and has
considerable strength. This not suitable for heavy duty work.
At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off wheels. At
present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding wheels
engaged in fine finish of rolls.

Vitrified Bond Resinoid Bond Silicate Bond
Rubber Bond Rubber Bond Shellac Bond

Parting Wheels Regulating Wheels
Specification of Grinding Wheel
Eg: 51 A 60 K 5 V 05
51 – Manufacturer’s identification no. for exact kind of
abrasive used
A – Type of abrasive
A – Al2O3, B – CBN, C – SiC, D – Diamond
60 – Average grit size or Mesh Size - 8-24 – Coarse;
30-60 – Medium; 80-180 – Fine; 220-600 – Very fine
K – Hardness of wheel (Bonding Strength)
→ A – Softest to Z – Hardest
5 – Porosity of wheel → 1 to 15/20
1- Low porosity / Closed structure / More denser
15/20- High porosity / Open structure / Less denser
V – Bonding material
05 – Wheel manufacturer’s identifier
Classification of Grinding Machines Video
Surface Grinding M/c: Similar to Milling 1,2,3,4
a) Horizontal Machine b) Vertical Machine

Cylindrical Grinding M/c: Similar to lathe. Can perform both
External and Internal Grinding.
Video
5

Centerless Grinding M/c: a) External Machine
Video
6,7

Centerless Grinding M/c: b) Internal Machine

EXTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING
INTERNAL CENTRELESS GRINDING
Feeding System in External Machine
1) Through feed is for step less small components like piston
pins, rollers of roller bearings, cam shafts, dowel pins.
Here the regulating wheel rpm is less and also inclined.
2) In feed / Plunge feed is for stepped components like Bolts,
valve tappets etc. Stopper is provided.
3) End feed is for tapered components. Here the grinding
wheel and regulating wheel are profiled to get the taper.

Special Grinding M/c
a) Tool & Cutter grinder b) Thread Grinder
Video
8

Creep feed Grinding: It is different
from conventional grinding. Here the
entire depth of cut is completed in one
pass only using very small feed rates
(0.005 mm/pass). High depth of cuts
of order 1 to 30 mm with low speeds
of 1 to 0.025 m/min are used. Cutting
forces and power required are more.
Open and soft wheels are used to
accommodate large volume of chips
generated. The cutting fluids are oil
based due to low grinding speeds. This
is mainly used for grinding work pieces made out of hard
materials with deep slots or complex profiles and also for
removing large amounts of material.Wheel wear rate is more.
Different Dressers
Video
9,10
Radius & Angular
Dressing Attachment
Dressing: Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface
which ensures that grit cutting edges are exposed from the
bond and thus will be able to penetrate into the work piece
material and substantially influence the condition of the
grinding wheel.
Truing: Truing is the act of regenerating the required

geometry on the wheel. Truing is required whenever a new
wheel is loaded to ensure concentricity with machine spindle.
It is done with a diamond truing tool by removing the outer
layer and creating a concentric layer w.r.t the spindle axis.
Glazing: Glazing of the wheel is nothing but abrasive

particles getting blunt. As they can be removed by dressing,
grinding wheels are called self sharpening wheels.
Loading / Clogging: It is the condition when pores of the
grinding wheel get filled/clogged with chips. This can occur
due to grinding of soft materials or by improper selection of
grinding wheels or improper process parameters or improper
cutting fluids. Dressing will remove the clogged layer.

Note: 1.The specific energy requirement in Grinding
(50 J/mm3)is more than that required in turning (2 - 5 J/mm3).
This is because of the large contact area between the wheel
and the work resulting due to the large no. of cutting edges.
2. The Grinding wheels have random geometry. The rake
angle varies from +450 to -600 and more. The negative rake
increases the cutting forces and promote rubbing action
affecting the cutting action. Hence high rotational speeds are
used for minimizing the effect of negative rake.
3. The ratio of thrust force to cutting force in Grinding is > 1.
This is opposite in turning (i.e < 1).
4. Soft wheels are used for hard materials as they break
easily to release worn out grains (High self sharpening
capability). Hard wheels are used for soft materials as wear
out is less and they retain the grains for more time.
5. GRINDING RATIO:
• Grinding Ratio or G Ratio is the cubic mm of stock
removed divided by the cubic mm of wheel lost.
• In conventional grinding it is 20:1 to 80:1
• It is a measure of grinding production and reflects the
amount of work a wheel can do during its useful life.
• As the wheel loses material it must be reset to maintain the
required work piece size.
6. Al. oxide is the preferred abrasive compared to SiC to
grind high tensile strength material like steel as Al. oxide is
tougher than SiC. Also Al. oxide shows higher chemical
inertness towards steel giving more wear resistance during
grinding.

SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES
The surface finish produced by various processes are:
PROCESS: SURFACE FINISH (µm) : TYPE OF PROCESS
Turning, boring : 0.05 to 25 : Machining Process
Milling : 0.25 to 25 : Machining Process
Planning, shaping : 0.375 to 25 : Machining Process
Drilling : 0.75 to 12.5 : Machining Process
Reaming, Broaching : 0.5 to 6.25 : Machining Process
Grinding : 0.025 to 6.25 : Finishing Process
Honing : 0.025 to 1.5 : Super Finishing Process
Lapping : 0.013 to 0.75: Super Finishing Process
Burnishing : 0.01 to 0.25 : Super Finishing Process

Honing
This is used for finishing the inside surface of a hole. It can
also be used for finishing external surfaces. Here abrasives
are in the form of sticks which are mounted on a mandrel
which is given a reciprocating motion along the hole axis
super imposed on a uniform rotary motion. The grit size is
b/w 80 to 600 mesh size. Honing finds special application for
cylinder bores as it produces a cross hatched pattern useful
for lubrication. Special cutting fluids like sulphurised oils are
used. Honing can also be used for finishing gears where tool
is made in plastic or any bonding material impregnated with
abrasives.
Video
1

Lapping
This is another operation for improving accuracy and finish.
A lap is generally made of material softer than work and has
the same shape of the opposed mating part. Straight narrow
grooves are cut at 90o on the lap surface and abrasive
powder is sprinkled on the surface. The W.P. is then held
against the lap and moved in unrepeated paths. A suitable
fluid (carriers) is also applied like M/C oil, grease etc. In
hand lapping, the work / lap is moved along a path in the
form of ‘8’. C.I. is the mostly used lap material, other
material are soft steel Cu, Brass, hardwood etc. Abrasives
are oxides of Al, Si, Cr and diamond etc. The grit size is b/w
120 to 1200 mesh size. This process has wide applications
like Gauges, Measuring wires, M/c Spindles, Threads, Gears,
bearing races etc.
Video
2,3
Burnishing
It consists of pressing hardened steel balls or rolls on to the
surface of W.P. and also imparting feed motion to the same
so that it causes plastic flow of minute irregularities like
dents, projections etc.
Eg: Burnishing of shafts.
Shaft
burnished
on lathe
Video
4
Hydraulic cylinders
roller burnished on lathe
THREAD MANUFACTURING
Threads are of prime importance to Engg. They are used as
fasteners to transmit power / motion. The following are the
methods of thread mfg.
Casting Methods:
Threads made by sand casting are rough
and not used much, except some times
in vices and rough machinery like
construction equipment, mouth of glass bottles, spun cast iron
pipes etc.
Threads made by die casting are very accurate and of high

finish. But as they can be made with low melting point non
ferrous metals, they are not fit for repeated use and hence
used in sewing machines, toys, type writers etc.
Forming Methods: Video - 1,2,3
Thread Rolling is a cold working process in which a blank of
dia. approximately equal to pitch dia (or) effective dia of
reqd. thread is rolled between hardened steel rolling dies
having the thread profile. This is the fastest method of
producing threads at a rate of 200 to 1000 pieces / min.Being
chip less forming there is lot of material saving. This is
limited to external threads only (up to dia. 25 mm). This is
widely used for mass production
of fasteners like bolts, screws etc.

Machining Methods:
Thread cutting on lathe by a single point
tool is a slow process but produces very
accurate threads. Hence to increase
productivity thread chasing has been
developed with a little compromise on quality where a partly
cut thread using a single point tool (one or two cuts) is
finished by a multi point tool called thread chaser in one cut.
Threads are cut in milling (internal & external) by a form

cutter having the thread profile. It is more efficient and
productive than lathe, when large amount of metal is to be
removed. Special purpose machines are also available. Used
for coarse threads, trapezoidal threads etc.

Finishing Methods:
Thread Grinding is used for producing very accurate
threads. This is employed to cut threads on hardened
materials, for which other methods are not possible. This is
used to cut threads on taps, micro meter screws, lead
screws, thread gauges, thread milling cutters etc. The
principle of thread grinding is same as thread milling. A
thread grinding m/c. is similar to that of a cylindrical
grinding m/c.
Miscellaneous Methods:
Taps are used for cutting internal
threads in small holes.
Dies are used for cutting external
threads on pipes and small parts.
GEAR MANUFACTURING
Gears are used extensively for transmission of power and
find wide application in automobiles, oil engines, machine
tools etc. The following are manufacturing methods.
Casting Methods:
Sand casting is used
for large size gears used
in farm machinery and
Hand operated devices like
cement mixer barrels, hoist gear box of dam gate lifting etc.
Large quantity of small gears are made by Die Casting and
used in lawn movers, instruments, cameras, toys etc.
Video
1

Light gears of thermo
plastics are made by
Injection moulding and
used in toys, projectors,
Wind shield wipers, Xerox
m/c, Washing m/c,
Speedo meters,etc.
Centrifugal casting is used for making phosphor bronze (as it

is resistant to sliding loads) worm wheel rims.
Gear blanks are made by semi centrifugal casting.

Forming methods: Video - 2
Roll forming is the method where
the gear blank is mounted on a shaft and is pressed in hard
rolling dies. Both spur and helical
gears can be made.
Extrusion is used for small sized gears. After
extrusion, a no. of gears can be parted from
extruded rod of gear. Operations like piercing,
hole upsetting are needed after parting and
find application in clocks, typewriters, toys etc.
Sheet metal blanking is used
for producing thin metallic
gears form sheet metal to be
used in wrist watches, toys,
electricity & water meters etc.
Machining methods:
a) Form cutter methods: They use a form tool having the
shape of teeth space. Disadvantages are low productive, less
accurate, high tooling cost as they need a change in tool if no.
of teeth or pitch dia. is changed.
Gear can be cut in shaper by a single point form tool. To
increase productivity a shear speed process called shear speed
gear shaper was developed which uses a ring of single point
form tools arranged radially to cut all teeth simultaneously.
This method is economical only for large qty production.
Gear can be cut by milling using rotating form cutter. It is
used for spur, helical, bevel and racks and has the same
disadvantages.
Gear cut by broaching are very accurate and used for large
qty production but has same disadvantages except accuracy.
b) Gear Generating method: The process is based on the
principle that any two gears of same module will mesh
together properly (module = pitch dia / no. of teeth). If one
of the gears is made into a cutter by proper sharpening and
it meshes with the gear blank, then the teeth on the blank are
developed / generated by the relative rolling and
reciprocation motion of the cutter and the blank (for Planing
and Shaping only, for Hobbing it is rotation of hob and blank,
feeding of hob and tilting of hob at the helix angle). The
major advantage of generating is that same cutter of
particular module can cut gears of different no. teeth.

If the generating tool is a rack it is called Gear Planing. If the
generating tool is a pinion, it is called Gear Shaping. If the
generating tool is threaded and gashed (like worm) it is called
hob, and the process is called Gear Hobbing. Gear planning is
less accurate than other generating methods but more
accurate than form cutting methods. Gear Hobbing is highly
productive and highly accurate among all generation
methods. Gear planning and Gear Hobbing are limited to
external gears only. Gear Shaping can be used for both
internal and external gears.

Gear Planing Gear Shaping
Video
3

Video
4
Gear Hobbing

Finishing methods: Video – 5,6
For smooth running, and good performance, the gears should
be accurate. Common finishing methods that are employed
after machining are:
(a) For soft & unhardened gears →
1. Gear shaving: Shaving cutters
perform minute cutting of flash or
burr, correct profile errors, etc
when meshed with machined gears.

2. Gear burnishing: Gears are rolled under pressure with
hardened gears to cause plastic flow of minute irregularities
like dents, projections, cutter marks etc and also work
hardens the surface creating beneficial compressive residual
stresses.
(b)For hard &

hardened
gears →
1. Grinding using
form wheels

2. Honing 3. Lapping

JIGS AND FIXTURES
Jig:- It is a device which
holds and positions the
work with the help of
locating pins and clamps
and locates (or) guides
the cutting tool relative to
the work. It is of lighter
construction and is
usually not fixed to the
m/c. They are used for
drilling and related
operations like reaming,
tapping, counter boring
etc.
Fixture: It is a
device which only
holds and positions
the works but does
Machine Vice
not itself locate (or)
guide the cutting
tool. It is of heavy
construction and is
usually fixed to the
machine. They are
used in turning,
shaping, milling,
grinding etc.

Locating pins: These are inserted in the body of Jigs and
fixture to establish the desired relationship between work
and jig or fixture.
Clamps: These are used to hold the work piece opposite to
the action of cutting forces when ever fixtures are unable to
do so.
Principles of pin location:
1) Principle of minimum locating pins: The no. of locating
pins used must be as min as possible.
2) Principle of extreme positions: The locating pins must be
placed as far as possible from each other to achieve greatest
degree of accuracy in location.
3) Principle of mutually ┴ planes: The work should be
located such that the planes in which it is located are
mutually ┴
3-2-1 Principle of pin location

Also called 6 - Point location principle. For anybody in free
space there are 6 translatory moments and 6 rotary moments
about x-y-z axis hence these 12 degrees of freedom (dof) are
to be arrested for performing the machining operation. The
figure shows how six pins can be used to arrest 9 dof. The
pins A, B & C will not allow rotation about X & Y axis and
also downward movement restricting 5 dof. The pins D & E
will not allow rotation about Z-axis and also leftward
moment arresting 3 dof. The pin F will not allow backward
moment and hence arresting 1 more dof. To arrest the
remaining 3 dof, 3 more pins will be required but this will
enclose the work completely and makes loading (or)
unloading of work piece impossible. Thus to arrest these
clamping devices are used.

Classification of locating pins
1) Locating pins: These are used when
work pieces are having holes in them and
are used for location purpose.
a) Conical pins – Provide line contact and
used for light jobs. Also can accommodate
work pieces with varying hole sizes.
b) Cylindrical / Round pins – Provide

surface contact and used for heavy jobs.
They can not accommodate work pieces
with varying hole sizes. Provides uniform
all around sliding clearance when work
piece sits on it.

c) Diamond pins – To be used in combination with round
pins. They provide more lateral clearance and will take care of
pitch distance variation in work pieces.

2) Support pins:
These are used
when work
pieces are not
having holes in
them.
a) b)
a) Fixed Type – When work piece is having uniform
dimensions. (Fixed Distance)
b) Adjustable Type – When piece is having non-uniform
dimensions. (Adjustable Distance)
3) Jack Pins: – Used to accommodate different work pieces
with different sizes and also in press tools for sheet metal
location
V-Locators: – Used for locating
circular or semi-circular work
pieces.

Principles of clamping
1. The clamping pressure applied must counteract with the
tool forces.
2. The clamping pressure should not deform the work piece.
3. The clamping should be simple, quick and foolproof.
4. The clamping pressure must be directed towards the point
of support, otherwise the work may lift from the support.
5) Clamp should be arranged above the point of support. If
not the clamping force may distort the work piece.

TYPES OF CLAMPS
1. Light Clamping:
a) Clamping Screws b) Hook Bolt Clamp

2. Rigid Clamping – Lever type clamps:
b) Swinging
Latch Clamp
a) Bridge Clamp
d) Hinged Clamp
c) Heel / Dog Clamp
3) Quick Clamping:
a) Quick Acting Nut
b) C-Clamp c) Cam operated clamp

Spherical Washers: They accommodate misalignment
between clamp surface and camping nut due to inclination of
the strap. This can be done by using a pair of spherical
washers (male and female) instead of using a plain washer.

Types of Drill Jigs
1)Template Jigs:- A template jig
consists of a hardened template with
holes in required position to guide
the drill. Here it is not possible to
vary the size of the drill.
2) Plate type jig:- It is similar to the

above and is provided with Jig bushes
instead of simple holes. Hence the
same plate can be used for different
size of the drill by replacing the jig
bush provided the configuration of
work piece is not changed.
3) Box-type Jig :- This is 4) Swinging leaf Jig :- This
used when holes are to be will help easy loading and
drilled in more than one unloading of work piece.
plane.

Note: Jigs can be made for drilling when large qty work pieces
are required, otherwise it can be managed by marking and
centre punching. But for drilling related operations like
Reaming, Tapping, Counter boring etc, it is compulsory
irrespective of qty of production.
Types of fixtures:
1) Turning fixtures: Chucks, face plates, mandrels.
2) Shaper fixtures: M/c Vice
3) Milling fixtures: Milling m/c. vices, Setting blocks.
4) Surface grinding fixtures:
Magnetic chucks (Ferrous metals),
Vaccum chucks (Non-Ferrous metals)
5) Cylindrical grinding fixtures:
Chucks, Face plates, Mandrels – (external grinding)
Chucks, Face plates – (internal grinding)
Setting Blocks – Used to set the work in relation to cutters
Design principles common to jigs & Fixtures
1) The methods of location and clamping should be such
that less time is consumed.
2) The jig / fixture must be as open as possible to enable the
operator to remove the chips during operation.
3) Enough clearance must be provided to allow for variation
in components sizes.
4) The Jig & fixture must be as rigid as possible.
5) Ejector devices must be used to

force the work out of the Jig (or)
fixture due to : a) Work piece is heavy
b) Use of cutting fluids creates a
film b/w surfaces which causes the
work piece stick to the surface
NON-TRADITIONAL M/C ING PROCESS
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM): Video
1

This involves use of a high speed stream of abrasive particles
(100 to 300m/s) carried by a high pressure (2 to 10 bar) gas
(Co2,N2) / air on the work surface through a nozzle (ID = 0.2
to 1mm). The metal removal occurs through erosion caused
by abrasive particles impacting the surface at high speed.
The size and shape of the cut is controlled by moving the
nozzle / work piece by cams, pantographs (or) other
mechanisms. The abrasives generally used are Al2O3, SiC,
glass powder, etc. General Abrasive size is 10-50µm. Best
cutting is achieved if size is b/w 15 µm to 20 µm. Nozzle
life for WC is 30hrs. Sapphire (Gem Stone) is 300 hrs.
Mass flow rate of abrasives – 2 to 20 gm/min
Flow rate of air / gas – 5 to 30 lit/min
Stand-off Distance or Nozzle tip distance – 0.5 to 5 mm
Mixing ratio – Mass flow ratio of Abrasives to Gas / Air
Applications: Producing different shapes/cavities in
hard/brittle materials, fragile materials like Ag, Germanium,
heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz, mica, silicon,
Gallium, cleaning and polishing of plastics/Nylon/Teflon
components, ceramics, deburring etc.
Video
2,3
AWJM:
Here a high force jet of water with abrasives can be used for
cutting thick plates of steel, Al, Metal Matrix Composites,
Ceramic Matrix Composites, Fibre Reinforced Plastics etc.
WJM:
Here a high force Jet of water can be used for cutting thin
plates and foils of soft materials, paint removal, cleaning,
cutting frozen meat, textile and leather industry.
1. MRR = Volume of the material removed x
(Mass flow rate of abrasives / Mass of abrasive grit)
2. Volume of material removed = 2πr3 / 3
r = radius of indentation = √(dg δ)
dg = Diameter of abrasive particle
δ = Depth of indentation
3. Mass of abrasive grit = πdg3ρg / 6
ρg = Density of abrasive particle
4. MRR for Brittle WP = MaVa3/2 / ρg1/4σw3/4
Va = Velocity of abrasive jet
Ma = Mass flow rate of Abrasives
σw = Flow strength of WP
5. MRR for Ductile WP = MaVa2 / 2σw
6. δ = Va dg √(ρg/6σw)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM):
Ultrasonic is vibratory wave of frequency > 16 KHz. Here a
tool having the same shape of the cavity to be machined
which is vibrating at 20 to 30 KHZ with amplitude between
0.01 to 0.06mm is pressed on to the work with a light force.
An abrasive slurry is made to flow under pressure through
tool – W.P. interface. This causes metal removal by abrasion.
The tool is made of low carbon and other ductile metal
alloys.
Applications: Mainly used for brittle materials that have poor
electrical conductivity and can not be machined by
ECM/EDM. Machining of glass, ceramic, tungsten, gems,
making tungsten carbide and diamond wire drawing dies,
forging dies, extrusion dies etc.

Chemical Machining (CHM):
This is the stock removal process for producing desired
shapes by removal of material by controlled chemical attack
with acids/ alkalis (Etchant solution). Areas where material is
not removed is protected by an etchant resistant material
known as Maskant.
a) Chemical Milling: Also called contour machining (or)

etching is used for producing shapes by removing material
from large surface areas.
Application: Weight reduction by removing unwanted
material from skin of Aeroplane, Rockets, Space crafts etc.
Video
4

b) Chemical Blanking: Also called photo forming / photo
etching where material is completely removed by chemical
action. The maskant is sensitive to ultraviolet light which is
applied on W.P. A negative is first developed having the
contour from the photograph of an enlarged drawing of the
complex profile. It is placed on the coated W.P. under
vaccum pressure and then exposed to U.V. light. The U.V.
light hardens the selective areas of resist which gets washed
away in further developing, thus, exposing the areas to be
machined. Etchant solution will now remove the material
from W.P.
Application: Printed circuit cards, intricate burr free
stamping
c) Chemical Engraving: Similar to above to create irregular
shapes (narrow) on forgings, castings, extrusions etc.
Video
5,6

Electro – Chemical Machining (ECM):
This is the process of metal removal by controlled dissolution
of the anode of an electrolytic cell. The tool is cathode and
work is anode. The tool advances towards the anode through
the electrolyte and metal is removed from work through
electrical action. The electrolyte is pumped at high pr.
through the gap to conduct current and carry heat. MRR is
independent of work hardness, Strength and thermal
properties. MRR depends on Atomic weight and Valency.
Electrolyte is so chosen that only anode is dissolved but no
deposition takes place on cathode. The tool is made of Cu,
Brass, Steel. Practically there is no tool wear. This process is
used for machining any conducting material, complex
profiles like turbine blades, nozzles, complex cavities in high
strength materials, drilling holes, die sinking etc.
Alloy machined Electrolyte
Iron based Chloride Sol. In water (20% NaCl)
Ni based HCl (or) mixture of brine & H2SO4
Ti based 10% HF+ 10% HCl + 10% HNO3
Co-Cr-W-based NaCl Video
WC based Strong alkaline solution 7

FORMULAE:
1. Metal Removal Rate, Q = AI/ρZF cm3/sec
A = Gram Atomic weight of the metallic ion
I = Current (Amp), ρ = Density of the anode (g/cm3)
Z = Valence of the cation, F = Faraday = 96500 Coulombs
2. Current density in the gap = J = K(V-∆V) / y = KV/y
∆V = Over voltage (extra voltage) required for ion transfer
1/K = Specific resistance of electrolyte in Ω- cm
y = Inter electrode gap in cm, V = Supply voltage
3. Current passing through electrodes = I = J x S.A
4. Let % P in Alloy PQ = X%, % Q in Alloy PQ = (100-X)%
ε = Gram equivalent weight of the metal = A/Z
As 100 % of Alloy = X % of P + (100-X) % of Q
Hence ,

5. Electrode feed rate = (MRR / Surface area) cm/sec
6. Electrolyte Flow rate = q (cm3/sec)
= [I2 x (1/K) x y] / [4.187 x SA x ρe x Cpe x (θB θA)]
ρe = Density of electrolyte; Cpe = Specific heat of electrolyte
θB = Boiling temp of electrolyte; θA = Ambient temp
7. Velocity of flow of electrolyte = U = q / by (cm/sec)
Cross section of electrode = SA = b x l
U= [I2 x (1/K)] / [4.187 x SA x ρe x Cpe x (θB θA) x b]
Resistance of electrolyte, Re = (1/K) y / A
If V = Applied Voltage, then V = I Re
Also, U = [V2 x l] / [4.187 x (1/K) x y2 x ρe x Cpe x (θB θA)]

Electro-chemical grinding (ECG):
This is modification of ECM and Grinding. The grinding
wheel is non conductive and is made cathode. The work is
Anode. The electrolyte is carried past the work surface at
high speed by rotary action of grinding wheel. The
electrolyte entrapped in small cavities of semi conductive
oxide between projecting non-conducting abrasives form
electrolytic cells. When these cells come into contact with
work the current flows from wheel to work causing electro
chemical decomposition of work. Wheel will have shape of
work. Metallic grinding wheels embedded with abrasive
particles such as aluminium oxide, diamond etc set in the
conducting material like copper, brass, and nickel are used.
Around 90% of the metal is removed by electrolysis action
and only 10% is due to the abrasive action of grinding wheel.
•
Video
8
Applications: Tungsten carbide inserts, Burr free sharpening

of syringe needles, Super alloy turbine blades, Aerospace
materials, Super alloys – Haste alloy, Inconel, Rene alloy etc.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM):
Spark Erosion is metal removal process by an interrupted
electric spark discharge between tool (cathode) and work
(anode). A spark gap is maintain between tool and work. A
dielectric is passed at the interface like Transformer Oil,
Paraffin Oil, Kerosene, Lubricant Oil etc which have high
flash point. Dielectrics is a fluid that does not conduct
current under normal circumstances. In EDM it insulates,
cools the electrode & W.P., conveys Spark, flushes the
removed metal. At a suitable range of voltage the dielectric
breaks down and electrons are emitted ionizing the gap,
which creates compression shock waves developing a
localized temp. of order 10000oC which melts a small amount
of material.

Tool should have High electrical and thermal conductivities
and high density. Work should have low specific heat for
better MRR. (It is the heat required to raise the temp of
material by 10C). In EDM process, fine openings and deeper
slots need to be avoided. Very fine surface finish values
should not be specified.
Application: Stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion
dies, forging dies, mould cavities, slots and ribs, collets, jet
engine blade slots, mould cooling slots etc.

Video
9,10
Wire EDM is a variant in EDM process. It is a CNC machine.
A part program is prepared according to the complex profile
to be cut. Wire is a tool. Brass wire is used for quick cutting
applications. Molybdenum wires are used for more accurate
applications. Deionised water is the dielectric because it has
low conductivity levels.
Application: Wire EDM is used in Aerospace, Medical,
Electronics and Semiconductor applications. It is mainly used
for Tool & Die making industries, for cutting the hard
Extrusion Dies, in making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams, Cutting
of Gears, Strippers, Punches and Dies, Manufacturing hard
Electrodes, Honey comb structures etc.
Video
11,12

•

FORMULAE:
Spark EDM:
1. MRR = 40 I / Tm1.23 (cm3/min)

Where, I is the current amp,
Tm is the melting temperature of work piece in 0C
2.Idle Time (or) Cycle Time = RC ln [Vs / (Vs – Vc)] sec
R = Charging resistance, C = Charging capacitance
Vs = Supply Voltage or Open circuit voltage
Vc = Charging Voltage
3. Average power Input
= Total energy consumed per cycle / Cycle time
4.Total energy consumed per cycle (or) Spark Energy =
0.5CVc2 (J/cycle)
5. On Time / Discharge Time = RmC ln [Vc / Vd]
Vd = Discharge Voltage
Rm = Machine Resistance
6. For RC type generator to get maximum power dissipation
during charging Vc = Vs x 0.716
Wire EDM:
7. MRR = (CSA of cut x Wire feed) mm3 /sec
CSA of cut = Width of cut x thickness of WP
Width of cut = Wire Diameter + Spark gap around wire

Electron Beam Machining (EBM):
This is metal removal process by high velocity focussed
stream of electrons which heats, melts and vapourises metal
at point of bombardment. A beam of electrons is emitted
from the electrode gun (Tungsten or Tantalum filament) is
directed electro magnetically (deflecting coils) on to the
work. The gun is supplied with electric current from a high
voltage dc source. The kinetic energy of high velocity
electrons is converted into thermal energy vaporizing the
material. However hole made by this process will have taper
of 20 – 40 when sheet thickness exceeds 0.1mm.
Application: Fine gas orifices less than 0.002mm in space
nuclear reactors, holes in injector nozzles in diesel engines,
turbine blades for supersonic aero engines, contours in sheets,
narrow slots etc.
Video
13,14

•

Laser Beam Machining (LBM) :
Laser is electromagnetic radiation hence a laser beam is

focused on the spot to be machined. The laser provides
enough heat to melt and vapourise the metal. We can
focus the laser on a spot 1/100 of a square mm in size.
However taper is observed in the holes up to 10 – 20 when
thickness exceeds 0.25 mm
Application: Extremely small holes in hard materials

(micro machining production), fuel filters, carburetor
nozzles, Syringe needles, Jet engine blade cooling holes,
Holes in lock nuts for safety wires etc.

Plasma Arc Machining (PAM):
When a flowing gas is heated to sufficiently high
temperature to become partially ionized, it is known as
plasma. The temperature is 11000oC to 30000oC. Gas like
H2 / N2/ O2 is passed through a small chamber in which a
high frequency spark (Arc) is maintained (Electrode is
Copper electrode with tungsten tip and ceramic nozzle). This
spark ionizes the gas atoms liberating large amounts of
thermal energy which further vapourises the metal.
Application: Profile cutting of S.S., Al. alloys, Tantalum,

Zirconium and other very difficult to m/c materials.

•
Video
15,16

Ion Beam Machining (IBM):
Here the process does not depend on heating of work to
point of evaporation. It consists of an electron gun which
discharges free electrons into a chamber filled with Argon
gas. The gas is ionized by the electrons. The work piece is
then bombarded with this ion-beam. The bombarding ions
dislodge the surface atoms of work by transferring the
kinetic energy to them.
Application: Micro Machining of computer parts, fine wire

drawing dies, machining and polishing of optical
components, preparation of materials for various
investigations such as the thinning of samples for
transmission electron microscopy or for structuring surfaces
in the semi conductor industry etc.
•

Mechanism of
Energy type Energy source Process
material removal
1) Mechanical Erosion Mechanical/Fluid AJM,
motion USM
2) Electro Ion displacement Electric current ECM
Chemical
3) Mechanical Plastic shear and Electric current ECG
and Electro- ion displacement and mechanical
chemical motion
4) Chemical Corrosive Corrosive agent CHM
reaction
5) Electro Fusion, Electric spark EDM
thermal Vaporization
Mechanism of
Energy type Energy source Process
material removal
6) Electro Fusion, High speed EBM
Thermal Vaporization electrons
7) Electro Fusion, Powerful LBM

Thermal Vaporization radiation
8) Electro Fusion, Ionized substance PAM

Thermal Vaporization
9) Electro Fusion Ionized substance IBM

Thermal

Process Surface Finish MRR
Tolerance (mm)
(µm) (cm3/ sec)
USM 0.2 – 1.6 ± 0.0125 0.005
AJM 0.3 – 2.3 ± 0.002 to ± 0.005 0.0001
EDM 0.05 – 12.5 ± 0.005 to ± 0.125 0.10
LBM 0.4 – 6.3 ± 0.015 to ± 0.125 0.0001
EBM - - 0.001
ECM 0.2 – 1.5 - 1.0
PAM - - 1.5

NC, CNC, DNC, NC PART PROGRAMING
Numerical control: An NC system consists of 3 basic
components
a) Program of Instructions: Detailed step by step directions
which tells the machine tool what to do and is given by
punched tape of paper / plastic. There are eight tracks. Two
systems are used in preparation of tape. EIA system
(Electronics Industry Association) follows Odd parity and
stops the machine in event of finding even no. of holes. ISO
system (International Organization for Standardization)
follows even parity. Track 5 is used to punch extra hole to
convert to odd (or) even system accordingly.

Track No.:
1 to 4  Numerical values for dimensions, speeds etc.
5  Parity check – Check for errors in hole punching.
6 & 7  Alphabets – To identify various operations
8 End of block instruction
b) Machine Control Unit  Which has 2 modules

(i) Data processing unit  Consisting of a tape reader,
reading circuits, decoding circuits etc.
(ii) Control loop unit  Consisting of position control loops,
velocity control loops, coolant on / off, spindle on / off
functions etc.
c) Machine tool  Which performs the operation.

Computer Numerical control:
CNC is a NC system that utilizes a computer to perform
the basic NC functions. NC systems are based on hard
wired based controllers, where as CNC systems are based
on soft wired based controllers. In a Hybrid CNC, the
hardware components perform fns. like feed rate
generation, circular interpolation etc. and the computer
performs the remaining control functions. In a straight CNC
all the NC functions are performed by computer.
Direct Numerical Control:
It is a manufacturing system in which No. of M/Cs are
controlled by a computer through direct connection. The
DNC computer provides instructions to each M/C/T on
demand. DNC has a central computer, bulk memory to store
NC part programs, telecommunication lines and M/C/T.
Stepper motors:
For operation of main spindle, AC motors, DC motors,
servo motors are used. Servo motors have feedback sensors
to give feed back to the controller. Stepper motors are used
for rotary table control, tool (or) work positioning etc. They
can be used without need for position indicating feedback
system. In these motors the rotation of the shaft is divided
into no. of parts and each part is known as “step”. Distances
are converted to pulses and are fed to the stepper motor, and
then the motor rotates the given angle.
Eg: For 41 pulses, a 1.80 stepper motor (360/200) rotate
precisely by (= 41 x 1.80) = 73.8o ± 4% of step accuracy
which is 0.07o (0.04 x 1.8)

BLU (Basic Length Unit:
The units of measurement of coordinates can be given
inches (or) mm. But as the values given in programme are
to be whole numbers (integers), to represent the fractional
dimensions the values are divided by the resolution of the
N.C. system. This is known as BLU of the NC System.
Eg; To represent a displacement of 1.115” in a NC M/C
having resolution of 0.001”, it can be written as
= 1.115 / 0.001 = 1115 BLU

FORMULAE:
1.BLU = U x n x P x N
U = Gear ratio, n = No .of starts of lead screw
P = Pitch of lead screw, N = No. of revolutions/step
2. Speed of movement of table on lead screw =
Distance travelled for one rotation / Time for one rotation
3. Frequency of pulses generated (Pulses /sec or Hz) =
Speed of the table / Distance moved per pulse
4. Distance moved per pulse = BLU
5. 1 Pulse will cause rotation of stepper motor by 1 step
6. Any applied voltage will cause the table to move at a
particular speed. If speed of movement has to be increased,
voltage supplied has to be increased.

Part programming
Types of control systems:
1. Point – to - Point Control: In this system, the m/c. tool
slide reaching a particular fixed coordinate point in the
shortest possible path at rapid feed. This is suitable for
drilling, tapping, reaming, punch presses, Jig boring etc.
2. Straight line control: This is an extension of point to point
system, with a provision for machining along a st. line as in
case of milling and turning operation at controlled or
programmed feed rate. P
5
P4 P5 P4
P1 P3 P3
P2 P3
P1 P2 P1 P2
(1) (2) (3)
3. Continuous path (or) contouring control:
This system enables machining of profiles, contours and
curved surfaces. The method by which continuous path
system moves from one point to another point is called
interpolation. Three types of interpolation are used – linear,
circular and parabolic. Only few systems use parabolic
interpolation. Linear interpolation enables machining along
st. line including taper and circular interpolation enables
machining circles and arcs. In linear interpolation, the
coordinates of the end point of line act as the beginning of
next line. In circular interpolation also, the current point acts
as the starting point and hence the end point of arc, arc
radius etc. have to be mentioned.

Methods of listing coordinates of points:
(i) Absolute coordinate system: Here the coordinates of a
point are always referred with reference to the same datum.
Error correction is easy as any mistake made effects only that
value.
(ii) Incremental coordinate system: Here the coordinates of
any point are calculated with reference to the previous
point. Error correction is difficult as any mistake made effects
all successive values also.
POINT ABSOLUTE INCREMENTAL
4 P3 +
P4
3 P1 (1, 2) (1, 2)
- + P2 (2, 2) (1, 0)
2
P1 P2 P3 (2, 4) (0, 2)
1 -
P4 (1, 3) (-1, -1)
(0, 0) 1 2 3 4
Programming formats:
Format is the method of writing the words in a block of
instruction. Three program formats are used.
Fixed Block Format: Here the instructions are always
given in the same sequence. All instructions must be given
in every block, including those which remain unchanged
from the preceding block.
Tab Sequential Format: Here the instructions a block are
always given in the same sequence as in case of fixed block
format and each word is separated by the TAB character
(>). If the word remaining same in succeeding block, the
word need not be repeated but TAB (>) is required to
maintain the sequence of words .

Word address Format: Here each word is preceded and
identified by its address letter. Here there is no fixed
sequence. If word is unchanged, it need not be repeated in
next blocks. Example:
Fixed block format
N X Y F S EOB
001 15.0 20.0 200 500 EOB
002 75.0 20.0 200 500 EOB
TAB sequential format
N X Y F S EOB
001 > 15.0 >20.0 >200 >500>EOB
002 > 75.0 >>>>EOB
Word Address Format
N001 X15.0 Y20.0 F200 S500 EOB
N002 X75.0 EOB
Writing a part program:
The first instruction in any part program is to inform the
control system about the various set-up conditions for the
machining task to be taken up and should specify the
following.
1. Block Number (Sequence number - N)
2. Coordinate value – absolute (or) incremental
3. Dimensional units – inches or metric
4. Tool Number ( T – word)
5. Spindle speed (S – Word)
6. Feed function (F – Word) – (mm/min or mm/rev)
Each block is terminated by typing EOB character.

Some codes:
a) Preparatory function (or) operation code ‘G’
G00 - Point to point positioning, rapid traverse
G01 - Linear interpolation
G02 - Circular Interpolation C.W.
G03 - Circular Interpolation C.C.W.
G04 - Dwell
G70 - Dimensioning in inch units
G71 - Dimensioning in metric units
G90 - Absolute dimensions
G91 - Incremental dimensions
G92 - Zero present [Presetting the origin at some
other point other than (0,0)]
G94 - Feed rate mm/ min
G95 - Feed rate mm/rev
b) Dimensional words 
X,Y,Z  Primary set of axes
c) Miscellaneous functions, M 
M00  Program stop
M01  Optional stop
M02  End of program
M03  Spindle C.W.
M04  Spindle C.C.W.
M05  Spindle OFF
M06  Tool change
M07, M08  Coolant ON
M09  Coolant OFF
CANNED CYCLES / FIXED CYCLES:
These are use for reducing length of part program so that the
need to write repetitive instructions is avoided and less
memory required.
1. Drill Cycle: (G81) When used the tool movements are

(i) Rapid in X and / or Y to reach location
(ii) Rapid in Z-axis to gauge height
(iii) At a programmed feed in Z-axis to the depth
(iv) Rapid retract to gauge height
If used these 4 steps are automatically executed in same

order every time G81 is used.

2. Mill Cycle: (G78, G79) when used the table movements
are
(i) Rapid in X and / or Y to reach location
(ii) Rapid in Z-axis to gauge height
(iii) At a programmed feed in Z-axis to the depth
(iv) Movement to remaining position if further
programmed.
G78 & G79 can be alternately used when moving in different

planes for next cuts.
3. Cancel cycle: (G80) must be used to cancel the previous

fixed cycle in the program to start another fixed cycle, in
case of multiple operations.

APT (Automatically Programmed Tools):
The parts discussed previously are not so complex. They
require less No. of instructions. However, most of the parts
machined on NC M/C are more complex and hence the
manual part programs become lengthy and very tedious in
terms of defining parameters. Computer Aided Part
Programming (CAPP) offers solution to these type of
complex programs through programming languages like APT,
ADAPT, AUTOMAP, EXAPT etc. The syntax rules of APT
are very near to FORTRAN language. APT can be used to
control up to 5 –axis. In APT it is assumed that W.P. is
stationary and tool does all the moving. The field length of
each word is limited to 6 characters.

Part Geometric definitions:
Defining a point: Point is the smallest and basic element
required to define a geometry.
P1 (6,5,4)
(a) Cartesian coordinates
P1 = POINT / 6,5,4
L1
P1
(b) By intersection of two lines
L1
P1 = POINT / INTOF, L1, L2
C1
P1
(c) By centre of circle
P1 = POINT / CENTER, C1
(2) Defining a Line:
L1
P1 P2
(a) By joining two points
L1 = LINE / P1, P2
(b) By a point and parallel line P1 L1
L2
L1 = LINE / P1, PARLEL, L2
(c) By a point and a perpendicular line

P1
L1
L1 = LINE / P1, PERPTO, L2
L2

(d) By a point and tangent to circle C1
L1
L1 = LINE / P1 , LEFT, TANTO, C1 P1 C1
L1 = LINE / P1, RIGHT, TANTO, C1 L1
P1
3) DEFINING A CIRCLE: C1
20
(a) By centre point and radius P1
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20

(b) By Centre point and a point on circumference
P2
C1 = CIRCLE / P1, P2
C1
P1
(c) Centre point and tangent line
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, LEFT, TANTO, L1
P1
P1
C1 = CIRCLE / CENTER, P1, RIGHT, TANTO, L1

4) DEFINING A PLANE:
(a) By 3 points P1 P3
P2
PL = PLANE / P1, P2, P3
(b) By a parallel plane which

is at a distance PL1
Z = 30
PL2
PL2 = PLANE / PARLEL, PL1, ZLARGE, 30
Note: ZLARGE & ZSMALL can be used for telling the

computer to use the largest (or) smallest values for Z.
MISCELLANEOUS STATEMENTS:
a) Spindle speed
SPINDL / 2000, CLW
SPINDL / 2000, CCLW
SPINDL / OFF
b) Feed Rate
FEDRAT / 2,MMPM  MMPM – mm / min.
FEDRAT / 0.1, MMPR  MMPR – mm / rev.
c) Tool Change
LOADTL /1
Note: LOADTL also unloads the previous tool and replaces
it in the tool magazine.
d) Tool definitions
CUTTER / 10  Cutter of dia 10 mm.

e) Motion statement of Tool 
(i) Initial position:
FROM / 6,5,4  Reference point (or)
FROM / P1  Predefined point (or)
FROM / SETPT  Starting point
(ii) Point to point motion :
GOTO / P1 To position cutter above the required location.

GODLTA / 0,0,10  Incremental instruction to move tool.
Note: GODLTA is useful in drilling and related operations.
iii) Contouring motion statements:

GO/TO, L1, TO, C2  Tool moves touching surface of
line L1 and moves towards circle C2
iv) Intermediate movement commands UP
GOLFT  Leftward LFT
GORGT  Rightward
GOFWD  Forward
GOBACK  Backward
BACK FWD
GOUP  Upward
GODOWN  Downward
RGT
DOWN TO
These six commands are
Used with one of the four ON
Modifiers to define the surfaces. SURFACE
TO  Just touching the surface PAST
ON  On the surface
PAST  Touching the surface on the far side
TANTO  Used mostly for circles
The surfaces defined are:
(a) Drive surface (DS)  Guides the tool for producing

desired shape of part.
(b) Part surface (PS)  Guides the tool point (or) tool
bottom
(c) Check surface (CS)  Stops the tool indicating the
end of motion.
CS
PS
DS
Auxiliary and post processor statements:
(a) MACHIN / UNIV  For defining name of machine.
(b) COOLNT / ON  Coolant on
COOLNT / OFF  Coolant off
(c) FINI  Program is terminated
(d) END  Shuts down the NC including the MCU

1-Machine Tools - Made Easy PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1-Machine Tools - Made Easy PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP E-mail: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 6 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 7 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 8 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 9 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 10 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 11 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 12 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 13 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 14 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Movement of turret during return stroke

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 15 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Further backward travel of the turret slide causes rotation of

Rotation of the turret head by exact angle is accomplished by

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 16 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 17 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 18 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 19 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 20 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Unlike the semiautomatic lathes, single spindle automats are :

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 26 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 27 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 30 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 31 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 32 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

4) Centers – For supporting

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 34 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 36 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 37 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 38 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 39 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 40 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 41 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 43 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

S = Set over Distance

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 44 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

4) Combined Feeds – 450 Chamfers

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 45 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 48 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

8) Misc. operations:- Drilling, boring, milling, grinding etc.

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 50 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 51 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 52 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Triple Lathe spindle and lead screw must

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 58 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 59 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 60 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 62 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 65 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 67 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 68 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 69 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 70 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 73 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 74 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

OPERATIONS ON HORIZONTAL SHAPERS:

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 80 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 81 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 82 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 83 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com

Prof. G. R. C. PRADEEP 84 Email: grcpradeep@gmail.com