First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the energy balance law:

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

- For closed system where only energy (heat and work) can cross the
system boundaries, it can be written as:

𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

For stationary system: ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0, ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0 ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑈

The first law becomes:

𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈 𝑘𝐽 #

Or per unit mass:

𝑞 − 𝑤 = ∆𝑢 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 #

Sign convention of heat and work:

Heat is considered +ve if it is given to the system and

-ve if it is rejected from the system.

Work is considered +ve if it is given by the system

and –ve if it is given to the system.
Types of work:

- Moving boundary work

One form of mechanical work frequently encountered in

practice is associated with the expansion or compression of a
gas in a piston–cylinder device. During this process, part of the
boundary (the inner face of the piston) moves back and forth.
Therefore, the expansion and compression work is often called
moving boundary work, or simply boundary work.

2
𝑤𝑏 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
1

It is equal to the area under process curve on the P-v

diagram.

- For constant volume, 𝑤𝑏 = 0

- For constant pressure, 𝑤𝑏 = 𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

For a cycle, it equals to the area enclosed by the curve of

the cycle.

- Shaft work

It is the work due to rotating shaft.

𝑜
𝑊𝑠ℎ =𝑇×𝜔

2𝜋𝑛
𝜔=
60
Electric work

It is the work due to inserting carrying current

wire into a system. The electrons crossing the
system boundary do electrical work on the
system. It is given by:

𝑊𝑒𝑜 = 𝑉𝐼 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)

Determination of ∆𝒖:

- For pure substances with change of phase

∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1

𝑢1 and 𝑢2 are determined from tables by the data of states (1) and (2).

- For ideal gases

𝑢 is function of only the temperature,

𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑇 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇

2
∆𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
1

According to the specific heat, there are two methods:

1- Constant specific heat method (approximate method)

We will consider the specific heat constant at the average temperature.

∆𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣,𝑎𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

 𝑇1 +𝑇2
Where 𝐶𝑣,𝑎𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣@𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 =
2

2- Variable specific heat method (exact method)

𝑇2
∆𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑇1

In this method, the exact function of 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇) is used, the above integration
is written as:

𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇1
∆𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 − ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1 𝑜 0

∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1

𝑇 𝑇
Where 𝑢2 = ∫𝑜 2 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 𝑢1 = ∫0 1 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇

These integration were performed and put in tables (ideal gas table),
𝑇
where: 𝑢 = ∫𝑜 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇
 Open system (control volume)

Since open system (control volume) includes mass flow can cross the
system boundaries, so we must firstly study the mass balance.

Mass balance for open system

The mass balance can be written as:

𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝑐𝑣

In a rate form:

𝑜 𝑜
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡

Under steady state conditions, there is no change with time,

𝑚𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
Then =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑜 𝑜
And 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡

In open system, we must differentiate between energy of flowing fluid

and that of non-flowing fluid (fluid statics).

- Total energy for non-flowing fluid

𝑒 = 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
- Total energy for flowing fluid
𝑒 = 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
There is additional term 𝑃𝑣 is the flow work. It is the work required to
push the fluid in or outside the control volume.

Since 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑢 + 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑃𝑣 = 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ℎ

Then

Total energy for flowing fluid = ℎ + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

Energy balance for control volume

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑐𝑣

In a rate form,

𝑜 𝑜
𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑣
Under steady state, 𝐸𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐, =0
𝑑𝑡

𝑜 𝑜
And 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

Consider a control volume where energy (heat and work) and mass cross
the control volume boundaries as shown:

𝑜
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑒1

𝑜
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑊 𝑜 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑒2

Then,

𝑄𝑜 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑒1 = 𝑊 𝑜 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑒2

𝑄𝑜 − 𝑊 𝑜 = 𝑚𝑜 (𝑒2 − 𝑒1 )
 𝑄𝑜 − 𝑊 𝑜 = 𝑚𝑜 ∆𝑒 𝑘𝑊 #

Or per unit mass,

𝑞 − 𝑤 = ∆𝑒 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

∆𝑒 is the change of energy for the flowing fluid.

∆𝑒 = ∆ℎ + ∆𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒

𝑉22 − 𝑉12 𝑔(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) 𝑘𝐽

(𝑒2 − 𝑒1 ) = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + +
2000 1000 𝑘𝑔

Determination of ∆𝒉

- For pure substances with change of phase

∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1

ℎ1 and ℎ2 are determined from tables by the data of states (1) and (2).

- For ideal gases

ℎ is function of only the temperature,

ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑇 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇

2
∆ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
1

According to the specific heat, there are two methods:

1- Constant specific heat method (approximate method)

We will consider the specific heat constant at the average temperature.

 ∆ℎ = 𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑇1 +𝑇2
Where 𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑣 = 𝐶𝑝@𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 =
2

2- Variable specific heat method (exact method)

𝑇2
∆ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑇1

In this method, the exact function of 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇) is used, the above integration
is written as:

𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇1
∆ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 − ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1 𝑜 0

∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1

𝑇 𝑇
Where ℎ2 = ∫𝑜 2 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇 ℎ1 = ∫0 1 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇

These integration were performed and put in tables (ideal gas table),
𝑇
where: ℎ = ∫𝑜 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇). 𝑑𝑇

Specific -heat relations for ideal gases

Since ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

For ideal gases only:

𝐶𝑝 𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝑅𝑇

Then 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅

𝐶𝑝
And 𝑘=
𝐶𝑣
Values of 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐶𝑣 and k, for different gases, as a function of T are given
from the following table:

The ideal-gas tables are property tables for ideal gases which gives values
of different properties which only function of temperature (such as u and
h). Each table is specified for certain ideal gas, such as TA17 for air and
TA18 for N2 and so on.
Case study (1)

A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated

water vapor that is maintained at a constant pressure
of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is
turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min
from a 120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of
3.7 kJ occurs. Determine the final temperature of the
steam.

Solution

Mass m =0.025 kg

The first law for closed system:

𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑏 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

2
The moving boundary work: 𝑊𝑏 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Then

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 = (𝑈2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 ) − (𝑈1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 )

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 #

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) #

The electric work 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡) × 𝐼(𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒) × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)

 𝑊𝑒 = 120 × 0.2 × 5 × 60 = 7200 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 7.2 𝑘𝐽

State (1) P1= 300 kPa, saturated vapor

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑔@300 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 2724.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Substituting in the 1st law equation: It must be noted that

the electric work is given to the system, so it takes –ve
sign and also Qout has –ve sign

𝑄 − 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

−3.7 − (−7.2) = 0.025(ℎ2 − 2724.9)

3.5 = 0.025(ℎ2 − 2724.9)

ℎ2 = 2864.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

State (2) 𝑃2 = 300 𝑘𝑃𝑎, ℎ2 = 2864.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ2 > ℎ𝑔@300 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , superheated state

From superheated table of steam, 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 ℃

Case study (2): Power Generation by a Steam Turbine

The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5

MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions of the
steam are as indicated. Determine the work done per
unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine
and the mass flow rate of the steam.

Solution

State (1) 𝑃1 = 2 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝑇1 = 400 superheated

state, ℎ1 = 3248.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

State (2) 𝑃2 = 15 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑥2 = 0.9, mixture

ℎ2 = ℎ𝑓@5 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 𝑥2 ℎ𝑓𝑔@5 𝑘𝑃𝑎

ℎ2 = 225.94 + 0.9(2372.3) = 2361.01 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝟖𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟗 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑉22 −𝑉12 1802 −502

The change of kinetic energy ∆𝑘𝑒 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2000

The change of potential energy

9.81(6 − 10)
∆𝑝𝑒 = 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
1000

The first law for open system per unit mass

𝑞 − 𝑤 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + ∆𝑘𝑒 + ∆𝑝𝑒

For adiabatic turbine 𝑞 = 0

𝑤 = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) − ∆𝑘𝑒 − ∆𝑝𝑒

𝑤 = 𝟖𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟗 − 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗5 − (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟒) = 𝟖𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

The required mass flow rate to give power =5 MW

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 5000 𝑘𝑊
𝑚𝑜 = = = 5.73 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑤 872.48 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
 Limitations of the 1st law of thermodynamics

The first law is energy balance law: 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

It concerns only with the exchanged amounts of energy (heat or work)

between the system and its surroundings. But the first law, doesn't
concern with the direction of process or the possibility of its occurring.

Examples of the direction of process:

- Heat is transferred from high temperature body to the cold

surroundings (the body will cool off). The reverse of this process is
invalid (the body won't be hotter if it is placed in a cooler room).

Valid process Invalid process

- Generation of heat from resistor by passing electric current through it.

The reverse of this process is impossible; the current won't be
generated if heat added to the resistor.

Valid process Invalid process

- Finally, consider a paddle-wheel mechanism that is operated by the fall
of a mass. The paddle wheel rotates as the mass falls and stirs a fluid
within an insulated container. As a result, the potential energy of the
mass decreases, and the internal energy of the fluid increases in
accordance with the conservation of energy principle. However, the
reverse process, raising the mass by transferring
heat from the fluid to the paddle wheel, does not
occur. In other words, work is directly converted
into heat but the heat is not directly converted
into work.

From the above examples; we can say that, for the process to be occurred,
it must satisfy the 1st law but not all the processes satisfy 1st law must
occur. The processes occur in a certain unique direction and not in any or
reverse direction. Also, we can
conclude: for the process to occur, it
must satisfy both the 1st and 2nd law of
thermodynamics.
Introduction to the second law and its importance

- The second lay can identify the process direction

- The second law asserts that the energy has quantity and quality. The
1st law concerns with the quantity of energy and transferring it from
body to another. The second law concerns with its quality. The
quality measure the amount of energy that can be converted into
work. The 2nd law will indicate that the energy at high
temperature has high quality than energy at low temperature
(more energy can be converted into work if it is in body at high
temperature).
- The 2nd law is used in determining the theoretical limits of
performance of the engineering systems such as refrigerators and heat
engines.